In addition to describing Cathay (northern China, the former Jin empire), this section devotes attention to some of the provinces and kingdoms (Tibet, Dali) that the Mongols subdued in order to open a second front against the empire of the Southern Song (the “Mangi” described in Chapter 4). Many of the place-names here and in the account of Mangi bear suffixes that indicate Mongol administrative units such as the prefecture (fu), subprefecture (zhou), or route (lu).1
Now know that the great lord sent Messer Marco himself as a messenger toward the west. He left Khanbaliq and went a good four months’ journey to the west, and accordingly we will tell you everything he saw on this road, going and coming.
When one leaves the city of Khanbaliq and has gone ten miles, then he finds a large river called Pulisanghin, which flows to the Ocean Sea, where many merchants go with much merchandise. Over this river there is a very beautiful stone bridge: for know that that in all the world there is no bridge as beautiful or its like, and I will tell you how.2
I tell you that it is a good 300 paces long and 8 wide: for 10 knights side-by-side can easily cross it. There are 24 arches and 24 pillars in the water, all of grayish marble, well worked and solidly set. On each side of the bridge is a wall of marble panels and columns, made as I will tell you. There is a marble column fixed at the head of the bridge, and below the column a marble lion and atop the column another beautiful, large, and well-made one. One and a half paces from this column is another, identical one with two lions; between one column and the other, a grayish marble panel is fixed so that people don’t fall in the water; and thus it goes the whole length, such that it’s really a beautiful thing to see.
{94} Now we have described this beautiful bridge and we will tell you about other things.
On leaving this bridge, he went west for thirty miles, finding beautiful lodgings, vineyards, and fields the whole way; then you find a city called Zhuozhou, large and beautiful.3 There are many idolator abbeys. They live from trade and crafts; cloth of silk and gold and beautiful sendal is made there;4 and there are many lodgings that lodge sellers.
When one has left this city and gone a mile, then one finds two roads, of which one went west and the other southeast: the one to the west is the one to Cathay and to the southeast goes toward the great province of Mangi. Know in all truth that you ride west through the province of Cathay a good 10 days, the whole time finding many beautiful cities, many beautiful castles of great trade and great crafts, beautiful fields, beautiful vineyards, and civilized [domesces] people. There’s nothing special to mention; therefore, we won’t tell you anything about it.
So we will leave this topic and will tell you about a kingdom called Taiyuanfu.
When one has ridden 10 days after leaving Zhuozhou, then he finds a kingdom called Taiyuanfu. The capital of the province is the city to which we have come, also called Taiyuanfu, which is very large and beautiful, in which there is great trade and great craft: for in this city very great quantities of the equipment needed by the great lord’s army is made. It has many beautiful vineyards, which produce wine in great abundance and in the entire province of Cathay, no wine is produced except in this city alone. From this city, it goes throughout the province. There is also a great quantity of silk; for they have mulberry trees and worms that make the silk in great abundance.
When one leaves Taiyuanfu, he rides west a good 7 days through very beautiful country, finding many cities and castles in which much trade and crafts are done. There are many merchants going many places making a profit. When he has gone 7 days, then he finds a city called Pingyangfu [Pianfu], which is very large and very worthy, in which there are many merchants. They live off trade and crafts; there silk is made in great quantities.
{95} Now we will leave this and will tell you about a very great city called Cacianfu [§110]; but first we will tell you about a noble castle called Xiezhou.
When one leaves Pingyangfu and has gone west for two days, there you find a beautiful castle called Xiezhou [Caicu], built in the old days by a king called the Golden King [le roi Dor]. In this castle there is a very beautiful palace, containing a great hall in which all the ancient kings of this province are depicted in beautiful paintings; this is very beautiful to see. All this was done by the kings who used to reign in this kingdom. As for the Golden King, I will tell you a beautiful tale of what happened between him and Prester John, according to what the people of this country say.5
It was true, according to what these people say, that this Golden King was at war with Prester John and was in such a fortified place that Prester John could not attack or harm him, which made him very angry. And 7 of Prester John’s youths [valés] told him they would bring the Golden King to him alive. Prester John told them that he was willing and would be grateful to them for doing this. When the 7 youths had taken leave of Prester John, they left together with a fine company of squires [escuiers] and went to this Golden King and told him they had come to serve him. The king told them they were very welcome and that he would honor and reward them.
In the way you have heard, Prester John’s 7 youths began to serve the Golden King; and when they had remained with him around two years, they were well loved by the king for having served him well. What should I tell you? The king trusted them as if they, all 7, were his sons. Now you will hear what these bad youths did, and this happened because no one can protect themselves from traitors and disloyal men. It was true that this Golden King went out with a few people, among them these 7 bad youths. When they had crossed a river a mile away from the palace that I described to you, the 7 youths, seeing that the king’s company couldn’t defend him against them, said that they could carry out the deed for which they had come. Then they put their hands on their swords and said to the king: either he would go with them or they would kill him. The king, on seeing this, marveled, and said to them: “How, fair sons? What are you saying and where do you want me to go?” “You will come,” they said, “to our lord Prester John.”
When the king heard this, he was so vexed that he almost died of grief. He said to them: “Have mercy, fair sons. Now, didn’t I accord you much honor in my house? And you want to put me in the hands of my enemy. Certainly, if you do this, you will commit a great evil and great disloyalty.” They said that it was fitting this should be; and then they led him to Prester John. When Prester John saw him, he was very happy and wished him a bad welcome. The latter didn’t answer and didn’t know what he ought to say. Then Prester John ordered that this king be led out and set to herding animals. Then the Golden King was set to herding animals; Prester John had him do this to spite and debase him and show him that he was nothing.
When he had herded animals for two years, Prester John had him brought before him, gave him rich clothing, and honored him; then he said to him: “Lord king, now you [tu] see that you are not such a man to make war against me.”6 “Certainly, fair lord,” responded the king; I know this well and recognized in any case that no man could compare with you.” “Now that you [tu] have said this,” said Prester John, “I ask nothing more of you; from now on I will do you [tu] honor and service.” Then Prester John gave the Golden King a horse and armor, gave him a very fine company, and let him go. And he left and returned to his kingdom, and from this hour forward was his friend and his servant.
Now let’s leave this matter and we will tell you about another matter.
On leaving this castle, he went west for around 20 miles and there finds a river called Qaramoran, which is so large that it can’t be bridged, for it is very wide and deep. It goes to the Ocean Sea.7 On this river are many cities and castles in which there are many merchants and where great trade is done. In the country around this river, ginger and silk grow in great abundance. There is such a great multitude of birds that it’s a marvel, for you can get three pheasants for one Venetian groat, that is, one aspre, which is worth a little more.8
{97} When one has crossed this river and he has gone west for 2 days, then one finds a noble city called Cacianfu. The people are all idolators; what’s more, know that all those of the province of Cathay are idolators.9 It is a city of great trade and great crafts. They have silk in great abundance, and many cloths of gold and of silk of all kinds are made there. There is nothing worth mentioning and therefore we will leave here and go ahead and tell you about a noble city that is the kingdom’s capital, called Jingzhaofu.
On leaving the city of Cacianfu that I described to you above, he rides west for 8 days, finding many castles, many cities of great trade and great craft, and many beautiful gardens and beautiful fields the whole way. I also tell you that the entire region and land are full of mulberry trees; these are the trees off whose leaves the worms that make silk live. The people are all idolators. There are lots of animals for hunting and many kinds of birds.
When one has ridden 8 days, as I have told you, then one finds this great and noble city of Jingzhaofu, which is big and beautiful. It is the capital of the kingdom of Jingzhaofu, which was formerly a noble, rich, and powerful kingdom that in the old days had many good and valiant kings; now the lord and king of it is the great lord’s son, named Manggala [Mangalai], for his father gave him this kingdom and crowned him king of it.10
It is a city of great trade and great craft. They have a great quantity of silk; cloths of gold and silk of every kind are made there; all the armor the army needs is made there. All the things men need to live are found there in great abundance and at a good price. The city is to the west and they are idolators.
