Punctuation
Punctuation is the focus of many questions on the Writing and Language test. But how do you know when to use the punctuation marks that are being tested? This chapter will answer that question as well as highlight some of the SAT’s rules for using punctuation and the strategies you can use to outsmart the test-writers.
Kurt Vonnegut once wrote, “Here is a lesson in creative writing. First rule: Do not use semicolons All they do is show you’ve been to college.” Unfortunately, this does not apply to the SAT. For the SAT, you’ll need to know how to use the semicolon and a few other types of weird punctuation. This chapter covers all the punctuation you need to know how to use on the Writing and Language Test. Learn these few simple rules, and you’ll be all set on the punctuation questions.
First and foremost, stick to the strategy! Start by asking,
What’s changing in the answer choices?
If you see punctuation marks—commas, periods, apostrophes, semicolons, colons—changing, then the question is testing punctuation. As you work the problem, make sure to ask the big question:
Does this punctuation need to be here?
The particular punctuation mark you are using, no matter what it is, must have a specific role within the sentence. You wouldn’t use a question mark without a question, would you? Nope! Well, all punctuation works that way on the SAT, and in this chapter we’ll give you examples of specific instances in which you would use a particular type of punctuation. Otherwise, let the words do their thing unobstructed!
Let’s get the weird punctuation out of the way first. Everyone knows that a period ends a sentence, but once things get more complicated, even a particularly nerdy grammarian can get lost. Because of this confusion, we’ve created a chart that summarizes the different situations in which you might use what the SAT calls “end-of-sentence” and “middle-of-sentence” punctuation. We call them STOP, HALF-STOP, and GO.
When you are linking ideas, you must use one of the following:
STOP
Period (.)
Semicolon (;)
Comma (,) + FANBOYS
Question Mark (?)
Exclamation Mark (!)
HALF-STOP
Colon (:)
Long dash (—)
GO
Comma (,)
No punctuation
STOP punctuation can link only complete ideas.
HALF-STOP punctuation must be preceded by a complete idea.
GO punctuation can link anything except two complete ideas.
Let’s see how these work. Here is a complete idea:
Samantha studied for the SAT.
Notice that we’ve already used one form of STOP punctuation at the end of this sentence: a period.
Now, if we want to add a second complete idea, we’ll keep the period.
Samantha studied for the SAT. She ended up doing really well on the test.
In this case, the period is linking these two complete ideas. But the nice thing about STOP punctuation is that you can use any of the punctuation in the list to do the same thing, so we could also say this:
Samantha studied for the SAT; she ended up doing really well on the test.
What the list of STOP punctuation shows us is that essentially, a period and a semicolon are the same thing. We could say the same for the use of a comma plus one of the FANBOYS.
Samantha studied for the SAT, and she ended up doing really well on the test.
You can also use HALF-STOP punctuation to separate two complete ideas, so you could say
Samantha studied for the SAT: she ended up doing really well on the test.
or
Samantha studied for the SAT—she ended up doing really well on the test.
There’s a subtle difference, however, between STOP and HALF-STOP punctuation: for STOP punctuation, both ideas have to be complete, but for HALF-STOP punctuation, only the first one does.
Let’s see what this looks like. If you want to link a complete idea and an incomplete idea, you can use HALF-STOP punctuation as long as the complete idea comes first. For example,
Samantha studied for the SAT: all three sections of it.
or
Samantha studied for the SAT: the silliest test in all the land.
When you use HALF-STOP punctuation, there has to be a complete idea before the punctuation. So, these examples are NOT correct:
Samantha studied for: the SAT, the ACT, and every AP Exam in between.
The SAT—Samantha studied for it and was glad she did.
When you are not linking two complete ideas, you can use GO punctuation. So you could say, for instance,
Samantha studied for the SAT, the ACT, and every AP Exam in between.
or
Samantha studied for the SAT, all three sections of it.
These are the three types of mid-sentence or end-of-sentence punctuation: STOP, HALF-STOP, and GO. You’ll notice that there is a bit of overlap between the concepts, but the SAT couldn’t possibly make you get into the minutia of choosing between, say, a period and a semicolon. All you need to be able to do is figure out which of the big three categories (STOP, HALF-STOP, and GO) you’ll need.
Let’s see what this looks like in context.
Jonah studied every day for the big 1 test he was taking the SAT that Saturday.
