1. Marshall, S., Men Against Fire: The Problem of Battle Command, University of Oklahoma Press (orig. ed., 1947), 2000, p. 79.
2. See especially the studies by Picq, C. A. du, Études sur le combat, Ivrea, 1978, on old wars; Griffith, P., Battle Tactics of the Civil War, Yale University Press, 1989, on the Napoleonic wars and the American Civil War; and Holmes, R., Acts of War: The Behavior of Men in Battle, The Free Press, 1985, on the behavior of Argentine soldiers during the Falkland war. Quoted in Grossman, D., On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society, Back Bay Books, 2009.
3. Quoted in Grossman, D. (2009). Op. cit., p. 27.
4. Ibid., p. 28.
5. Keegan, J. (1976). Quoted in Grossman, D. (2009). Op. cit., p. 122.
6. Giraudoux, J., The Trojan War Will Not Take Place, trans. Christopher Fry., Methuen, 1983, p. 7.
7. Gray, J. G., The Warriors: Reflections on Men in Battle, Bison Books, 1998. Quoted in Grossman, D. (2009). Op. cit., p. 39.
8. Grossman, D. (2009). Op. cit., p. 160.
9. Stouffer, S. A., Suchman, E. A., Devinney, L. C., Star, S. A., & Williams Jr., R. M., The American Soldier: Adjustment During Army Life, Princeton University Press, 1999.
10. Grossman, D. (2009). Op. cit., p. 212.
11. Strozzi-Heckler, R., In Search of the Warrior Spirit, Blue Snake Books, 2007.
12. Hatzfeld, J., Machete Season: The Killers in Rwanda Speak, Macmillan, 2006.
13. Abé, N. (December 14, 2012). Dreams in infrared: The woes of an American drone operator. Spiegel Online International. http://www.alipac.us/f19/meet-brandon-bryant-drone-operator-who-quit-after-killing-child-war-crimes-268988/.
14. Marsh, P., & Campbell, A., Aggression and Violence, Blackwell, 1982.
15. Gabriel, R. A., No More Heroes: Madness and Psychiatry in War, Hill and Wang, 1988.
16. Dyer, G., War: The Lethal Custom, Basic Books, 2006. Quoted in Grossman, D. (2009). Op. cit., p. 180.
17. Swank, R. L., & Marchand, W. E. (1946). Combat neuroses: Development of combat exhaustion. Archives of Neurology & Psychiatry, 55(3), 236.
18. Quoted in Grossman, D. (2009). Op. cit., pp. 237–238.
19. Dyer, G. (2006). Op. cit., quoting a sergeant in the American Marines, a Vietnam veteran. In Grossman, D. (2009). Op. cit., p. 253.
20. Ibid. Quoted in Grossman, D. (2009). Op. cit., p. 19.
21. Grossman, D. (2009). Op. cit., p. 267.
22. Giedd, J. N., Blumenthal, J., Jeffries, N. O., Castellanos, F. X., Liu, H., Zijdenbos, A.,… Rapoport, J. L. (1999). Brain development during childhood and adolescence: A longitudinal MRI study. Nature Neuroscience, 2(10), 861–863.
23. Manchester, W., Goodbye, Darkness: A Memoir of the Pacific War, Michael Joseph, 1981. Quoted in Grossman, D. (2009). Op. cit., p. 116.
24. Williams, T. (2012). Suicides outpacing war deaths for troops. New York Times, June 8, 2012.
25. Snow, B. R., Stellman, J. M., Stellman, S. D., Sommer, J. F., & others. (1988). Post-traumatic stress disorder among American Legionnaires in relation to combat experience in Vietnam: Associated and contributing factors. Environmental Research, 47(2), 175–192.
26. Interview BBC World Service. 2003.
27. Words uttered by the 14th Dalai Lama during the 25th meeting of the Mind and Life Institute, January 21, 2013, in South India.
28. Swofford, A., Jarhead: A Soldier’s Story of Modern War, Scribner, 2004.
29. On “just” war, see Bible, Samuel, chapter 23, 8, Exodus, chapter 20, 13; chapter 34, 10–14, Deuteronomy, chapter 7, 7–26.
30. Torah, Book of Numbers, chapter 35, 16–23; Leviticus, chapter 20, 10, Exodus, chapter 22, 20 and 32.
31. Koran, chapter 17, 33 and 186.
32. Boismorand, P. (ed.), Magda et André Trocmé, Figures de résistance, selected passages, Éditions du Cerf, 2008, extracts from Souvenirs, p. 119.
33. St. Paul, Epistle to the Romans, chapter 13, 8–10.
34. These words were uttered by Desmond Tutu during a meeting with a group of scholars and representatives of various religions at the World Economic Forum in Davos, January 26, 2012.
1. Beck, A. T., Prisoners of Hate: The Cognitive Basis of Anger, Hostility, and Violence, Perennial, 2000, p. 17.
2. Quoted in Waal, F. B. M. de, The Bonobo and the Atheist: In Search of Humanism Among the Primates, W. W. Norton, 2013, p. 212.
3. Miller, S. C., Benevolent Assimilation: American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903, Yale University Press, 1982, pp. 188–189, quoted by Charles Patterson. Eternal Treblinka: Our Treatment of Animals and the Holocaust (Kindle Locations 493–494). Kindle Edition.
4. Hatzfeld, J., Machete Season.
5. Suarez-Orozco, M., & Nordstrom, C. (1992). A Grammar of terror: Psychocultural responses to state terrorism in dirty war and post-dirty war Argentina. The Paths to Domination, Resistance, and Terror, 219–259. Quoted in Baumeister, R. F. (2001). Op. cit., p. 226.
6. Binding, K., & Hoche, A., Die Freigabe der Vernichtung lebensunwerten Lebens, Bwv Berliner-Wissenschaft (original ed., 1920), 2006; Schank, K., & Schooyans, M., Euthanasie, le dossier Binding and Hoche, Le Sarment, 2002.
7. Quoted in Staub, E., The Roots of Evil: The Origins of Genocide and Other Group Violence, reprint, Cambridge University Press, 1992, note 21.
8. The Aktion T4 program concerned all patients suffering from schizophrenia, epilepsy, senility, incurable paralysis, weakness of mind, encephalitis, and terminal-phase neurological disorders, as well as patients who had been hospitalized since the age of at least five.
9. Chalk, F., & Jonassohn, K., The History and Sociology of Genocide: Analyses and Case Studies, Yale University Press, 1990.
10. Hatzfeld, J. (2005). Op. cit., p. 53.
11. Pinker, S. (2011). Op. cit., p. 326.
12. Chang, I., The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II, Basic Books, 1997, p. 56. Quoted in Charles Patterson, Eternal Treblinka: Our Treatment of Animals and the Holocaust, Lantern, 2002, p. 75.
13. Menninger, K. A., “Totemic Aspects of Contemporary Attitudes Toward Animals,” Psychoanalysis and Culture: Essays in Honor of Géza Róheim, International Universities Press, 1951, pp. 42–74. Quoted in Patterson, C. (2008). Op. cit., p. 70.
14. Sémelin, J., Purify and Destroy: The Political Uses of Massacre and Genocide, Columbia University Press, 2007, p. 243.
15. Hodgen, M., Early Anthropology in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, vol. 1014, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011, p. 22.
16. Stannard, D. E., American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World, Oxford University Press, 1992, p. 243. Quoted in Patterson, C. (2008). Op. cit. (Kindle Locations 448–452). Kindle Edition.
17. From a speech made in January 1886 in South Dakota. Hagedorn, H., Roosevelt in the Bad Lands, Houghton Mifflin, 1921, pp. 354–356; 2010 edition, Bilbio Bazar.
18. Patterson, C. (2008). Op. cit. (Kindle Locations 375–376). Kindle Edition.
19. Gould, S. J., La Mal-mesure de l’homme, Odile Jacob, 1996, p. 135. Quoted in Patterson, C. (2008). Op. cit., p. 58.
20. Levi, P., If This Is a Man: Remembering Auschwitz, Little, Brown, 1997.
21. Staub, E. (1992). Op. cit., p. 101.
22. Shirer, William L., The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany, Simon & Schuster, 2011, p. 236. William Shirer notes: “The great founder of Protestantism was both a passionate anti-Semite and a ferocious believer in absolute obedience to political authority. He wanted Germany rid of the Jews.… [Luther’s] advice was literally followed four centuries later by Hitler, Goering and Himmler.” The Nazis celebrated their Luthertag (Luther Day) and Fahrenhorst, a member of the Organization Committee for Luthertag, dubbed Luther “the first German spiritual Führer.”
23. Sémelin, J. (2007). Purify and Destroy. Op. cit.
24. Glass, J. M. (1997). Against the indifference hypothesis: The Holocaust and the enthusiasts for murder. Political Psychology, 18(1), 129–145.
25. Sémelin, J., (2007). Op. cit., p. 269.
26. Ibid., p. 41.
27. Jean Hatzfeld, Machete Season.
28. Letter from Walter Mattner dated October 5, 1941, in Ingrao, C. (2002). Violence de guerre, violence de génocide. Les pratiques d’agression des Einsatzgruppen, pp. 219–241. In Audoin-Rouzeau, S., & Asséo, H. (2002). La Violence de guerre, 1914–1945: Approches comparées des deux conflits mondiaux. Complexe. Quoted in Sémelin, J. (2007). Op. cit., p. 250.
29. Hoess, R., Commandant at Auschwitz: Autobiography, Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 1959.
30. Browning, C. (2007). Op. cit.
31. Ibid., p. 75.
32. Sémelin, J. (2007). Op. cit., p. 246.
33. Bandura, A., Barbaranelli, C., Caprara, G. V., & Pastorelli, C. (1996). Mechanisms of moral disengagement in the exercise of moral agency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(2), 364.
34. Todorov, T., Facing the Extreme: Moral Life in the Concentration Camps, Holt, 1997.
35. Tillon, G., Ravensbrück, Seuil, 2d ed., 1997, p. 109.
36. Langbein, H., Hommes et femmes à Auschwitz, Tallandier, 2011, p. 307. Quoted in Todorov, T. (1991). Op. cit., p. 157.