{98} Outside the city is the palace of King Manggala; I will describe to you how beautiful it is. It’s in a large plain, where there is a river, a lake, and many pools and fountains; first there is a very thick, high wall, all crenellated and well built, about five miles around; in the middle of this wall is the palace, so large and beautiful that no one could better describe it. There are many beautiful halls and many beautiful rooms, all illustrated and painted with beaten gold. This Manggala rules his kingdom in great justice and rectitude and is well loved by his people. Armies are in place around the palace and take great pleasure there in hunting.
With this we will leave this kingdom, which we will tell you no more about, and will tell you about a very mountainous province called Gongchang.
On leaving Manggala’s palace, he went three days’ journey to the west through very beautiful plains, the whole time finding many cities and castles belonging to men who live from plentiful trade and crafts and have silk in great abundance. At the end of three days one finds the great mountains and great valleys of the province of Gongchang [Cuncun]. There are cities and castles in the mountains and valleys. They are idolators and make their living from the land, the forests, and hunting. For know that there are many forests, in which there are several wild animals: these are lions, bears, lynxes, fallow deer, roebuck, and many other animals, such that the people of the region catch a lot of them and get great profit from it. You ride for 20 in this way—that is, through mountains, valleys, and forests—all the while finding cities, castles, and good lodgings, where sellers are readily lodged.
Now we will leave this country and will tell you about another province, as you can hear about below.
When one has ridden the 20 days through the mountains of Gongchang, as I have told you about above, then one finds a province called Acbalac Mangi, which is completely flat.11 There are lots of cities and castles. They are toward the west; the people are idolators. They live from trade and crafts. I tell you that in this province {99} grows a great quantity of ginger, which is exported throughout the great province of Cathay, bringing the men of the province great profit and great benefit. They have wheat, rice, and other grains aplenty and at a good price. The land is very good for growing everything. The capital city is called Acmelec Mangi which means [lacuna in the text] of the borders of Mangi. This plain extends for two days’ journey: beautiful, as I have told you, and with so many cities and castles. After 2 days, then one finds great mountains and great valleys and a lot of forest. Then one went west a good 20 days, finding many cities and castles. The men are idolators; they live from the fruit of the earth, hunting, and herding. There are lions, bears, lynxes, fallow deer, roe deer, and stags; and there is a great quantity of those little animals that make musk.
Now we will leave this country and will tell you about others, in good orderly fashion, as you will be able to hear.
When one has gone the 20 days through the mountains I described to you above, to the west, then one finds a plain and a province, still within the borders of Mangi, called Chengdufu; its capital city is called Chengdufu, which was formerly very great and noble, with a very great and powerful king.12 It is about 20 miles around; but now it is divided in the way I will describe to you. It was true that the king of this province, when he was approaching death, having three sons, divided the city into three parts. Each of the three parts is separately walled, but all three are within the walls of the great city. I tell you that all this king’s three sons were kings, each one having a lot of lands and lots of treasure to spend, for their father was very powerful and rich. And the Great Khan conquered this kingdom and disinherited these three kings, holding the kingdom for himself.
Know that in the middle of this large city flows a very large fresh water river, from which many fish are caught; it is a good half mile wide, quite deep, and so long that it goes to the Ocean Sea, more than 80 to 100 days’ journey away, and is called Jiangshui [Quiansui].13 Along this river are great numbers of cities and castles. There are so many ships—such a great multitude—that no men’s hearts or eyes that have not seen it for themselves could believe it. So great is the multitude and great abundance of great merchandise that merchants carry up and down this river that no man in the world who has not seen it could believe it. It is so wide {100} that it doesn’t seem like a river but a sea; and I will describe to you a great bridge inside the city on this great river.
The bridge is made completely of stone and is a good 8 paces wide and a half mile long, which is (as I’ve told you) the width of the river. All along the bridge, on both sides, there are marble columns holding up the cover of the bridge, for I tell you that the bridge is covered by an exceedingly beautiful wooden cover all illustrated and painted with rich paintings. This bridge also has many little structures in which much trade and craftwork is conducted, but I tell you that they are made of wood that is brought in in the morning and taken down at night. There is also the great lord’s receiving officer—that is, those who receive the great lord’s income [rente], that is, rights on the merchandise that is sold on the bridge; and I tell you that the rights from this bridge are worth a good 1,000 gold bezants.
The people are all idolators.
From this city, one leaves and rides 5 days through plains and valleys; one finds many castles and buildings. Men live from the profit they draw from the land: there are many wild animals: lions, bears, and other animals. They make a living from crafts, for beautiful sendal and other cloths are made here. They are of Sindu itself. When one has gone the 5 days that I told you about above, then you find a very desolate [gasté] province called Tibet; we will treat it below.
After the five days that I have told you about, one then enters a province that is largely devastated [gasté],14 for Möngke Khan [Mongut Kaan] destroyed it in war. There are many cities and many castles and smaller dwellings all dismantled [derochee] and laid waste [gastee]. There are thick and marvelously large canes; I will describe to you just how thick they are: they measure three palms around and are a good 15 paces long; from one knot to the next, they are a good three palms. I tell you that merchants and other sellers who pass through this region at night take these canes and make fires from them because, when they are on fire, they make such a great crackling and bursting that lions, bears, and other fierce animals are so afraid that they flee as far as they can and would not approach the fire for anything in the world. Men make such fires to keep their animals safe from wild animals, which are numerous in this region and this country. I also tell you—because it’s good to say—how the bursting of this cane sounds from afar, how it causes great fright and what happens.
Now know that these canes are taken entirely green and put on a fire with many logs. When the canes have remained in this fire for some time, then they {101} twist and split in half and then make such a great spitting sound that, at night, it is heard a good ten miles away. Know that anyone not accustomed to hearing it is completely terrified, so horrible a thing is it to hear; and I tell you that when horses who have never heard this hear it, they get so terribly frightened that they break their bridles and any rope tying them up and they flee; this happens to many people. But when there are horses that they [the men] know have never heard this sound, they bind their eyes and tie up all four feet, so that when they hear the canes’ great spitting sound and want to flee, they can’t. And thus, at night, just as I’ve told you, men and their animals escape the lions, lynxes, and other bad animals that abound there.
When one has gone through this country a good 20 days, one finds neither lodging nor food; rather, he must carry food for himself and his animals [lacuna in text] for all these 20 days, the whole time finding very fierce and terrible wild animals that are very dangerous and frightening, then you find many castles and smaller dwellings. And there is a custom with marrying women that I will tell you.
It is true that no man would marry a virgin [pucelle] for anything in the world; they say she is worth nothing if she is not used by and accustomed to [usés et costumés con] many men.15 For this reason, this is what they do: for I tell you that, when people from other foreign countries pass through this region and have pitched their tents for lodging, then the old women from the castles and buildings bring their daughters to these tents—these number between 20 and 40, more or less—and give them to the men to do their will with and lie with them. Then the men take them and take pleasure with them and hold them as much as they want there; but they cannot take them forward or backward, in either direction. Then, when the men have had their way with them and want to leave, then he must give the woman with whom he has had sport some trinket or some sign, so that when time comes for her to be married, she can show that she has had a lover. In this way, each maid is expected to have more than 20 tokens around her neck to show that many lovers and many men have had sport with her; she is held to be the best, and they most willingly take her and say that she is more gracious than the others. When they have married such women, they hold them dear and take it for an exceedingly bad thing if anyone touches the wife of another; all of them are very careful to avoid this.
Now I have told you what’s good to say about this marriage; youths [jeunes] between 16 and 24 years old would do well to go to this country.
The people are idolators and thoroughly bad, for they hold it to be no sin to rob and do ill and are the greatest brigands and the greatest robbers in the world. They live off hunting, herding, and the fruits they draw from the earth. I tell you in all truth that in this country there are many animals that make musk; in their language they are called gudderi. And these bad men have many good dogs that {102} capture great numbers of them; therefore, they have musk in great quantities. They have neither coins nor notes from the Great Khan but use salt as money. They dress very poorly; for their clothing is made of animal skins, canvas, and buckram. They have their own language and are called “Tibet.” This Tibet is a very large province and I will tell you more about it briefly, as you will be able to hear.