1. A) NO CHANGE
B) test, he was taking
C) test, he was taking,
D) test; he was taking
Here’s How to Crack It
As always, check what’s changing in the answer choices. In this case, the only thing changing is the punctuation; the words stay the same. Notice the types of punctuation that are changing: STOP and GO.
When you see different types of punctuation in the answer choices, you can use the Vertical Line Test to help you determine which type of punctuation to use.
To use the Vertical Line Test, draw a line where you see STOP or HALF-STOP punctuation—in this case, between the words test and he. First, read up to the vertical line: Jonah studied every day for the big test. That’s a complete idea. Now, read after the vertical line: he was taking the SAT that Saturday. That’s also a complete idea.
So, there are two complete ideas here. What kind of punctuation do you need? STOP or HALF-STOP. It looks like STOP is the only one available, so choose (D).
Let’s try another.
It was very important for him to do 2 well. High scores in all the subjects.
2. A) NO CHANGE
B) well; high
C) well: high
D) well, he wanted high
Here’s How to Crack It
Check the answer choices. What’s changing? The punctuation is changing, and some of that punctuation is STOP and HALF-STOP. Use the Vertical Line Test. Draw a vertical line where you see the punctuation changing: between well and high or well and he.
What’s before the vertical line? It was very important for him to do well is a complete idea. Then, high scores in all the subjects is not a complete idea. Therefore, because you have one complete idea (the first) and one incomplete idea (the second), you can’t use STOP punctuation, thus eliminating (A) and (B).
Now, what’s different between the last two? Choice (C) contains HALF-STOP punctuation, which can work, so keep that. Choice (D) adds some words. Adding those words makes the second idea he wanted high scores in all the subjects, which is a complete idea. That means (D) has two complete ideas separated by a comma, but can you use GO punctuation between two complete ideas? Nope. Eliminate (D)! Only (C) is left.
Let’s see one more.
Whenever Jonah had a free 3 moment—he was studying.
3. A) NO CHANGE
B) moment; he
C) moment, he,
D) moment, he
Here’s How to Crack It
The punctuation is changing in the answer choices, and there’s some STOP and HALF-STOP punctuation, so use the Vertical Line Test. Put the line between moment and he. The first idea, Whenever Jonah had a free moment, is an incomplete idea, and the second idea, he was studying, is a complete idea. Therefore, you can’t use STOP (which needs two complete ideas) or HALF-STOP (which needs a complete idea before the punctuation), thus eliminating (A) and (B). Then, because there is no good reason to put a comma after the word he, the correct answer must be (D).
Commas can be a little tricky. In question 3, we narrowed it down to two answer choices, (C) and (D), after completing the Vertical Line Test. But then how do you decide whether to keep a comma in or not? It seems a little arbitrary to say that you use a comma “every time you want to pause,” so let’s make it a little more concrete.
If you can’t cite a reason to use a comma, don’t use one.
On the SAT, there are only four reasons to use a comma:
in STOP punctuation, with one of the FANBOYS
in GO punctuation, to separate incomplete ideas from other ideas
in a list of three or more things
in a sentence containing unnecessary information
We’ve already seen examples of the first two scenarios, so let’s look at the other two.
Try this one.
His top-choice schools were 4 Harvard, Yale; and Princeton.
4. A) NO CHANGE
B) Harvard, Yale, and Princeton.
C) Harvard, Yale, and, Princeton.
D) Harvard Yale and Princeton.
Here’s How to Crack It
First, check what’s changing in the answer choices. The punctuation is changing, and there’s STOP punctuation in a couple of the answers. But there’s also a list in this sentence, and when you see that, there’s no need for the Vertical Line Test—lists of three or more items on the SAT are punctuated by commas. That means you can eliminate (A), because the semicolon has no place here.
Next, eliminate (D) because the items in the list should be separated by commas, and (D) doesn’t have any commas. The difference between (B) and (C) is the comma after the word and, which is never necessary in a list—eliminate (C). That means (B) is the correct answer.
Note that it may seem that (B) incorrectly uses STOP punctuation (if you paid attention to FANBOYS, a comma followed by the word and is STOP), but the , and at the end of a list doesn’t count as STOP punctuation.
Let’s try another.