37. Lifton, R. J., The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide (new ed.), Basic Books, 1988, pp. 418–422.
38. Arendt, H., Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil, Penguin, 2006, p. 125. Quoted in Todorov, T. (1991). Op. cit., p. 163.
39. Expression suggested by the American psychologist Léon Festinger, Festinger, L., A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, Stanford University Press, 1957. See also Gustave-Nico, F., La Psychologie sociale, Seuil, 1997, p. 160. Quoted in Sémelin, J. (2007). Op. cit., p. 301.
40. According to Sémelin, J. (2007). Op. cit., p. 304.
41. Sereny, G., Into That Darkness: An Examination of Conscience, Vintage Books, 1983, p. 164.
42. Ibid., p. 200.
43. Ibid., p. 412.
44. Mark F. No hard feelings. Villagers Defend Motives for Massacres, Associated Press, May 13, 1994.
45. Grmek, M. D., Mirko D., Gjidara, M., & Simac, N., Le Nettoyage ethnique, Fayard, 1993, p. 320. Quoted in Sémelin, J. (2009). Op. cit., p. 253.
46. Intercepted telephone conversation between Colonel Ljubisa Beara (former head of military security for the Republika Srpska from 1992 to 1996) and General Krstic. See Srebrenica: quand les bourreaux parlent, Le Nouvel Observateur, March 18–24, 2004. Quoted in Sémelin, J. (2007). Op. cit., p. 254.
47. Sémelin, J. (2007). Op. cit., p. 254.
48. According to Sémelin, J. (2007). Op. cit., p. 312.
49. Ibid., p. 313.
50. Des Forges, ed., Aucun témoin ne doit survivre: Le génocide au Rwanda, Karthala, 1999, p. 376. Quoted in Sémelin, J. (2007). Op. cit., p. 313.
51. Tillion, G., Ravensbruck, Seuil, 1973, p. 214. Quoted in Todorov, T. (1991). Op. cit., p. 140.
52. Zimbardo, P., The Lucifer Effect, Ebury Digital, 2011, pp. 5001–5002.
53. Ibid., pp. 5013–5015.
54. Browning, C. R., Ordinary Men, Harper Perennial, 1993, p. 170.
55. Staub, E. (1992). Op. cit.
56. Malkki, L. H., Purity and Exile: Violence, Memory, and National Cosmology Among Hutu Refugees in Tanzania, University of Chicago Press, 1995.
57. Straus, S. (2004). How many perpetrators were there in the Rwandan genocide? An estimate. Journal of Genocide Research, 6(1), 85–98. Quoted in Sémelin, J. (2005).
58. Mueller, J. (2000). The banality of “ethnic war.” International Security, 25(1), 42–70.
59. Langbein, H. (2011). Op. cit., p. 274. Quoted in Todorov, T., Facing the Extreme, p. 122.
60. Hatzfeld, J. (2005). Op. cit., p. 13.
61. See Chapter 28, “At the Source of Violence: De-Valuing the Other.”
62. Borowski, T., This Way for the Gas, Ladies and Gentlemen, Penguin, 1976, p. 168. Quoted in Todorov, T. (1991). Op. cit., p. 38.
63. Levi, P., Survival in Auschwitz, CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2013, p. 101.
64. Ibid., p. 106.
65. Shalamov, V., Kolyma, François Maspero, 1980, pp. 11, 31. In Todorov, T. (1991). Op. cit., p. 38.
66. Guinzbourg, E. S., Le Ciel de la Kolyma, Seuil, 1980, pp. 21, 179. In Todorov, T. (1991). Op. cit., p. 38–39.
67. Marchenko, A., Mon témoignage. Les camps en URSS après Staline, Seuil, 1970, pp. 108–109. In Todorov, T. (1991). Op. cit., p. 45.
68. Ibid., pp. 45–66, 164.
69. Levi, P. Survival in Auschwitz, op. cit., p. 128.
70. Laks, S., and Coudy, R., Musiques d’un autre monde, Mercure de France, 1948. Republished under the name Mélodies d’Auschwitz, Cerf, 2004. Quoted in Todorov, T. (1991). Op. cit., p. 41.
71. Todorov, T. (1991). Op. cit., p. 41.
72. Frankl, V. E., Viktor Frankl. Un psychiatre déporté témoigne, Éditions du Chalet, 1967, p. 114. Quoted in Todorov, T. (1996). Op. cit., p. 61.
73. Borowski, T. (1964). Op. cit., p. 135. Quoted in Todorov, T. (1991), Op. cit., p. 40.
74. Baumeister, R. F., Evil: Inside Human Cruelty and Violence, Barnes & Noble, 2001, p. 304.
75. Terestchenko, M., Un si fragile vernis d’humanité: Banalité du mal, banalité du bien, La Découverte, 2007.
76. Sereny, G., Into That Darkness: An Examination of Conscience, Vintage, 2011.
77. Ibid., p. 39.
78. Ibid., p. 37.
79. Ibid., p. 51.
80. Ibid., p. 136.
81. Ibid., p. 157.
82. Ibid., p. 160.
83. Terestchenko, M. (2007). Op. cit., p. 94.
84. Ibid., p. 96.
85. Chalamov, V., & Mandelstam, N., Correspondance avec Alexandre Soljenitsyne et Nadejda Mandelstam, Verdier, 1998.
86. See Chapter 11, “Unconditional Altruism.”
87. Broz, S., Good People in an Evil Time: Portraits of Complicity and Resistance in the Bosnian War, Other Press, 2005.
88. Since he willingly surrendered to the International Criminal Tribunal in The Hague, his case was the first to be tried by that court. See the report of his trial on the Internet: http://www.un.org/icty.
89. The NGO African Rights published, in 2002, a brochure presenting profiles of nineteen Rwandan “Just Ones” who selflessly saved Tutsis during the genocide: Tribute to Courage, African Rights, August 2002. Quoted in Sémelin, J. (2007). Op. cit., p. 266.
90. Alexander, E., A Crime of Vengeance: An Armenian Struggle for Justice, The Free Press, 1991.
91. Baumeister, R. F. (2001). Op. cit., p. 292.
92. Sémelin, J. (2007). Op. cit., p. 200. After Kristallnacht “not a single voice from the religious hierarchy was raised in protest against what had happened, either from the Protestant or from the Catholic side” (p. 85). This silence in 1938 “bears witness to a collapsing of religion: religion was no longer capable of calling the population to order by reminding them that murder is prohibited.” The same would be true for the Orthodox Church in Serbia and with the Catholic Church in Rwanda.
93. Sémelin, J. (2007). Op. cit., p. 204, translation modified.
94. Sémelin, J. (2007). Op. cit., pp. 149–150.
95. Harff, B., “Assessing Risks of Genocide and Politicide,” in Marshall, M. G., & Gurr, T. R., Peace and Conflict 2005, Center for International Development and Conflict Management, 2005, 57–61.
96. Harff, B. (2003). No lessons learned from the Holocaust? Assessing risks of genocide and political mass murder since 1955. American Political Science Review, 97(1), 57–73.
97. Levi, P., The Drowned and the Saved, Vintage, 1989, p. 44.
98. Mao Zedong Li, Z., The Private Life of Chairman Mao: The Memoirs of Mao’s Personal Physician, new ed., Arrow Books, 1996, p. 217.
99. A concept initially proposed by my late father, the philosopher and political writer Jean-François Revel.
1. Hobbes, T. (1651). Leviathan. Online: https://scholarsbank.uoregon.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1794/748/leviathan.pdf P. 218.
2. Churchill, W., “Shall We Commit Suicide?” In Thoughts and Adventures, ed. James W. Muller, Intercollegiate Studies, 2009.
3. Buss, D., Evolutionary Psychology: The New Science of the Mind, Allyn & Bacon, 1999.
4. Wilson, E. O., “On Human Nature.” In D. Barash, ed., Understanding Violence, Allyn and Bacon, 2001, pp. 13–20.
5. Fry, D. P., Beyond War: The Human Potential for Peace, Oxford University Press, 2007.
6. Wrangham, R., & Peterson, D., Demonic Males: Apes and the Origins of Human Violence, Houghton Mifflin, 1996.
7. Ardrey, R., African Genesis; A Personal Investigation into the Animal Origins and Nature of Man, Dell, 1967, p. 322.
8. .009 to .016 occurrence per hour, according to the studies. See Goodall, J., Chimpanzees of Gombe, Harvard University Press, 1986. In the case of gorillas, this frequency is .20 conflict event per hour. See Schaller, G. B., The Mountain Gorilla, University of Chicago Press, 1963.
9. Sussman, R. W., & Garber, P. A., Cooperation and Competition in Primate Social Interactions, 2005, p. 640.
10. Ibid., p. 645.
11. Strum, S. C., Almost Human: A Journey into the World of Baboons, University of Chicago Press, 2001, p. 158.
12. Waal, F. B. M. de, & Lanting, F., Bonobo: The Forgotten Ape, University of California Press, 1998, p. 2.
13. For a detailed summary, see Fry, D. (2007). Op. cit., pp. 34–39.
14. Dart, R. A. (1953). The predatory transition from ape to man. International Anthropological and Linguistic Review, 1(4), 201–218; Dart, R. A. (1949). The predatory implemental technique of Australopithecus. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 7(1), 1–38.
15. Studies by Sherry Washburn and Carlton Coon, reviewed in Roper, M. K. (1969). A survey of the evidence for intrahuman killing in the Pleistocene. Current Anthropology, 10(4), 427–459.
16. Brain, C. K. (1970). New Finds at the Swartkrans Australopithecine Site. Nature, 225(5238), 1112–1119.
17. Fry, D. (2007). Op. cit., p. 38.
18. Berger, L. R., & Clarke, R. J. (1995). Eagle involvement in accumulation of the Taung child fauna. Journal of Human Evolution, 29(3), 275–299; Berger, L. R., & McGraw, W. S. (2007). Further evidence for eagle predation of, and feeding damage on, the Taung child. South African Journal of Science, 103(11–12), 496–498. See also Stiner, M. C. (1991). The faunal remains from Grotta Guattari: A taphonomic perspective. Current Anthropology, 32(2), 103–117; White, T. D., Toth, N., Chase, P. G., Clark, G. A., Conrad, N. J., Cook, J.,… Giacobini, G. (1991). The question of ritual cannibalism at Grotta guattari [commentaries and responses]. Current Anthropology, 32(2), 118–138.