Tibet is a very large province with a language of its own; they are idolators and border on Mangi and many other provinces. There are many great thieves. It is such a large province that there are 8 kingdoms and a very large quantity of cities and castles. In several places there are rivers, lakes, and mountains, where gold dust is found in great quantity. Cinnamon grows there in great abundance. In this province, coral is everywhere and is very expensive, for they put it around the neck of their women and their idols for great joy. I also tell you that in this province there is a lot of camlet and other cloths of gold and silk. Many kinds of things they grow there were never seen in our country. I also tell you that they have the wisest magicians and the best astronomers, according to their customs, in all these provinces around them, for through the diabolical arts they perform the strongest spells and the greatest marvels to hear about and to see, which are not good to relate in our book because people would marvel too much. They have evil customs. They have very large mastiff dogs, big as asses, that are very good at catching wild animals; they also have many kinds of hunting dogs. Also, many good lanner falcons are born there that fly very well and hunt birds very well.
Now we will leave this province of Tibet, about which we have told you everything authoritatively; and we will tell you about another province called Jiandu. But, regarding Tibet, understand that it belongs to the Great Khan, and all other kingdoms and provinces and regions that are written in this book also belong to the Great Khan, excepting only those provinces at the beginning of our book, which belong to the son of Arghun, as I have written you. Therefore, from these provinces on, all the others written down in this book belong to the Great Khan; and since you will not find them written about [elsewhere?], understand it in the way I have told you.16
Now from here let us leave this matter and we will tell you about the province of Jiandu.
Jiandu in a province toward the west.17 There is only one king. They are idolators and belong to the great lord. There are lots of cities and castles. They have a lake where many pearls are found, but the Great Khan doesn’t want anyone to extract [traie] them because if he had as many extracted as are found, they would extract so many that they will be very poor and would not be worth anything. But I tell you that, when the great lord wishes, he has some extracted for himself alone; but no one else can extract them without being killed. I also tell you that there is also a mountain, in which one would find a kind of stone called turquoise, which are very beautiful stones, in very great quantities, but the great lord only allows them to be extracted [traire] by his command.
I tell you that in this province there’s a custom regarding women that I will relate to you: for they do not hold it a base thing if a foreigner, or other man, dishonors him with his wife, daughter, sister, or other woman in his house; but they hold it a benefit when you lie with them, and they say that when they do this, their god and their idols favor them and give them temporal goods in great abundance. Therefore they are so generous to foreigners with their women as I will describe to you. For know that when a man of this region sees that a foreigner has come to his house for lodging, or that he does not want to take lodging and enter his house, he immediately goes out and orders his wife to do whatever the foreigner wants, and then he goes on his way—either to his field or to his vineyard—and doesn’t return as long as the foreigner remains in his house. I tell you that often he [the foreigner] stays there three days and lies in bed with this wretch’s wife. The foreigner, who is in the house, makes a sign to show he is within: for he hangs his cape or other sign, signaling that he is inside. As long as the wretch sees this sign on his house, [he] does not return at all. This is done throughout this province.18
I tell you, their money is as I will tell you. Know that they have gold in rods and weigh it in saggi and according to what its weight is worth. But they don’t have coined, stamped money; I will describe their small change to you. They take salt and cook it; then they cast it in molds about a half pound in size; and eighty of these salt blocks I have described to you are worth a saggio of pure gold, and this is the small change they spend.
They have a very great number of animals that make musk. Hunters catch them and extract [traient] the musk in great quantity. They have a lot of good fish, which they draw from the lake I have told you about, where pearls are found. They have a lot of lions, lynxes, bears, fallow deer, and roe deer; they have all {104} kinds of birds in great abundance. They don’t have vine wine, but they make wine from wheat and rice with many spices; and it’s a very good brew. Lots of clove grows in these provinces; for there is a little tree they cultivate, with leaves like laurel, somewhat longer and narrower. It produces a flower, little and white like the clove. They also have ginger in abundance and cinnamon, too, and a lot of other spices that never come to our country and are therefore not worth mentioning.
Now we will leave this city, of which we have related the necessary information, and we will tell you about the country itself further on.
On leaving Jiandu, one rode a good 10 days, finding a lot of castles and smaller dwellings. The people have the same ways and the same customs as those that I’ve told you about above; they hunt lots of birds and animals. When one has gone these 10 days, then one finds a large river called Brius [the Upper Yangtze], where the province of Jiandu comes to an end; and in this river is found a great quantity of gold dust. There is a lot of cinnamon. This river goes to the Ocean Sea.
Now we leave this river, which has nothing to relate, and we will tell you about another province called Qarajang, as you will hear.
When one has crossed this river, then one finds oneself entering the province of Qarajang, which is so large that there are a good 7 kingdoms.19 It is toward the west; they are idolators and belong to the Great Khan. But the king of it is his son, named Esen Temür [Esentemur], who is a very great king, rich and powerful; he holds his land in great justice, for he is a wise and worthy man.20 One went west, leaving the river I mentioned to you above, for 5 days, finding a lot of cities and castles where there are very good horses. They live from herding and the profit they draw from the land. They have a language of their own, which is very harsh to listen to.
At the end of these five days, then one finds the largest city and capital of the kingdom, called Yachi [Iaci], which is very large and noble.21 There are many merchants and craftsmen there; the people are of several kinds; for there are people who worship Muhammad, idolators, and a few Christians who are Nestorians. There is a lot of wheat and rice, but they do not eat wheat bread, because {105} it is unhealthy; but they eat rice, and make a drink of rice with spices that is very beautiful and clear and gets men drunk just like wine. I will tell you what their money is like: for they spend white cowrie shells—which are found in the sea and which they put around their dogs’ necks—with 80 cowries [porcelaines] being worth a saggio of silver, that is, two Venetians groats; and know that eight saggi of pure silver is worth one saggio of pure gold.22 Then they have brine, from which they make salt; all the people of the region live on this salt. And I tell you that the king derives great profit from this salt. I also tell you that it doesn’t bother them if someone touches another’s wife, as long as the woman is willing.
Now we have told you about this kingdom and will tell you about the kingdom of Qarajang; but before, I will tell you something that I had forgotten.
I tell you that they have a lake, about 100 miles around, in which there is a great quantity of fish—the best in the world. They are very large and of all kinds. I also tell you that they eat the raw flesh of hens, sheep, cattle, and buffalo: for poor men go to the butcher’s and take the raw liver as soon as it is taken from the animal; they slice it thin, put it in garlic sauce and eat it right away; they do the same thing with all other flesh. The noblemen also eat flesh raw, but they have it cut very small, then they put it in garlic sauce mixed with good spices, then they eat it as well as we would eat it cooked.
Now we will tell about the province of Qarajang, as I said above.
When one leaves the city of Yachi and went 10 days toward the west, then one finds the province of Qarajang: the main city of the kingdom is called Qarajang. They are idolators and belong to the Great Khan. Cogacin, the king, is the son of the Great Khan. In this province, gold dust is found (in the river, that is); also, gold heavier than dust is found in the lake and the mountains. They have so much gold that I tell you that they give a saggio of gold for six of silver. Also in this province they use cowrie shells (which I have told you about above) as money. I tell you that cowrie shells are not found in this province, but come there from India.
In this province are found large snakes; those great serpents are so exceedingly large that all men must marvel; they are very ugly to see and look at; I will tell you how large and thick they are. Now know in truth that some are 10 paces long that are thick [lacuna in text] for they are about 10 palms around; these are the largest ones. They have two legs in front, near the head, with no feet except a nail made {106} like that of a falcon or a lion; it has a very large head and its eyes are larger than a loaf of bread. Its mouth is so large that it could well swallow a man whole; its teeth are very large. It is so exceedingly big and fierce that there isn’t a man or beast that is not afraid and scared of it. There are also smaller ones, 8 paces [long], 6, and 5.