5 Jonah, everyone seemed fairly certain, was going to get into one of those schools.
5. A) NO CHANGE
B) Jonah everyone seemed fairly certain
C) Jonah, everyone seemed fairly certain
D) Jonah everyone seemed fairly certain,
Here’s How to Crack It
First, check what’s changing in the answer choices: just the commas. And those commas are circling around the words everyone seemed fairly certain. When you’ve got a few commas circling around a particular word or phrase in a sentence, the question is usually testing necessary versus unnecessary information.
A good way to test whether the idea is necessary to the meaning of the sentence is to take it out. Read the original sentence again. Now read this one: Jonah was going to get into one of those schools.
Is the sentence still complete? Yes. Has the meaning of the sentence changed? No, we just lost a little extra description. Therefore, the idea is unnecessary to the meaning of the sentence and should be set off with commas, as it is in (A).
Let’s try a few more. Try to figure out whether the word or idea in italics is necessary to the meaning of the sentence, and whether or not commas need to surround the italics. The answers are on this page.
1. The student with the best GPA will be admitted to the best college.
2. Edward wants to go to Pomona College which is a really good school.
3. The car that was painted red drove off at a hundred miles an hour.
4. Charles Chesnutt who wrote a lot of great stories was also a lawyer.
5. Philadelphia Flyers goalie Steve Mason is an underappreciated player.
Now let’s put it all together in the next question.
Everyone 6 hoped, he would get in, after his brother and two sisters had gone to their first-choice schools.
6. A) NO CHANGE
B) hoped, he would get in, after his brother, and
C) hoped, he would get in after his brother, and,
D) hoped he would get in after his brother and
Here’s How to Crack It
Check what’s changing in the answer choices. Commas are changing in a bunch of places. Remember, the rule of thumb with commas is that if you can’t cite a reason to use a comma, don’t use one.
In (A) and (B), he would get in is set off by commas. Determine whether it’s necessary or unnecessary information. Read the original sentence, and then read the sentence again without that piece of information: Everyone hoped after his brother and two sisters had gone to their first-choice schools. The sentence isn’t complete anymore. Therefore, that bit of information is necessary to the meaning of the sentence, so it doesn’t need commas; eliminate (A) and (B). There are no good reasons to put commas in the phrase after his brother and two sisters, so eliminate (C).
In the end, there’s no reason to put commas anywhere in this sentence. The correct answer is (D). Sometimes the SAT will test “unnecessary punctuation” explicitly, so make sure you can cite one of the four comma rules when you choose an answer with commas!
Like commas, apostrophes have a very limited set of applications. Apostrophes are a little trickier, though, because you can’t hear them in speech, so people misuse them all the time. Think about the header of this section. There’s one missing apostrophe and one apostrophe misused. Here’s the correct way of punctuating it: You’re going to be tested on apostrophes. Can you hear the difference? Neither can we, but you can definitely see the difference.
As with commas, if you can’t cite a reason to use an apostrophe, don’t use one. There are only two reasons to use an apostrophe on the SAT:
Possessive nouns (NOT pronouns)
Contractions
Let’s see some examples.
Some of those very selective 7 schools’ require really high score’s.
7. A) NO CHANGE
B) school’s require really high scores’.
C) schools require really high score’s.
D) schools require really high scores.
Here’s How to Crack It
Check what’s changing in the answer choices. In this case, the words are all the same, but the apostrophes are changing. Remember, don’t use apostrophes at all if you can’t cite a good reason to do so.
Does anything belong to schools or score? No! Are they forming contractions like school is or score is? No! Therefore, there’s no reason to use apostrophes, and the only possible answer is (D), which dispenses with the apostrophes altogether.
As in the previous question, there’s no need for any punctuation, and in a question like this, you’re being tested on whether you can spot unnecessary punctuation.
Sometimes apostrophes are necessary. Look at the following example.
8 It’s tough to get in to you’re top-choice schools.
8. A) NO CHANGE
B) Its tough to get in to your
C) Its tough to get in to you’re
D) It’s tough to get into your
Here’s How to Crack It
Check what’s changing in the answer choices. The apostrophes change, in two places: the words its/it’s and your/you’re.
The first word, its/it’s, needs an apostrophe. It creates the contraction it is, which is necessary in this sentence. Therefore, get rid of (B) and (C). As for the other, this word is possessive (as in, the top-choice schools belonging to you), but remember, possessive nouns need an apostrophe, but possessive pronouns don’t. Therefore, because you is a pronoun, this word should be spelled your, as it is in (D).