19. See, for example, Prosterman, R. L., Surviving to 3000: An Introduction to the Study of Lethal Conflict, Duxbury Press, 1972, p. 140.
20. Sponsel, L. E. (1996). The natural history of peace: A positive view of human nature and its potential. A Natural History of Peace, 908–12.
21. http://www.census.gov/population/international/data/worldpop/table_history.php.
22. Haas, J., “War.” In Levinson, D., & Ember, M., Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology, vol. 4, Holt, 1996, p. 1360.
23. Waal, F. B. M. de, The Age of Empathy, p. 23. Moreover, the human race almost did not survive, since we know, from mitochondrial DNA study, that our species was at one time in its existence reduced to some 2,000 individuals, from whom we are all now descendants.
24. See especially Flannery, K. V., & Marcus, J., The Creation of Inequality: How Our Prehistoric Ancestors Set the Stage for Monarchy, Slavery, and Empire, Harvard University Press, 2012; Price, T. D., & Brown, J. A. (eds.), Prehistoric Hunter Gatherers: The Emergence of Cultural Complexity, Academic Press, 1985; Kelly, R. L., The Foraging Spectrum: Diversity in Hunter-Gatherer Lifeways, Smithsonian Institution Press, 1995.
25. Knauft, B. M., Abler, T. S., Betzig, L., Boehm, C., Dentan, R. K., Kiefer, T. M.,… Rodseth, L. (1991). Violence and sociality in human evolution [comments and responses]. Current Anthropology, 32(4), 391–428. Quoted in Fry, D. (2007). Op. cit.
26. Boehm, C., Barclay, H. B., Dentan, R. K., Dupre, M.-C., Hill, J. D., Kent, S.,… Rayner, S. (1993). Egalitarian behavior and reverse dominance hierarchy [comments and responses]. Current Anthropology, 34(3), 227–254. Quoted in Sober, E., & Wilson, D. S., Unto Others: The Evolution and Psychology of Unselfish Behavior, Harvard University Press, 1999, p. 185.
27. Gardner, P., “The Paliyan.” In Lee, R., & Daly, R. (eds.), The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers, 1999, 261–264.
28. Flannery, K. V., & Marcus, J., The Creation of Inequality: How Our Prehistoric Ancestors Set the Stage for Monarchy, Slavery, and Empire, Harvard University Press, 2012.
29. Boehm, C., et al. (1993). Op. cit.; Boehm, C., Antweiler, C., Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I., Kent, S., Knauft, B. M., Mithen, S.,… Wilson, D. S. (1996). Emergency decisions, cultural-selection mechanics, and group selection [comments and responses]. Current Anthropology, 37(5), 763–793. Quoted in Sober, E., & Wilson, D. S. (1999). Op. cit., p. 180.
30. Reyna, S. P., & Downs, R. E., Studying War: Anthropological Perspectives, vol. 2, Routledge, 1994; Boehm, C., & Boehm, C., Hierarchy in the Forest: The Evolution of Egalitarian Behavior, Harvard University Press, 2009.
31. Haas, J., The Origins of War and Ethnic Violence. Ancient Warfare: Archaeological Perspectives, Gloucestershire, UK: Sutton Publishing, 1999.
32. Roper, M. (1975). Evidence of warfare in the Near East from 10,000–4,300 B.C. In Nettleship, A., and Nettleship, M. A. (eds.), War, Its Causes and Correlates, Mouton, 1975, pp. 299–344.
33. Ibid.
34. Bar-Yosef, O. (1986). The walls of Jericho: An alternative interpretation. Current Anthropology, 27(2), 157–162.
35. Maschner, H. D., The Evolution of Northwest Coast Warfare, vol. 3. In Martin, D., & Frayer, D. (eds.), Troubled Times: Violence and Warfare in the Past, 1997, Gordon and Breach, 1997, pp. 267–302.
36. Wrangham, R., & Peterson, D., Demonic Males.
37. Fry, D. P., et Söderberg, P. (2013). Lethal aggression in mobile forager bands and implications for the origins of war. Science, 341(6143), 270–273.
38. Keeley, L. H., War Before Civilization, Oxford University Press, 1997.
39. Fry, D. (2007). Op. cit., p. 16.
40. Ghiglieri, M. P., The Dark Side of Man: Tracing the Origins of Male Violence, Da Capo Press, 2000, p. 246.
41. Chagnon, N. A. (1988). Life histories, blood revenge, and warfare in a tribal population. Science, 239(4843), 985–992.
42. Chagnon, N. A., Yanomamo, the Fierce People, Holt McDougal, 1968.
43. Moore, J. H. (1990). The reproductive success of Cheyenne war chiefs: A contrary case to Chagnon’s Yanomamo. Current Anthropology, 31(3), 322–330; Beckerman, S., Erickson, P. I., Yost, J., Regalado, J., Jaramillo, L., Sparks, C., Ironmenga, M., & Long, K. (2009). Life histories, blood revenge, and reproductive success among the Waorani of Ecuador. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(20), 8134–8139.
44. Lecomte, J. (2012). La Bonté humaine. Op. cit., pp. 199–204.
45. Good, K., & Chanoff, D., Into the Heart: One Man’s Pursuit of Love and Knowledge Among the Yanomama, Simon & Schuster, 1991. Quoted in Lecomte, J. (2012).
46. Ibid., p. 13.
47. Ibid., pp. 80–83.
48. Four experienced anthropologists made the following declaration in 2001: “In his book The Fierce People, Chagnon has fabricated a sensationalist and racist image of the Yanomami, describing them as cunning, aggressive and fearsome, and falsely stating they lived in a state of chronic war.… We have, between all of us, spent over eighty years with the Yanomami. Most of us speak one or more Yanomami dialects. None of us recognizes the society described in Chagnon’s books.” Albert, B., Ramos, A., Taylor, K. I., & Watson, F., Yanomami: The Fierce People?, Survival International, 2001.
49. Lee, R. B., & Daly, R. H., “Introduction.” In The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers, Cambridge University Press, 1999.
50. Endicott, K., “Property, Power and Conflict Among the Batek of Malaysia.” In Hunters and Gatherers, vol. 2, 1988, pp. 110–127. Quoted in Fry, D. (2007). Op. cit.
51. Quoted in Fry D., The Human Potential for Peace: An Anthropological Challenge to Assumptions about War and Violence, Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 73. See also Robarchek, C. A. (1977). Frustration, aggression, and the nonviolent Semai. American Ethnologist, 4(4), 762–77; Robarchek, C. A. (1980). The image of nonviolence: World view of the Semai Senoi. Federated Museums Journal, 25, 103–117; Robarchek, C. A., & Robarchek, C. J. (1998). Reciprocities and realities: World views. Aggressive Behavior, 24, 123–133.
52. Carol Ember, notably, asserts that societies of hunter-gatherers were not at all as peaceful as we are led to believe, and that 90% of them often wage war. But included under the term “war” are any sorts of hostile behavior (just as one could metaphorically describe as “war” a long series of hostilities perpetrated between two families in certain cultures), including revenge murders by a single individual, which scarcely makes sense. What’s more, half the societies analyzed by Ember are not in fact itinerant hunter-gatherers, but more sophisticated societies, including hunters on horseback, etc. It is not immaterial to mention this example, since Carol Ember’s article has been abundantly quoted. Ember, C. R. (1978). Myths about hunter-gatherers. Ethnology, 17(4), 439–448. Quoted in Fry, D. (2007). Op. cit., pp. 195–196.
53. Ember, C. R., & Ember, M. (1992). Warfare, aggression, and resource problems: Cross-cultural codes. Cross-Cultural Research, 26(1–4), 169–226. Quoted in Fry, D. (2007). Op. cit., p. 13.
54. Tacon, P., & Chippindale, C. (1994). Australia’s ancient warriors: Changing depictions of fighting in the rock art of Arnhem Land, NT. Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 4(2), 211–48. Quoted in Fry, D. (2007). Op. cit., p. 133–135.
55. Wheeler, G. C. (1910), The Tribe, and Intertribal Relations in Australia, BiblioLife, 2009; Berndt, R. M., & Berndt, C. H., The World of the First Australians: Aboriginal Traditional Life: Past and Present, Aboriginal Studies Press, 1988.
56. Warner, W. L., A Black Civilization: A Social Study of an Australian Tribe, Gloucester Publications, 1937, 1969.
57. Fry, D. (2007). Op. cit., p. 102.
58. For a series of tables collecting the various data on this subject, see Pinker, S., The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined, Viking, 2011, pp. 49, 53.
59. Ibid.
1. Gurr, T. R. (1981). Historical trends in violent crime: A critical review of the evidence. Crime and Justice, 295–353. See also Eisner, M. (2003). Long-term historical trends in violent crime. Crime & Just., 30, 83.
2. Tremblay, R. E., Prévenir la violence dès la petite enfance, Odile Jacob, 2008, p. 31. See also Tremblay, R. E., Developmental Origins of Aggression, Guilford Press, 2005, as well as Tremblay, R. E., Aken, M. A. G. van, & Koops, W., Development and Prevention of Behaviour Problems: From Genes to Social Policy, Psychology Press, 2009.
3. WHO, United Nations Office on Drug and Crime (UNDOC), 2009.
4. Pinker, S. (2011). Op. cit., p. 89.
5. Durant, W. & A., The Story of Civilization, vol. 9: The Age of Voltaire, Simon & Schuster, 1965. Quoted in Tremblay, R. E. (2008), p. 33.
6. Harris, J. R., The Nurture Assumption: Why Children Turn Out the Way They Do, The Free Press, 1998. Quoted in Pinker, S. (2011). Op. cit., p. 437.