This is the way they are caught: know that during the day they live underground on account of the great heat; at night they come out to move about and eat, and they catch all the animals they can get hold of. They go to drink in rivers, lakes, and fountains. They are so large, heavy, and fat that when they cross the sand either to eat or to drink—this is at night—they make such a great groove in the sand that it’s like a barrel full of wine has been rolled through it. Hunters explicitly looking for them put a device on the paths where they see the snakes have gone; for they shove into the earth—that is, on these snakes’ path—a very thick and strong wooden stick set with a blade shaped like a razor or a lance tip that extends about a palm’s length beyond the stick. They cover it with sand so that the serpent can’t see it at all. The hunter places a good many of such sticks and irons. When the snake or the serpent comes along the road where the irons are set, then they are wounded at such full tilt that the irons pierce their chests, splitting them down to the belly so that the serpent dies instantly; in this way, the hunters catch them.
When they have caught them, they pull the gall from its belly and sell it at a very high price, for know that they make a great medicine from it: for if a man is bitten by an Arabian dog, they give him a little bit—the weight of a little denier—to drink, and he is cured immediately. Also, when a woman cannot give birth, is in pain and crying out loudly, then they give her a little of the serpent’s gall; then, as soon as the lady has drunk this, she gives birth immediately. The third [use] is when there is some growth, and they put some of this gall on it, and then it is cured in a few days. For this reason I have told you, the gall of this big serpent is greatly prized in this province. I also tell you that they sell the flesh of this serpent at a high price, for it is very good to eat and they eat it willingly.
I also tell you that this serpent goes to those places where lions, bears, and other wild savage animals have their children, and eats the big and the little ones, if it can get them.
I also tell you that in this province there are large horses that they take to India to sell. Know that they remove 2 or 3 joints from the tailbone, so the horse can’t swish his tail on the one atop him or when he runs, for they think it a base thing when the horse runs swishing his tail. Also know that these people ride long like the French.
Their arms are plated in buffalo skin; they have lances, shields, and crossbows, and they poison all their arrows. I tell you another thing they did before the Great Khan conquered them: if it happened that a fair and noble man, or another who has a good shadow, came to lodge in the house of someone from this province, he killed him in the night, by poison or other means, so that he died. And don’t think that they did this to take money from him; rather, they did this because they {107} said that his good shadow and good grace, and his wisdom and soul, remained in the house. For this reason they killed a lot of people before the Great Khan conquered them; but since the Great Khan conquered them—that is about 35 years ago—they do not do this bad thing for fear of the great lord, who does not let them do it at all.
Now we have told about this province, and will tell you about another region, just as you will hear.
When one leaves Qarajang and went west for five days, then one finds a province called Zardandan, which is idolatrous and belongs to the Great Khan. The capital of this province is called Vocian.23 The people all have gold teeth: that is, each tooth is covered in gold; for they make a cast of gold, made in the manner of one’s tooth, and cover the tooth underneath with this above: the men do this and not the women. The men are all knights, according to their customs; they do nothing but go on campaigns and go hunting and birding. The ladies do everything; and other men that they have captured and defeated and keep as slaves perform the necessary tasks, along with their wives.
When the ladies have given birth and made a son, they wash them and wrap them in cloth; and the lady’s lord gets in bed and holds the infant with him and lies in bed 40 days, not getting up except when necessary. All his friends and relatives come to see him; they stay with him and bring him joy and pleasure. They do this because they say that his wife has endured great fatigue in carrying the child in her belly; therefore they say they don’t want her to endure any more during this 40-day period. As soon as she has given birth, the wife rises from the bed and does all that’s needed around the house and serves her lord in bed.
They eat all meat, both cooked and raw. They eat rice cooked with meat and other things according to their custom; they drink wine, which they make from rice and good spices, which is very good. Their money is gold; they also spend cowrie shells. I tell you truly that they give a saggio of gold for 5 of silver; and this occurs because there is no silver within 5 months’ journey. For this reason merchants come with lots of silver and exchange it with these people, giving them five saggi of silver for one of gold; from this the merchants make great gain and profit.
These people have neither idols nor churches, but they worship the elder of the house, saying: “from him have we come.” They have no letters and do not {108} write; this is no marvel, for they are born in a very out-of-the-way place amidst great forests and great mountains; in summer you can’t go there for anything in the world, because in summer the air is so corrupt and bad that no foreigner could escape dying there. But I tell you that, when they deal with one another, they take a bit of wood, either squared off or round, split it in half, with one of them holding one half and the other the other half; but it is quite true that first they make two or three wedges, or as many as they like. And when it comes time for one to pay the other, then he who has to give money or whatever gets half of his wood.
I also tell you that all these provinces I have described to you have no doctors: these are Qarajang, Vocian, and Yachi. Rather, when they are sick, they send for their magicians [magi]: these are the devilish enchanters and those that keep the idols. When these magicians arrive and the sick people describe their ills, the magicians immediately begin to play instruments and sing and dance until one of these magicians falls down backward on the earth or the pavement, foams at the mouth, and seems dead. This is because the devil is inside his body; he remains thus, as if dead. When the numerous other magicians who are there see that one of them has fallen down in the way I have told you, then they begin to speak to him and ask him what illness the sick person has; and he says: “such-and-such a spirit has touched him, because he has done something to displease him.” The magicians tell him: “we beg you to pardon him and, in exchange for restoring his blood, to take these things that you see.” When these magicians have pronounced many words and have prayed a lot, the spirit inside the body of the fallen magician replies; and if the sick man is destined to die, he answers accordingly, saying: “this sick man has so wronged this spirit and is such a bad man that the spirit doesn’t wish to pardon him for anything in the world.” This is the response given to him who must die. And if the sick man is destined to be cured, then the spirit in the magician’s body responds: “if the sick man wishes to be cured, let them take 2 or 3 sheep” and also that he should make 10 or more drinks, very expensive and good; let them specify that the sheep should have black heads, or some other description; and he tells them to sacrifice to such-and-such an idol and such-and-such a spirit and that so many magicians and so many ladies should be present—of those that hold the spirits and the idols—and that they greatly praise and arrange a great feast for such-and-such an idol and such-and-such a spirit. And when they have gotten this response, the friends of the sick man immediately do what the magicians have described: for they take sheep like the ones described, make the drinks in the manner and the number described to them, kill the sheep and spread the blood in the place they were told in honor and sacrifice to such-and-such a spirit. Then they prepare the sheep in the sick man’s house—as many magicians and ladies as prescribed having come there. When they have all arrived, and the sheep and the drinks are ready, then they start to play instruments and dance and sing their praise of the spirit. They spread meat broth and the drinks; they also have incense and aloe wood and go here and there spreading the incense. And they light plenty of lights. When they’ve done this for a while, one of them falls {109} down, and the others ask him if the sick man has been pardoned and if he will get well. This time, he answers and says that he is not yet pardoned and that they should do such-and-such a thing more, and then he will be pardoned; and they do it immediately. And the spirit responds, since the sacrifice and all the things have been done, that he is pardoned and will soon recover. When they have received this response and have spread both the broth and the drinks and have done the light and the incense, they say that the spirit is on their side; then the magicians and the ladies—who still guard this spirit—eat the sheep and drink the drinks, to great pleasure and celebration. Then everyone goes home; and since all this has been done, the sick man immediately recovers.
Now I have told you the way and the habits of these people and how these magicians are able to enchant the spirits. Now we will leave these people and this province and will tell you about others, as you will hear.
Now know that we had forgotten a very beautiful battle that took place in the kingdom of Vocian, which is worth mentioning in this book; therefore we will tell you quite clearly how it came about and in what way.