Phew! These apostrophes can get a little tricky, so let’s try a few more. On these questions, you’ll find that using your ear and sounding things out doesn’t help much—knowing the rules is the way to go here.
Circle the option that works. The big question is, apostrophes or no apostrophes? You can find the answers on this page.
1. Tinas/Tina’s boss said shes/she’s allowed to take the next few days/day’s off.
2. If your/you’re not coming to my party, its/it’s really fine with me.
3. There/They’re are really no good reasons/reason’s for your/you’re bad attitude.
4. Well/We’ll get back to you as soon as your/you’re application is received.
5. Its/It’s his/his’ guacamole, and he said we cant/can’t have any because its/it’s not ours/our’s.
Occasionally you’ll see a question in which the punctuation doesn’t change, but it actually is testing you on punctuation. You can recognize this if subjects and verbs are changing in the answer choices, and you’ll want to use the Vertical Line Test to determine whether you need complete or incomplete ideas to match the punctuation in the sentence. Take a look at the following example.
Consider attending a college fair, 9 they are where you can find out about more schools that could be good fits.
9. A) NO CHANGE
B) those being
C) these fairs are
D) DELETE the underlined portion.
Here’s How to Crack It
Check what’s changing in the answer choices. Some options have a subject and a verb, or a verb and no subject, or no verb or subject (delete). Even though punctuation doesn’t change in the answers, when you see subjects and verbs changing, it’s a good idea to use the Vertical Line Test where there is already punctuation of any type or where the ideas shift. Draw the line after fair. The first part of the sentence, Consider attending a college fair, is a complete idea. With the underlined portion, the second part of the sentence is also complete. You might remember that it’s never allowed to just put a comma between two complete ideas, so (A) is wrong. Choice (C) also has a subject and verb, so eliminate both (A) and (C). The phrase where you can find out about more schools that could be good fits describes a college fair, so there is no reason to use any additional words. Eliminate (B). The correct answer is (D).
We’ve now covered all of the punctuation you will ever need to know on the SAT. It’s not that much, and you probably knew a lot of it already. In general, checking what’s changing in the answer choices can help reveal mistakes that you may not have noticed otherwise, and POE can help you narrow down your options.
Punctuation rules are easy to learn, as is the biggest rule of all about punctuation.
Know why you are using punctuation, whether that punctuation is STOP, HALF-STOP, GO, commas, or apostrophes. If you can’t cite reasons to use these punctuation marks, don’t use them!
Try out these skills in the drill on this page.
Answers to Questions on this page:
1. NECESSARY to the meaning of the sentence (no commas). If you remove the italicized part, the sentence is not adequately specific.
2. UNNECESSARY to the meaning of the sentence (commas). If you remove the italicized part, the sentence is still complete and the main meaning does not change.
3. NECESSARY to the meaning of the sentence (no commas). If you remove the italicized part, the sentence is not adequately specific.
4. UNNECESSARY to the meaning of the sentence (commas). If you remove the italicized part, the sentence is still complete and the main meaning does not change.
5. NECESSARY to the meaning of the sentence (no commas). If you remove the italicized part, the sentence is no longer complete.
Answers to Questions on this page:
1. Tina’s, she’s, days
2. you’re, it’s
3. There, reasons, your
4. We’ll, your
5. It’s, his, can’t, it’s, ours
Use what you’ve learned in this chapter in the drill questions that follow. Answers can be found on this page.
Time: 7–8 minutes
Human Versus Machine
More and more of our lives are mechanized, and at some point, we have to start wondering, what’s the limit of that mechanization? Many factory workers in the 19th century thought their jobs were 1 safe but we know now that they were wrong. Many people in 2 today’s world believe there jobs are safe, but how safe are those jobs really?
Studies abound that ask whether man or machine is better at particular tasks, and the results are not always so obvious. Sure, a machine is obviously better 3 at say, welding huge pieces of steel together, but what would you say if someone told you people are more likely to open up to a machine than to a psychologist? Or that a machine could write a quicker, more efficient news story than an experienced reporter could?