7. Finkelhor, D., Jones, L., & Shattuck, A. (2008). Updated trends in child maltreatment, 2010. Crimes Against Children Research Center (http://unh.edu/ccrc/Trends/index.html).
9. Numbers at the time of going to press of Matthew White, quoted in Pinker, S. (2011). Op. cit., p. 135. On the site http://necrometrics.com Matthew White presents many statistics on mortality over the course of the centuries.
10. See also the engravings gathered by Norbert Elias, on which we see, beside country life, gibbets, mercenaries burning thatched cottages, and all sorts of tortures and other acts of violence, intermingled with activities of daily life. Elias, N., The Civilizing Process: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, Blackwell, 2000.
11. Held, R., Inquisition, Qua d’Arno, 1985. Quoted in Pinker, S. (2011). Op. cit., p. 132.
12. Badinter, É., Les Passions intellectuelles, vol. 2: Désirs de gloire (1735–1751), Fayard, 1999.
13. The Diary of Samuel Pepys, October 13, 1660. http://www.pepysdiary.com/archive/1660/10/13/.
14. Roth, C., Spanish Inquisition, reprint, W. W. Norton, 1964.
15. Tuchman, B. W., A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous 14th Century, Knopf, 1978.
16. Tuchman, B. W., A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous 14th Century, new ed., Ballantine, 1991, p. 135. Quoted in Pinker, S. (2011). Op. cit., p. 67.
17. Beccaria, C., On Crimes and Punishments, Hackett, 1986.
18. Rummel, R. J., Death by Government, Transaction Publishers, 1994. Added to that are the victims of slavery in the East, which have not been estimated.
19. http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/.
20. The United Nations adopted a moratorium on the death penalty in 2007, by a vote of 105 to 54 (including the United States).
21. Payne, J. L., A History of Force: Exploring the Worldwide Movement Against Habits of Coercion, Bloodshed, and Mayhem, Lytton, 2003, p. 182.
22. Brecke, P. (2001). “The Long-Term Patterns of Violent Conflict in Different Regions of the World.” Prepared for the conference in Uppsala, June 8 and 9, 2005; Uppsala, Sweden; Brecke, P. (1999). Violent conflicts 1400 AD to the present in different regions of the world. “1999, Meeting of the Peace Science Society,” unpublished manuscript.
23. Brecke, P. (1999 and 2001). Op. cit. See his Conflict Catalogue.
24. Pinker, S. (2011). Op. cit. See especially Chapters 5 and 6.
25. White, M. (2010). Selected death tolls for wars, massacres, and atrocities before the twentieth century (http://necrometrics.com/pre1700a.htm). Quoted in Pinker. S. (2011). Op. cit., p. 194.
26. See the chart in the journal New Scientist New Scientist (http://www.newscientist.com/embedded/20worst) based on White, M. (2012) for the numbers concerning mortality, and on McEvedy, C., Jones, R., et al. (1978) for numbers concerning the world population at various times in history. To give an example, the Mongolian invaders massacred the 1.3 million inhabitants of the city of Merv and the 800,000 inhabitants of Baghdad, exploring the ruins to make sure they hadn’t left any survivors. See Pinker, S. (2011), p. 196.
27. White, M., The Great Big Book of Horrible Things: The Definitive Chronicle of History’s 100 Worst Atrocities, W. W. Norton, 2012, as well as the site http://www.atrocitology.com, which contains hundreds of references. According to investigating science journalist Charles Mann, the death toll, 95% of which seems to be due to smallpox and other imported diseases, could have been as high as 100 million, since he contends that the indigenous population was much greater than generally thought. Mann, C. C., 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus, Vintage, 2006.
28. Gleditsch, N. P. (2008). The liberal moment fifteen years on. International Studies Quarterly, 52(4), 691–712, and diagram in Pinker, S. (2011). Op. cit., p. 366.
29. Human Security Report Project, H. S. R. (2011). See also the Peace Research Institute of Oslo or PRIO, which has also compiled a considerable database on conflicts http://www.prio.no/CSCW/Datasets/Armed-Conflict/Battle-Deaths/. See also Lacina, B., & Gleditsch, N. P. (2005). Monitoring trends in global combat: A new dataset of battle deaths. European Journal of Population/Revue européenne de démographie, 21(2), 145–166; Lacina, B., Gleditsch, N. P., & Russett, B. (2006). The declining risk of death in battle. International Studies Quarterly, 50(3), 673–680.
30. Mueller, J., The Remnants of War, Cornell University Press, 2007.
31. Global Terrorism Database at the University of Maryland, see http://www.start.umd.edu/gtd/.
32. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_school_shootings_in_the_United_States#2010s.
33. See http://www.niemanwatchdog.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=ask_this.view&askthisid=00512.
34. Gigerenzer, G. (2006). Out of the frying pan into the fire: Behavioral reactions to terrorist attacks. Risk Analysis, 26(2), 347–351. This evaluation is based on the sudden increase of road traffic and the number of deaths on roads in the months that followed the 9/11 attack.
35. Johnson, E. J., Hershey, J., Meszaros, J., & Kunreuther, H. (1993). Framing, probability distortions, and insurance decisions. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 7(1), 35–51.
36. According to the report by the National Counterterrorism Center, available on the site http://www.nctc.gov/.
37. Esposito, J. L., & Mogahed, D., Who Speaks for Islam? What a Billion Muslims Really Think, Gallup Press, 2008.
38. Elias, N., The Civilizing Process: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, Blackwell, 1993.
39. Pinker, S. (2011). Op. cit., p. 64.
40. Putnam, R. D., Leonardi, R., & Nanetti, R., Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy, Princeton Universtiy Press, 1994. Quoted in Tremblay, R. E. (2008). Op. cit., p. 27. See also Gatti, U., Tremblay, R. E., & Schadee, H. (2007). Civic community and violent behavior in Italy. Aggressive Behavior, 33(1), 56–62.
41. Pinker, S. (2011). Op. cit., p. 52.
42. Wright, Q. (1942/1983) and the French Wikipedia article “Nombre de pays en Europe depuis 1789.”
43. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_of_guns_per_capita_by_country.
44. CNN, Piers Morgan Tonight, December 18, 2012.
45. Thomas, E. M., The Harmless People, 2d rev. ed., Vintage. See also Gat, A., War in Human Civilization, annotated ed., Oxford University Press, 2006. Quoted in Pinker, S. (2011). Op. cit., p. 55.
46. See Pinker, S. (2011). Op. cit., pp. 278–87.
47. Pinker, S. (2011). Op. cit., p. 287.
48. Russett, B., Eichengreen, B., Kurlantzick, J., Peterson, E. R., Posner, R. A., Severino, J. M., Ray, O., et al. (2010). Peace in the twenty-first century? Current History.
49. Pinker, S. (2011). Op. cit., p. 76.
50. Stiglitz, J. E., The Price of Inequality: How Today’s Divided Society Endangers Our Future, W. W. Norton, 2012, p. 139.
51. Fortna, V. P., Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents’ Choices After Civil War, Princeton University Press, 2008. Quoted in Pinker, S. (2011). Op. cit., pp. 314–315.
52. Human Security Report Project (2009).
53. Bertens, Jan-Willem. The European movement: Dreams and realities, article presented at the conference “The EC After 1992: The United States of Europe?,” Maastricht, January 2, 1994.
54. Mueller, J., Retreat from Doomsday; The Obsolescence of Major War, Basic Books, 1989. Quoted in Pinker, S. (2011). Op. cit., p. 242.
55. Memoirs of Ephraïm Grenadou, collected by Alain Prévost, broadcast by France Culture in 1967 and in 2011–2012. See also Grenadou, E., Vie d’un paysan français, Seuil, 1966.
56. Mueller, J. (1989). Retreat from Doomsday. Op. cit.
57. Analysis of books present on Google Books. See Michel, J. B., Shen, Y. K., Aiden, A. P., Veres, A., Gray, M. K., Pickett, J. P.,… et al. (2011). Quantitative analysis of culture using millions of digitized books. Science, 331(6014), 176.
58. Heise, L., & Garcia-Moreno, C. (2002). Violence by intimate partners. World Report on Violence and Health, 87–121.
59. Pinker, S. (2011). Op. cit., p. 413.
60. Straus, M. A., & Gelles, R. J. (1986). Societal change and change in family violence from 1975 to 1985 as revealed by two national surveys. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 465–479. For the 1999 surveys, PR Newswire, http://:www.nospank.net/n-e62/htm. Quoted in Pinker, S. (2011). Op. cit., p. 439.
61. Singer, P., Animal Liberation, Ecco Press, 2001.
62. V-Frog 2.0, made by Tractus Technology. For a scientific report on the introduction of this technique, see Lalley, J. P., Piotrowski, P. S., Battaglia, B., Brophy, K., & Chugh, K. (2008). A comparison of V-Frog and copyright to physical frog dissection. Honorary Editor, 3(3), 189. See also Virtual dissection. Science, February 22, 2008, 1019.
63. Caplow, T., Hicks, L., & Wattenberg, B. J., The First Measured Century: An Illustrated Guide to Trends in America, 1900–2000, American Enterprise Institute Press, 2001. Quoted in Pinker, S. (2011). Op. cit., p. 392.
64. Cooney, M. (1997). The decline of elite homicide. Criminology, 35(3), 381–407.
65. Pinker, S. (2011). Op. cit., p. 85.
66. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1477–1799_ESTC_titles_per_decade,_statistics.png.
67. Stowe, H. B., Uncle Tom’s Cabin, Dover, 2005.
68. Swanee Hunt, in conversation during the meeting for peace organized by the Dalai Lama’s Center for Peace and Education in Vancouver in 2009 (Vancouver Peace Summit).
69. Goldstein, J. S., War and Gender: How Gender Shapes the War System and Vice Versa, Cambridge University Press, 2003, pp. 329–330 and 396–399. Quoted in Pinker, S. (2011). Op. cit., p. 527.
70. Pinker, S. (2011). Op. cit., p. 528.
71. Dwight Garner, After the bomb’s shock, the real horror began unfolding. New York Times, January 20, 2010.
72. See Pinker, S. (2011). Op. cit., p. 686.
73. Potts, M., & Hayden, T., Sex and War: How Biology Explains Warfare and Terrorism and Offers a Path to a Safer World, BenBella Books, 2010.