It was true that in the year 1272 of the incarnation of Christ, the Great Khan sent a great army to the kingdoms of Vocian and Qarajang to protect them and keep other people from doing them harm.24 For the Great Khan had not yet sent any of his sons there, as he did later; for he made Esen Temür [Sentemur] king, who was the son of his son that had died. Now it happened that the king of Mien and Bangala, who was a very powerful king in land, treasure, and people—this king was not subject to the Great Khan; rather, it’s only a little while since the Great Khan defeated him and took from him both the kingdoms I named for you above—and when this king of Mien and Bangala learned that the Great Khan’s army was at Vocian, he said to himself that he needed to meet him with so many people that he would put them all to death, in such a way that the Great Khan would never again want to send another army there.25 So then this king made {110} great preparations: I will tell you what. Now know in all truth that he had 2,000 very large elephants; and atop each of these elephants, he had a very strong, very well made wooden castle made and fitted out for combat; and on each castle there were at least 12 fighting men; some had 16 and some more. He also had a good 50,000 men, between those on horseback and some on foot. His preparations were those of the great and powerful king that he was, for know that it was an army capable of great deeds. What should I tell you? When this king had made the great preparations I have told you about, he didn’t delay, but set out immediately with all his people to attack the Great Khan’s army at Vocian. They traveled without encountering any adventures worth mentioning, until they came to a point 3 days’ travel away from the Tartar army; there he made camp to stay and rest his people.
When the lord of the Tartar army found out for certain that this king was marching on him with his people, he was afraid, for he had only 12,000 mounted men, but without a doubt he was a very valiant man and a good leader; his name was Nasir al-Din [Nescradin]. He deployed and exhorted his people very well; he did all he could to defend the land and its people.26 Why should I make a long tale of it? Know in truth that the Tartars—all 12,000 horsemen—came together on the Vocian plain and there waited for their enemies to come and do battle, and they did this out of planning and good leadership, for know that just beside the plain was a very large woods, full of trees.
In the way you have heard, the Tartars awaited their enemies on this plain. Now we leave off talking of the Tartars for a bit (we will return to them soon) and we will speak of the enemy. Now know in all truth that, when the king of Mien had waited a while with his army, they left and got under way, moving until they came to the Vocian plain, where the Tartars were all prepared. And when they {111} had come to this plain, a mile away from their enemies, he saddled his elephants, topped with castles and men well armed for combat. He mustered his horsemen and his foot soldiers very wisely, like the wise king that he was; and when he had arranged and prepared all these resources, he set off against his enemies with his entire army.
When the Tartars saw them approaching, they didn’t act as if they were in the least bit awed [esbais; see §78n41], but showed that they were brave and very bold: for know, without any doubt, that they set out on their way all together, well ordered and wisely, toward the enemy. When they got close enough so that nothing remained but to commence the battle, then the Tartar horses, seeing the elephants, got so frightened that the Tartars couldn’t ride them forward toward the enemy but they kept turning back. And the king and his people, with the elephants, were going forward the whole time.
When the Tartars saw this, they were greatly vexed and didn’t know what they should do; for they clearly saw that, if they couldn’t ride their horses ahead, all was lost; but they quickly reacted very wisely, and I will tell you what they did. Now know that when the Tartars saw that their horses were so frightened, they all dismounted from their horses and put them in the woods and tied them to the trees; then they took up their bows, cocked their arrows, and shot at the elephants. They shot so many arrows that it was a marvel, and the elephants were sorely wounded. The king’s people also shot at the Tartars very thickly, making a very tough assault. But the Tartars, who were, by a good bit, better fighters than their enemies, defended themselves very boldly. What should I be telling you? Know that when most of the elephants were wounded in the way I have told you, I tell you that they turned in flight toward the king’s men with such a great din that it seemed the whole world was about to split apart. They never stopped until they came to the woods. And they entered it, breaking the castles and wasting and destroying everything: for they went this way and that way through the forest, in their fear making an exceedingly great din. When the Tartars saw that the elephants had turned to flee in the way that you have heard, they didn’t delay, but immediately mounted their horses and attacked the king and his people. They started the battle with arrows—very cruel and horrible, for the king and his people defended themselves boldly. And when they had shot all their arrows, they took up their swords and maces and attacked them very fiercely. They gave each other very great blows: now you could see them giving and receiving great blows with sword and mace; now you could see knight and horses killed; now you could see hands and arms cut off, heads cut from bodies, for know that many fell to earth dead and mortally wounded. The shouts and the racket were so great that you wouldn’t have heard God thundering. Everywhere, the battle and the {112} fray were great and terrible; but know without doubt that the Tartars got the better part of it, for it was in an evil hour that the king and his people began this battle—so many of them were killed that day in this battle. When the battle had lasted past noon, the king and his people were in such bad straits and so many of them had been killed that they couldn’t endure any more, for they saw that, if they remained any longer, all of them would be killed. Therefore, they didn’t want to remain any longer, but began to flee any way they could. When the Tartars saw that they had turned to flee, they went on smiting and hunting and killing them so harshly that it was a pity to see. When they had chased them a while, they hunted them no longer but went through the woods to take the elephants. I tell you that they cut down large trees to put in front of the elephants so they couldn’t go anywhere, but this was useless, for they couldn’t catch them. But I tell you that the king’s own men, who had been captured, caught them: for elephants have greater understanding than any other animals. Therefore they captured more than 200 elephants, and from this battle the khan acquired many elephants.27 This battle took place just as you have heard.
On leaving the province that I have told you about above, then one begins to descend a great incline, for know in all truth that one goes downhill a good two and a half days. For the whole two and half days, there is nothing worth mentioning, except that I tell you that there is a large site where a great market is held, for all the men of this region come to this site on appointed days; that is, three days a week. They exchange gold for silver, giving one saggio of gold for five of silver. Merchants come here from long distances and exchange their silver for these people’s gold. I tell you that they make great profit and great gain from it. As for the people of this region who bring the gold, no one can go to their houses where they live to do them harm, they live in such far-away places off the beaten path; and no one knows where they live for no one goes there except them.
When one has gone downhill for these two and half days, there one finds a province to the south which is within the borders of India, called Mien. One went 15 days through very out-of-the-way places and through great woodlands where there are many elephants, unicorns, and other wild animals. There are no men or lodgings; therefore we will leave these woodlands and will tell you a story [estoire28], as you will be able to hear.
Now know that when one has ridden the 15 days that I described above through such out-of-the-way places, then one finds a city called Mien, which is very great and noble and the capital of the kingdom. The people are idolators and have a language of their own. They belong to the Great Khan.
In the city there is a noble thing I will describe to you. For it was true that formerly there was a rich and powerful king in this city, and when he died, he ordered that on his tomb—that is, above his monument—two towers be built, one of gold and one of silver, as I will tell you. For one tower was of beautiful stones, covered with gold. The gold was a good finger thick: the tower was so completely covered that it seemed like it was made solely out of gold. It was a good 10 paces tall and as thick as befits its height. The upper part was round, and all around the round was full of gilded bells that rang every time the wind blew through them. The other tower I told you about above was made of silver, and was just like and made in the same way as the gold one, of the same size and manner. The king had these made for his greatness and for his soul. I tell you that they were the most beautiful towers in the world to look at and were also exceedingly valuable.
I tell you that the Great Khan conquered this province in the way I will tell you: it was true that at the Great Khan’s court there were a great number of jugglers and acrobats. The Great Khan said that he wanted them to go conquer the province of Mien and that he would give them a leader and assistance. The jugglers said that they wanted to, and then they set out on the road with the leader and assistance the Great Khan gave them. What should I tell you? Know that these jugglers and the people who went with them conquered this province of Mien; and when they had conquered it and came to this noble city and found two such beautiful and rich towers, they were completely amazed. They sent word to the Great Khan of the fineness of these towers—how beautiful and valuable they were—and said that if he wished, they would dismantle them and send him the gold and the silver. And the Great Khan, who knew that this king had built them for his soul and so that he should be remembered after his death, said that he didn’t want them to be dismantled in the least; but he said that he wanted them to remain just as the king who had had them made had ordered and built them. And this was no marvel, for I tell you that no Tartar ever touches anything of any dead man.
They have a lot of elephants and wild oxen, large and beautiful; and they have deer, fallow deer, roebucks, and every kind of animal in abundance.
Now I have told you about this province of Mien. Now we will leave it and will tell you about a province called Bangala, just as you will hear.