2. A) NO CHANGE
B) todays world believe their
C) todays world believe they’re
D) today’s world believe their
These questions may seem overly pessimistic (or overly optimistic depending on 4 your point of view); however, some recent studies have been truly remarkable. Take Ellie, a computer program used primarily to diagnose patients with depression, 5 PTSD and, other mood disorders. Many patients found it easier to talk to “Ellie” than to a real 6 person: she didn’t react in some of those seemingly judgmental ways that a person would, and her voice never 7 broke on top of that she could help psychologists to diagnose mental illnesses better than human observation could. She could detect facial movements or voice tones that a person might have not heard or ignored.
Whether Ellie is the way of the future is yet to be determined. We can’t know right now, but there is no question that she raises some interesting questions, not only about 8 psychologists’ method’s but also about all of what we think are definitively human activities.
On the other side of the discussion, however, there’s some evidence that humans may have the upper hand. In some of the more basic 9 tasks those learned before the age of about 10 humans have a huge upper hand. Computers can do the complex thinking, but one thing with which they have a lot of trouble is, paradoxically, simplicity. Sure, a computer can tell 10 your washer’s and dryer’s what a perfect washing and drying cycle is, but can it fold your laundry? Your GPS can tell you the fastest route to the next state, but can it tell you the prettiest way to go or the best restaurants along the way? Not without humans!
While the battle of man against machine rages 11 on. The questions will persist. No matter who wins, though, humans will almost assuredly find ways to adapt: that’s something we’ve been doing for thousands of years, which is something that no computer can say.
9. A) NO CHANGE
B) tasks those learned before the age of about 10,
C) tasks, those learned before the age of about 10
D) tasks, those learned before the age of about 10,
1. B
Punctuation is changing in the answer choices, so this question is testing STOP, HALF-STOP, and GO punctuation. Use the Vertical Line Test and identify the ideas as complete or incomplete. Draw the vertical line through the word but and consider the ideas before and after the FANBOYS word. The first part of the sentence, Many factory workers in the 19th century thought their jobs were safe, is a complete idea. The second part, we know now that they were wrong, is a complete idea. To connect two complete ideas, STOP punctuation is needed. Eliminate (A) and (C) because a FANBOYS word alone and a comma alone can’t link two complete ideas. Keep (B) because but with a comma is STOP punctuation. Choice (D) has a period, which is STOP punctuation, but placing the word but after the period makes the second idea incomplete. Eliminate (D) because a period cannot be used between a complete and an incomplete idea. The correct answer is (B).
2. D
Apostrophes are changing in the answer choices, so the question is testing apostrophe usage. When used with a noun on the SAT, an apostrophe indicates possession. In this sentence, the world belongs to today, so an apostrophe is needed. Eliminate (B) and (C) because they do not contain an apostrophe. Next, pronouns are changing. The jobs belong to many people, so a possessive plural pronoun is needed. Eliminate (A) because there does not correctly show possession of the jobs. Choice (D) correctly uses the possessive pronoun their to show possession of the jobs. The correct answer is (D).
3. C
Commas are changing in the answer choices, so this question is testing the four ways to use a comma. The word say is unnecessary information, so it should have commas both before and after it. Eliminate (A) and (B) because they both only have one comma each. Keep (C) because it correctly places commas before and after say. Eliminate (D) because it has no commas. The correct answer is (C).
4. A
Apostrophes are changing in the answer choices, so this question is testing apostrophe usage. When used with a pronoun, an apostrophe indicates a contraction. You’re means “you are.” In this sentence, the point of view belongs to someone, so an apostrophe should not be used. A possessive pronoun is needed instead. Eliminate (C) and (D). Next, punctuation is changing in the answer choices, so this question is testing STOP, HALF-STOP, and GO punctuation. Use the Vertical Line Test and identify the ideas as complete or incomplete. Draw the vertical line between the words view and however. The first part of the sentence, These questions may seem overly pessimistic (or overly optimistic depending on your point of view), is a complete idea. The second part, however, some recent studies have been truly remarkable, is a complete idea. To connect two complete ideas, STOP punctuation is needed. Eliminate (B) because a comma alone is GO punctuation. The correct answer is (A).