74. Hudson, V. M., & Boer, A. D. (2002). A surplus of men, a deficit of peace: Security and sex ratios in Asia’s largest states. International Security, 26(4), 5–38.
75. See the site http://girlsnotbrides.org/.
76. Only a few high government officials, like the former president Pieter Botha, showed no remorse and provided no explanations. The final report also criticized the behavior of certain leaders of the liberation movement, the ANC (African National Congress).
77. For the Iraq war, see the estimation by Stiglitz, Joseph E., & Bilmes, Linda J., Washington Post, March 8, 2008. For the cost of the war in Afghanistan, see www.costofwar.org, as well as the Congressional Research Service, Brookings Institution, and the Pentagon, according to a file presented by Newsweek on October 10, 2011, compiled by Rob Verger and Meredith Bennett-Smith.
78. The Global Peace Index (GPI) attempts to evaluate the relative position of 162 countries’ state of peacefulness. It has been elaborated by the Institute for Economics and Peace (IEP), in collaboration with international peace experts, using data collected by the Economist Intelligence Unit. The study is the brainchild of Australian technology entrepreneur Steve Killelea, founder of Integrated Research, and has been endorsed by Kofi Annan, the Dalai Lama, Desmond Tutu, Muhammad Yunus, economist Jeffrey Sachs, former president of Ireland, Mary Robinson, and former US president, Jimmy Carter. The report can be downloaded from www.economicsandpeace.org.
79. What’s more, these resources usually fall into the hands of corrupt despots or unscrupulous foreign powers. The fictional movie Blood Diamond, based on a real-life situation, shows the tragic complexity of the situation of poor countries rich in precious mineral resources.
80. Human Security Report (2005).
81. Deary, I. J., Batty, G. D., & Gale, C. R. (2008). Bright children become enlightened adults. Psychological Science, 19(1), 1–6.
82. Pinker, S. (2011). Op. cit., p. 668 ff.
1. Jussiau, R., Montméas, L., & Parot, J.-C., L’Élevage en France: 10 000 ans d’histoire, Educagri Editions, 1993. Quoted in Nicolino, F., Bidoche. L’industrie de la viande menace le monde, Les liens qui libèrent, 2009.
2. Television broadcast “Eurêka” on December 2, 1970, titled “Sauver le boeuf…” [Saving steer], with commentaries by Guy Seligman and Paul Ceuzin. See the INA archives, http://www.ina.fr/video/CPF06020231/sauver-le-boeuf.fr.html. Quoted in Nicolino, F. (2009). Op. cit.
3. National Hog Farmer, March 1978, p. 27. Quoted in Singer, P. (1993). Op. cit., p. 199.
4. Poultry Tribune, November 1986, quoted in Singer, P., Animal Liberation: The Definitive Classic of the Animal Movement, Harper Perennial, 2009, p. 107.
5. The lifespan for a calf, a cow, and a pig is twenty years. Calves are killed at the age of three, dairy cows are “discharged” (slaughtered) around the age of six, and pigs at six months of age. The life expectancy for a chicken is seven years in normal conditions, but it is killed at six weeks. This concerns 1 billion animals in France.
6. That is especially the case for animals in the fur trade in Chinese breeding industries, for instance, and it also occurs in slaughterhouses when animals have survived what was supposed to kill them, and are then skinned alive.
7. As defined respectively by the Treaty of Rome (1957) and, until it was changed to “sentient beings” in April 2014, by the French Civil Code.
8. Barrett, J. R., Work and Community in the Jungle: Chicago’s Packing-House Workers, 1894–1922, University of Illinois Press, 1990, p. 57. Quoted in Patterson, C. (2008). Eternal Treblinka.
9. Sinclair, U., The Jungle, Signet, 1964, pp. 35–45. Upton Sinclair, a young journalist, was twenty-six when, in 1904, his employer sent him to investigate the work conditions in the slaughterhouses of Chicago. With the complicity of some of the workers, he entered the slaughterhouses and factories secretly, and discovered that as long as he held a bucket, and never stood still, he could walk through the factories without drawing any attention. He went everywhere. He saw everything. The Jungle gave its author instantaneous fame, and a committee of eminent intellectuals, led by Albert Einstein, proposed him for the Nobel Prize in Literature. The Jungle set off a scandal. Bestseller of the year, the book was translated into seventeen languages. Besieged by journalists, pursued by threats, or promises, of large corporations, carried by the wave of popular unrest, Upton Sinclair was received at the White House by the president of the United States, Theodore Roosevelt. An investigation was ordered, and the exactitude of Sinclair’s criticisms recognized. (This information is according to the preface by Jacques Cabau to the French edition of The Jungle.)
10. Sinclair, Upton (1994–06–01), The Jungle, Public Domain Books, Kindle Edition, pp. 20–21.
11. Ibid., pp. 21–22.
12. David Cantor, Responsible Policies for Animals http://www.rpaforall.org. Quoted in Charles Patterson, Eternal Treblinka (Kindle locations 777–778). Kindle Edition.
13. Foer, J. S., Eating Animals, Back Bay Books, 2010.
14. Ibid., pp. 50–51.
15. Eisnitz, G. A., Slaughterhouse: The Shocking Story of Greed. Neglect, and Inhumane Treatment Inside the US Meat Industry, Prometheus, 1997, p. 82.
16. Quoted in Charles Patterson, Eternal Treblinka (Kindle locations 1363–1366). Kindle Edition.
17. According to Singer, P. (1993). Op. cit., p. 163.
18. Foer, J. S. (2012). Op. cit., p. 240.
19. Fontenay, É. de., Sans offenser le genre humain: Réflexions sur la cause animale, Albin Michel, 2008, p. 206.
20. Coe, S., Dead Meat, Four Walls Eight Windows, 1996, pp. 111–113.
21. Eisnitz, G. A. (1997). Slaughterhouse. Op. cit., p. 182.
22. Coe, S. Dead Meat, op. cit., p. 120.
23. Ibid.
24. Carpenter. G., et al. (1986). Effect of internal air filtration on the performance of broilers and the aerial concentrations of dust and bacteria. British Poultry Journal, 27, 471–480. Quoted in Singer, P. (1993). Op. cit., p. 172.
25. Bedichek, R., Adventures with a Texas Naturalist, University of Texas Press, 1961. Quoted in Harrison, R., Animal Machines: The New Factory Farming Industry, CABI Publishing, 2013. Original edition (1964), p. 154.
26. Breward, J. & Gentle, M. (1985). Neuroma formation and abnormal afferent nerve discharges after partial beak amputation (beak trimming) in poultry. Experienta, 41(9), 1132–1134.
27. National Geographic Magazine, February 1970. Quoted in Singer, P. (1993). Op. cit., p. 177.
28. Foer, J. S. (2012). Op. cit., p. 176.
29. Ibid., p. 65.
30. Mississippi State University Extension Services in collaboration with the USDA. Publication No. 384. Dehorming, castrating, branding, vaccinating cattle; see also Beef cattle: dehoming, castrating, branding and marking, USDA, Farmers’ Bulletin, 2141, September 1972. In Singer, P. (1993). Op. cit., p. 225.
31. Foer, J. S. (2012). Op. cit., p. 187.
32. Stall Street Journal, November 1973.
33. Ibid., April 1973.
34. Foer, J. S. (2010). Op. cit., pp. 231–233.
35. Ibid., p. 231.
36. Ibid., p. 233.
37. See A Shocking Look Inside Chinese Fur Farms, a documentary filmed by Mark Rissi for Swiss Animals Protection/EAST International, which can be viewed on PETA’s website: http://www.peta.org/issues/animals-usedfor-clothing/chinese-fur-industry.aspx.
38. According to the numbers published by Agreste (an organization of the French Ministry of Agriculture), we can reasonably estimate that by including fish and marine animals, at least 3 billion animals are killed directly and indirectly every year in France for human consumption. Added to this are about 30 million animals killed for hunting (not counting the wounded ones that die in the woods) and some 3 million used by research (invertebrate animals are not inventoried).
39. Mood, A., & Brooke, P. (July 2010). Estimating the Number of Fish Caught in Global Fishing Each Year (amood@fishcount.org.uk). These authors used statistics published by the FAO concerning the tonnage of yearly catches for each species and calculated the number of fish by estimating the average weight of the fish of the species studied.
40. Foer, J. S. (2010). Op. cit., p. 193.
41. Chauvet, D. (2008). La volonté des animaux? Cahiers antispécistes, 30–31, December 2008.
42. Vergely, B., La Souffrance: Recherche du sens perdu, Gallimard, Folio, 1997, p. 75.
43. Earthlings, directed by Shaun Monson, available on the internet: www.earthlings.com.
44. Wells, H. G., A Modern Utopia, Penguin, 2008.
1. I.e., linked to construction (natural resources and energy expenditure used for construction) and to the use (electrical, heating, etc.) of public, industrial, and private buildings.
2. M. E. Ensminger, Animal Science, Interstate, 1991.
3. Rifkin, J., La Troisième Révolution industrielle, Les liens qui libèrent, 2012.
4. Doyle, J., Altered Harvest: Agriculture, Genetics and the Fate of the World’s Food Supply, 2d ed., Viking, 1985.
5. The Worldwatch Institute is a grass-roots research organization based in the United States. One of their current projects is a comparative analysis of agricultural innovations that are ecologically long-lasting to reduce poverty and hunger.
6. According to Worldwatch.
7. Foer, J. S. (2010). Op. cit., p. 211 and note, p. 322. Calculation by Bruce Friedrich based on US government and academic sources.
8. Moore-Lappé, F., Diet for a Small Planet, Ballantine, 1971, pp. 4–11.
9. McMichael, A. J., Powles, J. W., Butler, C. D., & Uauy, R. (2007). Food, livestock production, energy, climate change, and health. Lancet, 370(9594), 1253–1263.