Bangala is a province toward the south that, in the year 1290 from the birth of Christ, when I, Marco, was at the court of the Great Khan, he had not yet conquered. But his armies and his people where still there trying to conquer it.29 But I tell you that this province has a king and a language of its own; they are the worst kind of idolators. They are within the borders of India. There are many eunuchs [escuillés]; there, all the barons and lords all around the province have them. The oxen are as tall as elephants, but not as fat. They live on meat, milk, and rice; they have a lot of silk. They engage in great trade, for they have spikenard, galangal, ginger, sugar, and many other expensive spices. Indians come there and buy from the eunuchs I mentioned to you. They also buy a lot of slaves, for know that in this province, merchants buy many eunuchs and slaves and take them to sell in many other places. Now in this province there is nothing else worth mentioning and therefore we will leave it and will describe a province to the east, called Cangigu.
Cangigu is a province toward the east; it has a king.30 The people are idolators and have a language of their own. They surrendered to the Great Khan and make him a yearly tribute. I tell you that this king is so lustful that he has a good 300 wives; for when there is some beautiful woman in the region, he marries her. A good deal of gold is found in this province. They have expensive spices of many kinds in great abundance. But they are very far from the sea and for this their merchandise is not worth much but is inexpensive. They have many elephants and other animals of many kinds; they have a lot of game. They live on meat, milk, and rice. They have no vine wine but make a good one from rice and spices. All the people, male and female, are painted all over their bodies, as I will describe to you: for all over their bodies, they use needles to make paintings of eagles, lions, dragons, birds, and other images; they are made with needles in such a way that they never go away. They also do these on their faces, necks, bellies, hands, legs, and over their whole body. They do this for great honor [gentilise]; he who has the most of these paintings is held in greater esteem and thought more beautiful.
Now we will leave this province and will tell you about another province called Aniu, which is toward the east.
Aniu is a province toward the east, which belongs to the Great Khan. They are idolators; they live from herding and from the profit of the earth; they have a language of their own. Their women wear very valuable bracelets of gold and silver on their legs and arms; the men also wear them—better, more expensive ones than the women. They have a lot of good horses and sell them in great quantity to the Indians, who make quite a trade in them. They also have an exceeding abundance of buffalo, oxen, and cows, for this is exceedingly good land and good pasture; they have a great abundance of every kind of provision. Know that from Aniu to Cangigu is 15 days’ back, and from Cangigu to Bangala—the third province back—it’s 30 days.
Now we will leave Aniu and will go to another province called Toloman, which is a good eight days’ journey to the east.
Toloman is a province toward the east. The people are idolators, have a language of their own and belong to the Great Khan.31 They are very handsome people, and are not at all white but brown; they are good men-at-arms. They have a lot of cities, but a great number of castles in the high mountains and strongholds. When they die they burn their bodies; as for the bones that are left that won’t burn, they take them and put them in a little casket, then they carry them to the high mountains and put them in large caverns, hung so that neither man nor animals can touch them. There is a lot of gold there. The currency that they commonly use is cowrie shells, in the way I have told you. All these provinces—that is, Bangala, Cangigu, and Aniu—spend gold and cowries. There are some merchants, but those that are there are very rich and carry a lot of merchandise. They live on meat, milk, and rice; they don’t have vine wine but make a good one from rice and spices.
Now we will leave this province, for there is nothing else worth mentioning; and we will tell you about a province called Ciugiu, toward the east.
Ciugiu is a province toward the east that, when one leaves Toloman, he went 12 days’ journey on a river, where you find a lot of cities and castles; but there is nothing worth mentioning. When one has gone on this river for 12 days, then one finds the city of Sinugal, which is very large and noble. They are idolators {116} and belong to the Great Khan; they live from trade and crafts. I tell you that they make cloth from tree bark that is very beautiful and which they wear in the summer. They are men of arms. They have no currency apart from the Great Khan’s notes [charte] that I have told you about, for I tell you that from here on we are in the lands that spend the Great Khan’s notes.
There are so many lions that no one can sleep outside their houses at night, for the lions would immediately eat them. I tell you another thing: when men go on this river and spend the night in some spot, if they do not sleep very far from land, the lions go up to the boat, seize a man and take him away and eat him. But I tell you that the men know how to protect themselves. I tell you how: for these are very large and dangerous lions, but know that I will tell you a marvel: for I tell you that in this region, there are dogs so bold that they will attack lions. But it is desirable for there to be two of them, for know that one man and 2 dogs can kill a large lion; I will tell you how. When a man rides out on the road with bow and arrows and two very large dogs, and it so happens that he finds a large lion, the dogs (which are bold and fierce)—as soon as they see the lion—run very boldly toward him. The lion spins toward the dogs [lacuna in the text] but as soon as the dogs see the lion take off, they run after him, biting its thighs and tail; and the lion spins around very fiercely but cannot catch them, for the dogs know how to protect themselves. And what should I tell you? The lion is frightened by the very great noise the dogs make, and then it sets out to find some tree it can lean on in order to face the dogs. Each time the lion takes off, the dogs follow, biting him from behind; and the lion turns this way and that. On seeing this, the man puts his hand on his bow and shoots one, two, or more arrows—as many as it takes for the lion to fall dead. And in this way, they kill many; for they can’t defend themselves from a man on horseback with 2 good dogs.
They have a lot of silk and a great abundance of all kinds of merchandise, transported on the river to many parts.
Know in all truth that one went on this river for another 12 days, finding a great number of cities and castles the whole time. The people are idolators and belong to the Great Khan. They have notes for currency—that is, the lord’s notes. They live from trade and crafts. After 12 days, then one finds oneself in Chengdufu, which this book spoke of before [§114].32 Leaving from Chengdufu and riding a good 70 days through provinces and lands which we’ve been through and written about earlier in our book—at the end of 70 days, one finds Zhuozhou, where we were [§106]; and leaving Zhuozhou one went 4 days, finding a lot of cities and castles. The people are great merchants and craftsmen; they are idolators and have the currency of the Great Khan, their lord—that is to say, notes. After 4 days one finds the city of Hezhongfu, which is toward the south and is in the province of Cathay. Regarding this Hezhongfu we will relate what is appropriate, as you can hear.
Hezhongfu is a great and noble city of Cathay and is toward the south. The people are idolators and burn their dead. They belong to the Great Khan and have notes for currency. They live from trade and crafts, for they have a lot of silk; they make cloth of gold and silk and sendal in great abundance. This city has many cities and castles under its rule.
Now we will leave from here and will proceed south for three days and will tell you about another city called Changlu.33
Changlu is another very large city toward the south which belongs to the Great Khan and is in the province of Cathay. They have notes for currency; they are idolators and burn their dead bodies. Know that in this city, salt is made in very great quantities; I will tell you how. It is true that they take a kind of earth that is very salty, and make a great mound out of this earth. Over this mound they pour a lot of water—enough so that the water runs off; then they take this water and put it in a big pot and in a big iron cauldron and boil it for a while. Then the salt is done—very beautiful, white, and fine; and I tell you that this salt is taken to many neighboring regions and they get a lot for it.
Now we will leave this city, for there is nothing else worth mentioning. And we will tell you about another city called Jiangling which is toward the south; we will tell you about it.
Jiangling is a city of Cathay toward the south; it belongs to the Great Khan. They are idolators and have notes for currency. It is 5 days away from Changlu and in these 5 days, a lot of cities and castles are found, which all belong to the Great Khan and are lands of great commerce that are very profitable to the great lord. Know that through the middle of Jiangling flows a very great and wide river, on which a very great quantity of merchandise of silk, spices, and other things is carried up- and downriver.
Now we will leave Jiangling, which we will tell you no more about, and we will tell you about another city that is 6 days’ journey toward the south, called Dongpingfu.
When one leaves Jiangling, he went 6 days’ journey toward the south—the whole time finding a lot of cities and castles of great worth and great nobility. They are idolators and burn their dead corpses. They belong to the Great Khan and have notes for currency. They live from trade and crafts; they have all foodstuffs in great abundance but there is nothing worth mentioning and so we will tell you about Dongpingfu.