5. B
Commas are changing in the answer choices, so this question is testing the four ways to use a comma. The sentence contains a list of three things: 1) depression, 2) PTSD, and 3) other mood disorders. There should be a comma after each item in the list. Eliminate (A) because it does not have a comma after PTSD and incorrectly adds a comma after and. Keep (B) because it has a comma after each item in the list. Eliminate (C) because it incorrectly adds a comma after and. Eliminate (D) because it incorrectly adds a comma after other. The correct answer is (B).
6. A
Punctuation is changing in the answer choices, so this question is testing STOP, HALF-STOP, and GO punctuation. Use the Vertical Line Test and identify the ideas as complete or incomplete. Draw the vertical line between the words person and she. The first part of the sentence, Many patients found it easier to talk to “Ellie” than to a real person, is a complete idea. The second part, she didn’t react in some of those seemingly judgmental ways that a person would, and her voice never broke, is a complete idea. To connect two complete ideas, STOP or HALF-STOP punctuation is needed. Keep (A) because a colon is HALF-STOP punctuation. Eliminate (B) and (D) because a comma and no punctuation are both GO punctuation. Eliminate (C) because adding but to the second idea makes it incomplete, and STOP punctuation cannot be used to connect a complete idea and an incomplete idea. The correct answer is (A).
7. C
Punctuation is changing in the answer choices, so this question is testing STOP, HALF-STOP, and GO punctuation. Use the Vertical Line Test and identify the ideas as complete or incomplete. Draw the vertical line between the words broke and on. The first part of the sentence, she didn’t react in some of those seemingly judgmental ways that a person would, and her voice never broke, is a complete idea. The second part, on top of that she could help psychologists to diagnose mental illnesses better than human observation could, is a complete idea. To connect two complete ideas, STOP punctuation is needed. Eliminate (A) and (B) because no punctuation and a comma alone are both GO punctuation. Keep (C) because a period is STOP punctuation. Eliminate (D) because it incorrectly places a comma after top. The correct answer is (C).
8. C
Apostrophes are changing in the answer choices, so the question is testing apostrophe usage. When used with a noun on the SAT, an apostrophe indicates possession. In this sentence, the methods belong to psychologists, so an apostrophe is needed. Eliminate (B) and (D) because they do not contain the apostrophe on psychologists. Eliminate (A) because the word but does not belong to methods, so there should not be an apostrophe on methods. The correct answer is (C).
9. D
Commas are changing in the answer choices, so this question is testing the four ways to use a comma. The phrase those learned before the age of about 10 is unnecessary information, so it should have commas both before and after it. Eliminate (A) because it contains no commas. Eliminate (B) and (C) because they both contain only one comma. Keep (D) because it correctly places commas before and after the phrase. The correct answer is (D).
10. B
Apostrophes are changing in the answer choices, so the question is testing apostrophe usage. The washers and dryers belong to you. When used with a pronoun, an apostrophe indicates a contraction. You’re is equal to “you are,” which is not correct in this sentence; eliminate (C) and (D). When used with a noun on the SAT, an apostrophe indicates possession. In this sentence, the washers and dryers do not possess anything, so no apostrophe is needed. Eliminate (A) because it contains apostrophes on washers and dryers. The correct answer is (B).
11. D
Punctuation is changing in the answer choices, so this question is testing STOP, HALF-STOP, and GO punctuation. Use the Vertical Line Test and identify the ideas as complete or incomplete. Draw the vertical line between the words on and The. The first part of the sentence, While the battle of man against machine rages on, is an incomplete idea. The second part, The questions will persist, is a complete idea. To connect an incomplete idea to a complete idea, GO punctuation is needed. Eliminate (A), (B), and (C) because they contain STOP or HALF-STOP punctuation. The correct answer is (D).
Remember STOP, HALF-STOP, and GO punctuation.
STOP punctuation can link only complete ideas.
HALF-STOP punctuation must be preceded by a complete idea.
GO punctuation can link anything except two complete ideas.
When you see STOP or HALF-STOP punctuation changing in the answer choices, use the Vertical Line Test.
On the SAT, there are only four reasons to use a comma:
STOP punctuation (with one of the FANBOYS)
GO punctuation
after every item in a list of three or more items
to set off unnecessary information
On the SAT, there are only two reasons to use an apostrophe:
possessive nouns (NOT pronouns)
contractions
Know why you are using punctuation, whether that punctuation is STOP, HALF-STOP, GO, commas, or apostrophes. If you can’t cite reasons to use these punctuation marks, don’t use them!