10. FAO (2006). L’Ombre portée de l’élevage. Impacts environnementaux et options pour atténuation, Rome; FAO (2009). Comment nourrir le monde en 2050 [Livestock’s long shadow: environmental issues and options].
11. FAO (2006). Op. cit., and (2003), “World Agriculture Towards 2015/2030.”
12. Lambin, E., An Ecology of Happiness, University of Chicago Press, 2012, p. 70 of the French edition.
13. Moore-Lappé, F. (1976). Op. cit., pp. 11–12 and 21.
14. FAO (2006). Op. cit.
15. Boyan, S. (February 7, 2005). How our food choices can help save the environment; www.earthsave.org/environment/foodchoices.htm.
16. Pimentel, D., Williamson, S., Alexander, C. E., Gonzalez-Pagan, O., Kontak, C., & Mulkey, S. E. (2008). Reducing energy inputs in the US food system. Human Ecology, 36(4), 459–471.
17. “Compassion in world farming.” Quoted by Marjolaine Jolicoeur, AHIMSA, 2004.
18. Kaimowitz, D., Livestock and Deforestation in Central America in the 1980s and 1990s: A Policy Perspective, Cifor, 1996; Kaimowitz, D., Mertens, B., Wunder, S., & Pacheco, P. (2004). Hamburger connection fuels Amazon destruction. Center for International Forest Research, Bogor, Indonesia.
19. Amazon Cattle Footprint, Greenpeace, 2009.
20. Dompka, M. V., Krchnak, K. M., & Thorne, N. (2002). Summary of experts’ meeting on human population and freshwater resources. In Karen Krchnak (ed.), Human Population and Freshwater Resources: U.S. Cases and International Perspective, Yale University, 2002.
21. According to the World Bank and the McKinsey Global Institute (2011). Natural Resources. http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/mgi/research/natural_resources.
22. International Food Policy Research Institute and the United Nations Environment Program.
23. Borgstrom, G., Harvesting the Earth, Abelard-Schuman, 1973, pp. 64–65.
24. The browning of America, Newsweek, February 22, 1981, p. 26. Quoted in Robbins, J., Se nourrir sans faire souffrir, Alain Stanke, 1991, p. 420.
25. Rosegrant, M. W., & Meijer, S. (2002). Appropriate food policies and investments could reduce child malnutrition by 43% in 2020. Journal of Nutrition, 132(11), 3437S–3440S.
26. Jancovici, J.-M., L’Avenir climatique: Quel temps ferons-nous? Seuil, 2005.
27. This number is from the most recent evaluation produced by the FAO in Tackling Climate Change through Livestock, FAO, October 2013. This report is the most complete produced to date on greenhouse gas emissions linked to the livestock industry. Bovines contribute to two-thirds of these emissions. The number 14.5% is calculated based on an analysis that includes the complete life cycle of the process, that is, it includes the CO2 emissions associated with deforestation linked to livestock, the production and conditioning of food for livestock, etc. The same method, however, has not been applied to transportation. Another study, which was carried out by researchers at the University of Cambridge, the National University of Australia, and others, asserts that the number would be closer to 17% (McMichael, A.J., et al., 2007. Op cit.). Those who refute this number propose the 4% stated by the IPCC; but that concerns direct emissions and not the complete life cycle. It is important to consider the entirety of the life cycle, because indirect emissions coming from livestock constitute a significant proportion of emissions.
28. http://www.conservation-nature.fr/article2.php?id=105.
29. Desjardins, R., Worth, D., Vergé, X., Maxime, D., Dyer, J., & Cerkowniak, D. (2012). Carbon footprint of beef cattle. Sustainability, 4(12), 3279–3301.
30. FAO (2006). Op. cit., p. 125.
31. According to the Worldwatch Institute.
32. US Environmental Protection Agency and General Accounting Office (GAO). Quoted in Foer, J. S. (2010).
33. Steinfeld, H., De Haan, C., & Blackburn, H. (1997). Livestock-environment interactions. Issues and options. Report of the Commission Directorate General for Development. Fressingfield, UK, WREN Media.
34. Narrod, C. A., Reynnells, R. D., & Wells, H. (1993). “Potential options for poultry waste utilization: A focus on the Delmarva Peninsula.” United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
35. See the data and report provided by the Bloom Association: http://www.bloomassociation.org/en.
36. Pauly, D., Belhabib, D., Blomeyer, R., Cheung, W. W. W. L., Cisneros-Montemayor, A. M., Copeland, D., & Zeller, D. (2013). China’s distant-water fisheries in the 21st century. Fish and Fisheries.
37. Foer, J. S. (2010). Op. cit., pp. 48–49. Environmental Justice Foundation Charitable Trust, Squandering the Seas: How Shrimp Trawling Is Threatening Ecological Integrity and Food Security Around the World, Environmental Justice Foundation, 2003, p. 12.
38. Sinha, R., Cross, A. J., Graubard, B. I., Leitzmann, M. F., & Schatzkin, A. (2009). Meat intake and mortality: A prospective study of over half a million people. Archives of Internal Medicine, 169(6), 562. Quoted in Nicolino, F., Bidoche. L’industrie de la viande menace le monde, Les liens qui libèrent, 2009, p. 318.
39. Lambin, E. (2009). Op. cit., p. 78.
40. Pan, A., Sun, Q., Bernstein, A. M., Schulze, M. B., Manson, J. E., Stampfer, M. J.,… Hu, F. B. (2012). Red meat consumption and mortality: Results from 2 prospective cohort studies. Archives of Internal Medicine, 172(7), 555. These analyses took into account risk factors for chronic diseases such as age, body mass index, physical activity, family history of heart disease, and major cancers.
41. Haque, R., Kearney, P. C., & Freed, V. H., “Dynamics of Pesticides in Aquatic Environments.” In Pesticides in aquatic environments, Springer, 1977, pp. 39–52; Ellgehausen, H., Guth, J. A., & Esser, H. O. (1980). Factors determining the bioaccumulation potential of pesticides in the individual compartments of aquatic food chains. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 4(2), 134–157.
42. Lambin, E. (2009). Op. cit., p. 80.
43. Interview in the Telegraph, September 7, 2008.
44. See also Hedenus, F., Wirsenius, S., & Johansson, D. J. A. (forthcoming, 2014). The importance of reduced meat and dairy consumption for meeting stringent climate change targets. Climatic Change, 1–13; doi:10.1007/s10584-014-1104-5.
1. Stiglitz, J., The Price of Inequality, Kindle location, 205.
2. Oreskes, N., & Conway, E. M. M., Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming, Bloomsbury Press, 2011. See also Hoggan, J., Climate Cover-up: The Crusade to Deny Global Warming, Greystone Books, 2009. As well as Pooley, E., The Climate War: True Believers, Power Brokers, and the Fight to Save the Earth, Hyperion, 2010.
3. Fred Seitz notably directed a program for the R. J. Reynold Tobacco Company that, from 1979 to 1985, distributed 45 million dollars (equivalent to $98 million today) to compliant researchers to carry out studies that could be used in the courts to defend the harmlessness of tobacco. Oreskes, N., & Conway, E. M. M. (2011). Op. cit., p. 6.
4. Lahsen, M. (2008). Experiences of modernity in the greenhouse: A cultural analysis of a physicist “trio” supporting the backlash against global warming. Global Environmental Change, 18(1), 204–219. Quoted in Oreskes, N., & Conway, E. M. M. (2011). Op. cit., p. 6.
5. Singer, S. F. (1989). My adventures in the ozone layer. National Review, 30. Quoted in Oreskes, N., & Conway, E. M. M. (2011). Op. cit., p. 249.
6. Wynder, E. L., Graham, E. A., & Croninger, A. B. (1953). Experimental production of carcinoma with cigarette tar. Cancer Research, 13(12), 855–864. Quoted in Oreskes, N., & Conway, E. M. M. (2011). Op. cit., p. 15.
7. American Tobacco, Benson and Hedges, Philip Morris, and U.S. Tobacco.
8. United States of America vs. Philips Morris, R. J. Reynolds, et. al. (1999), p. 3. Quoted in Oreskes, N., & Conway, E. M. M. (2011). Op. cit., p. 15 and note 24, p. 282.
9. In 1957, for example, one of these pamphlets, entitled “Smoking and Health,” was distributed to 350,000 doctors. Tobacco Industry Research Committee: BN2012002363. Legacy Tobacco Document Library. Another pamphlet, published in 1993 for internal circulation in the tobacco industry and entitled Bad Science: A Resource Book, contained a mine of information on the most effective ways to fight and discredit scientific researches demonstrating the harmful effects of tobacco, as well as an address book of researchers and journalists sympathetic to the cause and who could be recruited. Bad Science: A Resource Book. Quoted in Oreskes, N., & Conway, E. M. M. (2011). Op. cit., pp. 6 and 20.
10. Oreskes, N., & Conway, E. M. M. (2011). Op. cit., p. 34.
11. Michaels, D., Doubt Is Their Product: How Industry’s Assault on Science Threatens Your Health, Oxford University Press, 2008.
12. Schuman, L. M. (1981). The origins of the Report of the Advisory Committee on Smoking and Health to the Surgeon General. Journal of Public Health Policy, 2(1), 19–27. Quoted in Oreskes, N., & Conway, E. M. M. (2011). Op. cit., pp. 21–22.
13. Tobacco smoke contains 4,000 different chemical substances, 60 of which are carcinogenic. The smoke that escapes laterally from the cigarette contains seven times more benzene, seventy times more nitrosamines, and a hundred times more ammonia than smoke inhaled or exhaled by the smoker.
14. According to the data and references gathered by Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_smoking.
15. Hirayama, T. (1981). Passive smoking and lung cancer. British Medical Journal (Clinical research ed.), 282(6273), 1393–1394. Before that, the first major study goes back to 1980. Involving over 2,100 people and published in England, it demonstrated that non-smokers working in offices where their colleagues smoked manifested the same alterations in their lungs as light smokers. This study was abundantly criticized by scientists, all of whom had ties with the tobacco industry. For a recent study, see Öberg, M., Jaakkola, M. S., Woodward, A., Peruga, A., & Prüss-Ustün, A. (2011). Worldwide burden of disease from exposure to second-hand smoke: A retrospective analysis of data from 192 countries. Lancet, 377(9760), 139–146.