Dongpingfu is a very large city and in former times was a great kingdom; but the Great Khan conquered it by force of arms. But I tell you that, nevertheless, it is the noblest city there is in all of these regions; there are very great merchants who do a lot of business. They have such an abundance of silk that it’s a marvel. They have many beautiful and delightful gardens, full of all good fruits. Know in all truth that this city of Dongpingfu has 11 imperial cities under its rule; that is, they are noble and of great worth, for they are cities of great commerce and great profit: for they have silk beyond measure.
I tell you that in the year 1272 of the incarnation of Christ, the Great Khan had ordered one of his barons named Liitam Sangon to this city and this province to keep and save it; so he gave this Liitam 80,000 mounted men to guard it. When this Liitam and his people had been in this province a while, then, like a traitor, he thought of committing an act of very great disloyalty: you will hear what. He got together with all the wise men of all these cities and took counsel with them about rebelling against the Great Khan. They did this with the will of all the people of the province: for they rebelled against the Great Khan and did not obey him in anything. When the Great Khan found out, he sent two of his barons, Aguil and Mongatai, there with a good 100,000 mounted men. Why should I make a long tale of it? Know in all truth that these two barons with their people fought with Liitam, who had rebelled, and with all the people he had been able to assemble, which amounted to about 100,000 mounted men and a very great number of foot soldiers. But it so happened that Liitam lost the battle and was killed there, with many others. After Liitam was undone and killed, the Great Khan launched an inquest into all those who had been guilty of committing such treason, and all those found guilty were cruelly put to death.34 He didn’t do any harm to all the other people who had been pardoned, and thereafter they were always very loyal.
Now we will leave this matter, since we have told it to you in an orderly fashion; and we will tell you about another region to the south called Xinzhou.
When one leaves Dongpingfu, he went for three days to the south, the whole time finding good and noble cities and castles of great trade and crafts. There is a good deal of hunting of all kinds; they have everything in great plenty. When one has gone these three days, then one finds oneself in the noble city of Xinzhou matou, which is very large and rich, with great trade and great crafts.35 They are idolators and belong to the Great Khan; they have notes for currency. I tell you that they have a river from which they draw great profit, and I will tell you how: it is true that this great river comes from the south as far as this city of Xinzhou matou; and from this river, the men of the city have made 2: for they make one half go east and the other half go west; that is, one goes to Mangi and the other through Cathay. I tell you truly that this city has so much shipping, such a great quantity, that no one who has not seen it could believe it. Do not think that these are large ships; rather they are what is needed on the great river. I also tell you that this shipping carries such a great abundance of merchandise to Mangi and through Cathay that it’s a marvel; and then, when they return, they come back fully loaded. Therefore it is a marvelous thing to see the merchandise carried upstream and downstream by this river.
Now we will leave Xinzhou matou; and we will tell you about another region, toward the south; this will be about a great province called Lingiu.
When you leave this city of Xinzhou matou, he went south for 8 days; the whole way one finds a lot of noble, large, and rich cities and castles of great commerce and great craft. They are idolators and burn their dead bodies; they belong to the Great Khan; they have notes for currency. After 8 days one finds a city called Lingiu, just like the province, which is the capital of the kingdom.36 It is a very noble and rich city. They are men-at-arms; it is quite true that great commerce and great craft are carried out there; they have hunting of animals and birds in {120} great abundance; they have all things to eat in great plenty. It is still on the river I named for you above. They have ships larger than the ones I told you about, in which they carry much expensive merchandise.
Now we will leave this province and city; we will tell you about yet another novelty [novité] first and will treat a city called Pizhou, which is large and rich.
When one leaves the city of Lingiu, he went south for three days, finding many good cities and castles the whole time. They belong to Cathay, are idolators, also burn their corpses, and belong to the Great Khan; thus they are like the others I have told you about before. They have notes for currency; they also have the best hunting, both of animals and birds, in the whole world; they have a great abundance of all provisions. After these three days, one finds a city called Pizhou, which is very great and noble, with great merchandise and great crafts. They have silk in very great abundance. This city is at the entrance to the great province of Mangi. In this city, merchants load their carts with many different commodities and carry them to Mangi via several cities and castles. It’s a city that renders great profit to the Great Khan. There is nothing else worth mentioning; therefore we will leave it and will tell you about another city called Chuzhou, which is still to the south.
When one leaves the city of Pizhou, he went 2 days south, through very beautiful regions rich in all goods, where there is a lot of hunting of all kinds of animals and birds. After 2 days, one finds the city of Chuzhou, which is large and rich in both trade and crafts. The people are idolators and burn their dead bodies in fire; they have notes for currency and they belong to the Great Khan. It has exceedingly beautiful plains and beautiful fields; they have a great abundance of wheat and all grains. But there are no other things worth mentioning and therefore we will leave it and will tell you about other lands ahead.
When one leaves this city of Chuzhou, he went a good three days south, where one finds beautiful regions, beautiful castles and settlements, and beautiful arable lands, lots of hunting and an abundance of wheat and all grains. They are idolators and belong to the Great Khan. They have notes for currency.
After these 3 days, one finds the great Qaramoran River [§110], which comes from the land of Prester John and is very big and wide; for know that it is a mile wide. And it is very deep, so that great ships can sail it. The fish are plentiful and large. On this river there are a good 15,000 ships, all belonging to the Great Khan, to carry his troops to the islands of the sea, for I tell you that the sea is a day’s {121} journey from this place. And I tell you that each of these ships receives 20 sailors and carries around 15 horses with their men and food. There is one city here and one city there—that is, across from one another: one is called Huai’anzhou [§140] and the other Caigiu: know that one is a large city and the other small. From here on, when you sail this river, then you enter the great province of Mangi and I will tell you how the Great Khan conquered this province of Mangi.
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1. These units were pieces in a six-tiered hierarchy that was irregular and complex. For example, “while the routes (lu) always outranked the prefectures (fu), it is clear that the terms … referred to virtually identical administrative units.” A fu might be directly subordinate to the regional secretariat, or it might be subordinate to a lu that was in turn subordinate to a tao (circuit) (Endicott-West 1989, 10–11).
2. Pulisanghin is likely the Persian Pul-i-sangin, “stone bridge.”
3. This is just outside modern Beijing (Haw 2006, 95).
4. Sendal, or cendal, is a lightweight silk.
5. The palace Marco describes may conflate Xiansheng Gong, the ancestral temple of the short-lived Northern Han dynasty (centered in Taiyuanfu in the second half of the tenth century) and Yongle Gong, a Daoist temple known for its murals, on which construction began in 1247. The story of the “Golden King” may refer to a mid-tenth-century episode during the turbulent Five Dynasties period when the Liao emperor Yelü Deguang captured and humiliated the rebellious Jin emperor Shi Chonggui (Atwood 2015b).
6. Throughout The Description, the typical form for “you” is voç, the second-person formal (modern French vous). Here, in contrast, the second-person informal form tu, used for social underlings, underscores Prester John’s intentional humiliation of the Golden King.
7. From the Mongolian Qara Mörön, “black river,” this is the Yellow River. Its size fluctuates considerably with the seasonal rains and it has frequently changed course over its history (Haw 2006, 74, 80, 114).
8. The Venetian grosso (groat) was a large silver penny widely minted at the beginning of the thirteenth century to finance the Fourth Crusade. Because of its stable weight (2.18 grams) and fineness (0.965 pure silver), it became the basis of the “money of account” used by the Venetians throughout the eastern Mediterranean (F. Lane 1973, 148). An aspre (from the Greek term for “white”) was a silver coin widely diffused in Venice’s eastern possessions (Polo 1982, 144n).
9. Though Taoism and, under the Mongols, Tibetan Buddhism were prevalent in Cathay, there were also communities of Nestorian Christians (who benefited from the patronage of Qubilai’s mother, Sorghaghtani Beki, and his chief wife, Chabi) as well as Jews (Mote 1999, 484–85). In addition, some Central and West Asian Muslims were resettled in Cathay as a result of conquests and of cultural and scientific exchanges with the Ilkhanate of Persia.