16. Glanz, S. A., The Cigarette Papers Online Wall of History, UCSF, 2004.
17. Non-Smokers’ Rights Association. The Fraser Institute: Economic Thinktank or Front for the Tobacco Industry? April 1999. Quoted in Oreskes, N., & Conway, E. M. M. (2011). Op. cit., p. 140.
18. Quoted in Oreskes, N., & Conway, E. M. M. (2011). Op. cit., p. 242; note 6, p. 335.
19. That is how the journals Tobacco and Health and Science Fortnightly, to cite only those two, in the case of tobacco, were created. The same methods were used for climate studies. Other articles were formatted exactly like those in the PNAS (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences) and distributed to all the media, even though they were neither published nor submitted to a scientific journal. Oreskes, N., & Conway, E. M. M. (2011). Op. cit., p. 244.
20. Associated Press, November 27, 2012.
21. WHO. Fact sheet no. 339, May 2012: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs339/en/.
22. Not counting the cases of bronchitis and pneumonia among young children, along with an increase of asthma among millions of children. Britton, J., & Godfrey, F. (2006). Lifting the smokescreen. European Respiratory Journal, 27(5), 871–873. The report presented to the European Parliament is available on the site www.ersnet.org.
23. Glantz, S. A., & Parmley, W. W. (2001). Even a little secondhand smoke is dangerous. JAMA, 286(4), 462–463.
24. L’Asie fume à pleins poumouns. GEO, October 2011, 292, p. 102.
25. WHO. Fact sheet No. 339, May 2012.
26. Ibid.
27. Oreskes, N., & Conway, E. M. M. (2011). Op. cit., p. 241.
28. West, R. (2006). Tobacco control: Present and future. British Medical Bulletin, 77–78(1), 123–136.
29. Oreskes, N., & Conway, E. M. M. (2011). Op. cit., p. 171 and note 9, p. 320.
30. A group that nicknamed itself the “Jasons” and was mainly composed of physicists, then a commission directed by Jule Charney, an MIT professor.
31. Ibid., p. 174, note 20 and p. 321.
32. The pdf report with numbers and detailed attributions can be downloaded at the Greenpeace site: http://www.greenpeace.org/usa/en/campaigns/global-warming-and-energy/polluterwatch/koch-industries/.
33. Mooney, C., The Republican War on Science, Basic Books, 2006. In the investigative journal Mother Jones, May–June 2005. http://www.motherjones.com/environment/2005/05/some-it-hot.
34. Wijkman, A., & Rockström, J., Bankrupting Nature: Denying Our Planetary Boundaries, Routledge, 2013, p. 96.
35. Santer, B. D., Taylor, K. E., Wigley, T. M. L., Johns, T. C., Jones, P. D., Karoly, D. J.,… Ramaswamy, V. (1996). A search for human influences on the thermal structure of the atmosphere. Nature, 382(6586), 39–46.
36. Seitz, F. A major deception on global warming. Wall Street Journal, June 26, 1996. Quoted in Oreskes, N., & Conway, E. M. M. (2011). Op. cit., p. 3.
37. Statement made on March 14, 2002. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/26315908/.
38. Statement made on January 4, 2005. http://inhofe.senate.gov/pressreleases/climateupdate.htm.
39. Statement made on July 28, 2003. http://inhofe.senate.gov/pressreleases/climate.htm.
40. Michele Bachmann assured us that CO2 emissions are harmless. Herman Cain, one of the last candidates, spoke of the “myth” of global warming, and Rick Perry, governor of Texas, also denounced a “hoax” perpetrated by scientists in need of subventions. Those were the same candidates who also want to ban teaching the theory of evolution in schools and teach “creationism” instead. Mitt Romney finally echoed their voices under the pressure of extreme-right-wing Republicans.
41. Survey carried out by ABC News.
42. Goldacre, B., Bad Pharma: How Drug Companies Mislead Doctors and Harm Patients, Fourth Estate, 2012.
43. Gøtzsche, P. C., Hróbjartsson, A., Johansen, H. K., Haahr, M. T., Altman, D. G., & Chan, A. W. (2006). Constraints on publication rights in industry-initiated clinical trials. JAMA, 295(14), 1645–1646. Quoted in Goldacre, B. (2012). Op. cit., p. 38. A survey also shows that 90% of subjects and patients who volunteer for these medical tests think their participation is an important contribution to society, whereas pharmaceutical companies refuse to make their research data public: Wendler, D., Krohmal, B., Emanuel, E. J., & Grady, C. (2008). Why patients continue to participate in clinical research. Archives of Internal Medicine, 168(12), 1294. Quoted in Goldacre, B. (2012). Op. cit., p. 43.
44. Doshi, P. (2009). Neuraminidase inhibitors—the story behind the Cochrane review. BMJ, 339. Quoted in Goldacre, B. (2012). Op. cit., p. 365.
45. Godlee, F. (2012). Open letter to Roche about oseltamivir trial data. BMJ, 345.
46. Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency (MHRA). www.mhra.gov.uk. GSK investigation concludes. http://www.mhra.gov.uk/Howweregulate/Medicines/Medicinesregulatorynews/index.htm. Between 1994 and 2002, GSK led nine series of tests on the effects of paroxetine on children that showed that the medication was effective to treat depression among children, but that also revealed harmful side effects. GSK cleverly and knowingly used a legal loophole. The makers are not required to declare undesirable, even serious, effects, of a medication except for specific uses (“usage for adults,” for example) for which it received an authorization to market the product. GSK knew the medication was prescribed for children, and it also knew that there were safety problems for these children, but it chose not to reveal this information. Goldacre, B. (2012). Op. cit., p. 58.
47. Juni, P., Nartey, L., Reichenbach, S., Sterchi, R., Dieppe, P., & Egger, M. (2004). Risk of cardiovascular events and rofecoxib: Cumulative meta-analysis. Lancet, 364(9450), 2021–2029. See also Rédaction (2005). Comment éviter les prochaines affaires Vioxx. Prescrire (2005), 25(259), 222–225.
48. Psaty, B. M., & Kronmal, R. A. (2008). Reporting mortality findings in trials of rofecoxib for Alzheimer disease or cognitive impairment. JAMA, 299(15), 1813–1817; Le célécoxib encore sur le marché: au profit de qui? Rescrire (2005), 25(263), 512–513.
49. Prescrire (2009), 29(303), 57.
50. In 2004, for example, the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) announced that starting from 2005, none of them would publish clinical trials, unless they were correctly registered before their execution (so that one could follow the results of these tests). The problem seemed solved, but everything continued the same as before. The editors didn’t put their threats into action, probably due to the financial revenue, amounting to millions of dollars, that these same editors obtain when they publish tens of thousands of offprints from pharmaceutical industry publications. De Angelis, C., Drazen, J. M., Frizelle, P. F. A., Haug, C., Hoey, J., Horton, R.,… Overbeke, A. J. P. M. (2004). Clinical trial registration: A statement from the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors. New England Journal of Medicine, 351(12), 1250–1251. Goldacre, B. (2012). Op. cit., p. 51.
51. Goldacre, B. (2012). Op. cit., p. 71.
52. Ibid., p. 72.
53. Ibid., p. 51–52.
54. Gagnon, M. A., & Lexchin, J. (2008). The cost of pushing pills: a new estimate of pharmaceutical promotion expenditures in the United States. PLoS Medicine, 5(1), e1. For national GDP values, see http://www.indexmundi.com/.
55. Heimans, L., Van Hylckama Vlieg, A., & Dekker, F. W. (2010). Are claims of advertisements in medical journals supported by RCTs? Neth. J. Med, 68, 46–9.
56. Fugh-Berman, A., Alladin, K., & Chow, J. (2006). Advertising in medical journals: Should current practices change? PLoS Medicine, 3(6), e130. Goldacre, B. (2012). Op. cit., p. 305. A recent study in the United States revealed that 60% of hospital department managers received money from the industry to work in its favor as consultants, lecturers, members of advisory councils, etc. Campbell, E. G., Weissman, J. S., Ehringhaus, S., Rao, S. R., Moy, B., Feibelmann, S., & Goold, S. D. (2007). Institutional academic-industry relationships. JAMA, 298(15), 1779–1786. Altogether, 17,700 doctors received money, for a total of 750 million dollars, from AstraZeneca, Pfizer, GSK, Merck, and many others. 384 doctors received over $100,000 each. See Goldacre, B. (2012). Op. cit., p. 331. This information is available on the ProPublica site, http://www.propublica.org/series/dollars-for-docs.
57. Fugh-Berman, A., & Ahari, S. (2007). Following the script: How drug reps make friends and influence doctors. PLoS Medicine, 4(4), e150.
58. Orlowski, J. P., & Wateska, L. (1992). The effects of pharmaceutical firm enticements on physician prescribing patterns. There’s no such thing as a free lunch. Chest, 102(1), 270–273.
59. Verispan, Wolters-Kluwer, and IMS Health. The latter company has data on two-thirds of all prescriptions registered in pharmacies
60. Stell, L. K. (2009). Drug reps off campus! Promoting professional purity by suppressing commercial speech. Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 37(3), 431–443. See also Goldacre’s interview on the site of the prestigious scientific journal Nature, September 28, 2012.
61. Hollis, A. (2004). Me-too drugs: Is there a problem? WHO report. In http://cdrwww.who.int/entity/intellectualproperty/topics/ip/Me-tooDrugs_Hollis1.pdf.
62. ALLHAT, Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial, which lasted for eight years, was conducted by the US Health Department.
63. Goldacre, B. (2012). Op. cit., p. 149.
64. Helms, R., Guinea Pig Zero: An Anthology of the Journal for Human Research Subjects, Garrett County Press, 2006. See also the site http://www.guineapigzero.com/. Quoted in Goldacre, B. (2012). Op. cit., p. 107.
65. PCB, commercialized by Monsanto under the name Aroclor in the United States, is a highly toxic chlorinated oil that was used as insulation in the electric and electronic industries, and that, in the presence of heat, gives off dioxin. Pyralène has been banned in France since 1987.