10. Jingzhaofu is Xi’an in Shaanxi Province, longtime capital of China and site of the famous Qin dynasty terra cotta warriors from the late third–early second centuries BCE. In the seventh and eighth centuries CE, under the Tang dynasty, it was named Chang’an and was a great cosmopolitan center, the largest city in the world (Tucker 2003, 88). Manggala, Qubilai’s third son by his principal wife, Chabi, was named prince of Anxi in 1272 and died in 1280, providing approximate dates for Marco’s presumed visit (Haw 2006, 97–98; Rossabi 1994, 225).
11. Acbalac (modern Hanzhong), called Acmelec later in this passage, means “white city,” from balik, the Turko-Mongol word for “town” or “castle” (as in the Mongol name for their capital of Khanbaliq [see §81]). The specification (on the borders of) Mangi is to differentiate it from another Aqbaliq (Chinese Zhending), in Cathay (Pelliot 1959–1973, I.7–8; Vogel 2013, 200).
12. Chengdu was the capital of the Mongol administrative unit of Sichuan (Herman 2007, 55).
13. The river that flows to the sea is the Yangtze, later described as “the greatest river in the world” (§147). Chengdu is actually on the Min River, formerly considered the main upper branch of the Yangtze (Haw 2006, 106).
14. The word gasté repeatedly used to describe this province is cognate with the English “waste.” It enters Old French vocabulary most prominently in the late twelfth century in Chrétien de Troyes’ Perceval, the grail romance in which the “wasteland” [terre gaste] is a consequence of a debilitating wound suffered by the Fisher King.
15. The wording here consciously echoes uçance et costumes (as in §70), variants of which are found throughout the text—perhaps to underscore the fact that the practice of offering unmarried girls to be “used” by passing travelers enjoys the status of customary law among these people.
16. The claim that all the lands mentioned in The Description belong either to the Great Khan or to his close allies, the Ilkhans of Persia, is manifestly incorrect; notably, it excludes the lands of the rival Chagadid and Ögödid branches of the family, whose wars against Qubilai are narrated in §§199–201. The vocabulary of writing and inscription in this paragraph contrasts with vocabulary of orality (telling, hearing) that dominates the rest of the text.
17. Present-day Xichang in Sichuan Province. The Mongols invaded and conquered it in 1272–1274, establishing it as an administrative unit of Yunnan Province (Haw 2006, 99–100).
18. The tone is more judgmental here than in §115 on Tibet, perhaps because in the first case the women in question were unmarried, whereas here it is husbands urging strangers to sleep with their own wives.
19. Qarajang is the kingdom of Dali (modern Yunnan Province). The Mongol conquest of Dali was part of its strategy to attack the Southern Song empire from the southwest. Qubilai, before becoming Great Khan, had led an expedition in 1252–1253. The king of Dali, Duan Xingzhi, acknowledged himself Möngke’s vassal in 1256, and in 1274, the area was incorporated into the new territorial unit of Yunnan (Herman 2007, 46–48).
20. Esen Temür (called “Sentemur” in §121) was actually Qubilai’s grandson.
21. Yachi is Zhongqing, the modern city of Kunming (Haw 2006, 102).
22. Cowrie shells (also mentioned in §§119, 120, and 129), especially from the Maldives, circulated widely as currency around the Indian Ocean and China, eventually spreading to West Africa (where they were used in the slave trade up through the nineteenth century). Durable, easy to handle, and impossible to counterfeit, they could be traded by weight, volume, or unit (Hogendorn and Johnson 1986). On the saggio as a unit of measure, see §81n46.
23. The name Marco gives the province, Zardandan, is Persian for “gold tooth” (corresponding to the Chinese Jin Chi). It is called Yongchang in Chinese sources (Vogel 2013, 201).
24. This account conflates a series of campaigns that took place between 1273 and 1287 against the Burmese kingdom of Pagan, centered in the Irrawaddy River valley (Rossabi 1994, 485–87). Ruling just after the apogee of the kingdom in the first half of the thirteenth century, King Narathihapate (r. 1256–1287) conducted a highly ceremonial kingship, celebrating his royal predecessors with gold statuettes, claiming to be lord of the thirty-five white elephants and boasting of “consuming 300 dishes of curry daily” (Aung-Thwin 1985, 194).
25. The first Mongol campaign of 1273 was sparked by the disappearance of the envoys sent by Qubilai in 1271 to renew Pagan’s tributary relationship with China. That campaign ended in a stalemate, as did the larger invasion of 1283. A delegation subsequently dispatched to convince Qubilai that, as a small state devoted less to military power than to religion (Theravada Buddhism), Pagan was not worthy of Mongol interest, arrived in Dadu too late (1286) to forestall a campaign already under way; in the ensuing confusion, the king fled his capital and was killed by one of his own sons (Aung-Thwin 1985, 195–96).
26. The son of Saiyid Ajall, the Bukhara-born administrator instrumental in bringing Yunnan (Qarajang, §§118–19) under Mongol control, Nasir al-Din led military expeditions against Zardandan (§120) and Pagan in 1277. He succeeded his father at the head of the head of the Regional Secretarial Council of Yunnan at the latter’s death in 1279 (Buell 1993, 478; Pelliot 1959–1973, II.793–94; Rossabi 1988, 214–15).
27. Chinese sources report that after the battle, Nasir al-Din came to court with a gift of twelve tame elephants (Pelliot 1959–1973, II.793).
28. In thirteenth-century French, estoire is used for everything from the Arthurian prose romance L’Estoire du saint graal (The Story of the Holy Grail) to Les Estoires de Venise, Martin da Canal’s history of Venice.
29. Sections 126–28 seem to refer to lands that Marco Polo knew about, very vaguely, through hearsay, perhaps gleaned in Yunnan (Qarajang §§118–19). Bangala is (at least in name) Bengal (Pelliot 1959–1973, I.73–74), to the west of Yunnan. Cangigu (§127) and Aniu (§128) represent inland and coastal northern Vietnam, respectively (Pelliot 1959–1973, I.39–40), to the east.
30. This is Jiaozhi Guo, the northern part of modern Vietnam (Haw 2006, 104–5).
31. The Tulaman were a people living in northeastern Yunnan (Haw 2006, 105).
32. From Chengdu, the text jumps some 1,800 kilometers northeast to Zhuozhou before turning south again to Hezhongfu.
33. After Hejian, the text cuts east to Changlu (modern Cangzhou) in §132, then turns south again through Jiangling (modern Dezhou) in §133 to Tundinfu (modern Dongpingfu) in §134 (Haw 2006, 108–10; Pelliot 1959–1973, I.115–16; I.259–61; I.258–59).
34. Li Tan was a high military administrator who in 1262 (not 1272, as reported here) headed a major rebellion in Shandong, submitting lands under his jurisdiction to the Southern Song. Though he was quickly defeated and executed, his revolt led Qubilai to separate military and civil administrations, and to bring regional feudal lords under more centralized control of the keshig (§86n166), Qubilai’s Mongol Imperial Guard (Chan 1993, 500, 507, 518–19).
35. Singiu (Xinzhou) is “new prefecture,” while Matu is “port” or “quay.” Corresponding to modern Jining in Shangdong province, this was the site that controlled the flow of water to the Grand Canal (Haw 2006, 83, 110–11; Pelliot 1959–1973, II.834–35).
36. Lingiu (Liucheng, which Marco may here be confusing with the more important town of Xuzhou), Pizhou (Gupi, in the northern part of Jiangsu province) in §137, and Ciugiu (Suqian) in §138 were stops in the relay route between Xinzhou matou (§135) and Huai’anzhou (§140) (Haw 2006, 111–14; Pelliot 1959–1973, II.763). The forms some of the place names take here reflect the easy confusion between n and u in medieval manuscripts (Haw 2006, 111)—the “F” version found in BNF fr. 1116 being a copy of the lost original.