66. According to a declassified report, written in March 2005 by the Environmental Protection Agency, or EPA, for forty years, 810 tons of PCBs were poured into canals like Snow Creek and 32,000 tons of contaminated waste were dumped out in the open, on the site itself, in the heart of the neighborhood inhabited by the city’s African-American community.
67. Robin, M.-M., The World According to Monsanto, The New Press, 2012, p. 16.
68. Ibid., p. 18.
69. Ibid.
70. Ibid.
71. Regular exposure to these products can cause cancer, heart disease, diabetes, a lowering of the immune system, malfunctioning of the thyroid and of sexual hormones, reproductive disorders, and serious neurological disorders. Robin, M.-M. (2010). Op. cit., Kindle location, p. 726 of the French edition.
72. Jensen, S. (1966). Report of a new chemical hazard. New Scientist, 32(612), 247–250.
73. Robin, M.-M. (2012). Op. cit., p. 19.
74. www.chemicalindustryarchives.org/dirtysecrets/annistonindepth/toxicity.asp. Quoted in Robin, M.-M. (2012). Op. cit., p. 19.
75. Robin, M.-M. (2012). Op. cit., p. 22.
76. Ibid., location 685–686 of the French.
77. Ibid., p. 27.
78. Ibid., p. 26.
79. Monsanto’s Pledge can be consulted on its website: http://www.monsanto.com/whoweare/pages/monsanto-pledge.aspx.
80. Agent Orange would also be manufactured by other firms like Dow Chemicals, a subsidiary of which, Union Carbide, would, in 1984, be responsible for the Bhopal catastrophe in India that officially killed 3,500 people, but that probably caused 20,000 or 25,000 deaths according to victims’ associations. It is estimated that 80 million liters of defoliants were discharged over 3.3 million hectares of forests and land. 90% of the trees and bushes touched were destroyed within two years. Over 3,000 villages were contaminated, and 60% of the defoliants used were Agent Orange, containing the equivalent of 400 kilos of dioxins. According to WHO: “Dioxins are very toxic and can cause problems of reproduction and development, harm the immune system, interfere with the hormonal system, and cause cancer.” Stellman, J. M., Stellman, S. D., Christian, R., Weber, T., & Tomasallo, C. (2003). The extent and patterns of usage of agent orange and other herbicides in Vietnam. Nature, 422(6933), 681–687. Quoted in Robin, M.-M. (2010). Op. cit., Kindle location 8038–8040; Stellman, Jane Mager, The extent and patterns of usage of agent orange and other herbicides in Vietnam, Nature, April 17, 2003.
81. Monsanto’s agent orange: The persistent ghost from the Vietnam war. Organic Consumers Association, 2002. http://www.organicconsumers.org/monsanto/agentorange032102.cfm; Dai, Le Cao, et al. A comparison of infant mortality rates between two Vietnamese villages sprayed by defoliants in wartime and one unsprayed village. Chemosphere, vol. 20, August 1990, pp. 1005–1012. Robin, M.-M. (2010). Op. cit., Kindle location 8186.
82. Seven companies produced Agent Orange: Dow Chemicals, Monsanto, Diamond Shamrock, Hercules, T-H Agricultural & Nutrition, Thompson Chemicals, and Uniroyal. Robin, M.-M. (2010). Op. cit., pp. 1280–1281.
83. Suskind, R. R. (1983). Long-term health effects of exposure to 2, 4, 5-T and/or its contaminants. Chemosphere, 12(4), 769.
84. Robin, M.-M. (2012). Op. cit., p. 51.
85. Monsanto was warned, no one knows how, and its vice president wrote to the president of the scientific committee of the EPA to protest against the “highly provocative and erroneous information about the epidemiological studies concerning Monsanto’s West Virginia plant.… We are very disturbed by the false charges being made against Monsanto and Dr. Suskind.” Frustrated, Cate Jenkins sent the report to the press, which was outraged. Monsanto continued to intervene with the EPA to prevent the investigation from concluding and to have Jenkins penalized or even fired. She was finally transferred, and was subjected to harassment for years.
86. This list included various cancers (respiratory, prostate), including some very rare cancers like sarcoma of the soft tissue or non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, but also leukemia, type 2 diabetes, peripheral neuropathy (from which Alan Gibson, the veteran I met, suffers), and chloracne.
87. Robin, M.-M. (2012). Op. cit., Kindle location 1585 of the French.
88. Robin, M.-M. (2012). Op. cit., p. 73.
89. Problems plague the EPA pesticide registration activities, US Congress, House of Representatives, House Report, 98–1147, 1984. Quoted in Robin, M.-M. (2012). Op. cit., p. 337. See also the article in New York Times, March 2, 1991.
90. Canada: McDuffie, H. H., Pahwa, P., McLaughlin, J. R., Spinelli, J. J., Fincham, S., Dosman, J. A.,… Choi, N. W. (2001). Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma and specific pesticide exposures in men cross-Canada study of pesticides and health. Cancer Epiology Biomarkers & Prevention, 10(11), 1155–1163. Sweden: Hardell, L., Eriksson, M., & Nordström, M. (2002). Exposure to pesticides as risk factor for non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma and hairy cell leukemia: Pooled analysis of two Swedish case-control studies. Leukemia & Lymphoma, 43(5), 1043–1049. United States: De Roos, A. J., Blair, A., Rusiecki, J. A., Hoppin, J. A., Svec, M., Dosemeci, M.,… Alavanja, M. C. (2005). Cancer incidence among glyphosate-exposed pesticide applicators in the Agricultural Health Study. Environmental Health Perspectives, 113(1), 49.
91. When Paul Berg then announced his intention of inserting a carcinogenic virus from a monkey into a cell of Escherichia coli, a bacterium that colonizes the human stomach and intestines, the scientific community was alarmed: “What will happen if, by accident, the organism being manipulated escapes from the laboratory?” wondered the geneticist Robert Pollack. A temporary moratorium on genetic manipulations was decreed. But it would not last, and genetic engineering experiments multiplied.
92. Robin, M.-M. (2012). Op. cit., p. 203.
93. Other competitors also entered the fray to file the first patents on most of the main crops in the world: Calgene, a California start-up that had just successfully made tobacco resistant to glyphosate (the component of Roundup), Rhône-Poulenc, Hoechst, Dupont and Ciba-Geigy, and other giants of the chemical industry.
94. CropChoice News, November 16, 2003. Robin, M.-M. (2012). Op. cit., p. 140.
95. Food and Drug Administration, “Statement of policy: Foods derived from new plant varieties,” Federal Register, vol. 57, no. 104, May 29, 1992, p. 22983. Quoted in Robin, M.-M. (2012). Op. cit., p. 145.
96. “The principle of substantial equivalence is an alibi with no scientific basis created out of thin air to prevent GMOs from being considered at least as food additives, and this enabled biotechnology companies to avoid the toxicological tests provided for in the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act and to avoid labeling their products.” Robin, M.-M. (2012). Op. cit., p. 147.
97. According to the 2007 Center for Food Safety report, Monsanto has a budget of $10 million and a team of 75 people hired full-time to supervise and instigate legal proceedings against the farmers who use its products. As of June 2006, Monsanto had filed between 2,391 and 4,531 suits for “seed piracy” against farmers in 19 countries, obtaining from them between 85 and 160 million dollars.
98. Detoeuf, A., Propos de O. L. Barenton, confiseur, Éditions du Tambourinaire, 1962, p. 111.
99. According to www.centerforfoodsafety.org.
100. Robin, M.-M. (2012). Op. cit., p. 259.
101. Ibid., location 6135 of the French.
102. Ibid., p. 291.
103. Shiva, Vendana, From seeds of suicide to seeds of hope, Huffington Post, April 28, 2009.
104. Traditional varieties of cotton seeds are ready for harvesting after 150–160 days, unlike Bt varieties, which take 180–200 days. The use of these traditional seeds also reduces the need for fertilizers and pesticides.
105. Shiva, V. J., & Jalees, Kunwar, Seeds of Suicide: The Ecological and Human Costs of Seed Monopolies and Globalisation of Agriculture, Navdanya, 2006.
106. Chapelle, Sophie, Journal des Alternatives, November 5, 2012.
107. An offshoot of the CIG (Citizen Interest Group), this association includes Greenpeace, ATTAC, and Friends of the Earth.
108. “Agro-ecology and the right to food,” report presented by Olivier de Schutter to the UN Human Rights Council on March 8, 2011 in Geneva.
1. Extract from a speech made at the General Assembly of the United Nations, September 24, 2001.
2. Candau, J. (2012). Pourquoi coopérer [Why Cooperate?]. Terrain, 1, 4–25.
3. See also Axelrod, R., The Evolution of Cooperation, Basic Books, 1984; Kappeler, P. M., & Van Schaik, C., Cooperation in Primates and Humans: Mechanisms and Evolution, Springer Verlag, 2006; Henrich, J., & Henrich, N., Why Humans Cooperate: A Cultural and Evolutionary Explanation, Oxford University Press, 2007.
4. Candau, J. (2012). Op. cit.
5. The contents of this meeting were published in the book Goleman, D. & Dalai Lama, Destructive Emotions and How We Can Overcome Them: A Dialogue with the Dalai Lama, Bantam, 2004. See also Ekman, P., Davidson, R. J., Ricard, M., & Wallace, B. A. (2005). Buddhist and psychological perspectives on emotions and well-being. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14, 59–63.
6. Ekman, D. P., Moving Toward Global Compassion, Paul Ekman Group, 2014.
7. Memories of Ephraïm Grenadou, collected by Alain Prévost, broadcast on France Culture in 1967 and in 2011–2012. See also Grenadou, E., Vie d’un paysan français [Life of a French Farmer], Seuil, 1966.
8. Paul Ekman, in conversation with the author, 2009.
9. Candau, J. (2012). Op. cit., p. 40.
10. Carpenter, J., Matthews, P., & Schirm, J., Tournaments and Office Politics: Evidence from a Real Effort Experiment (SSRN Scholarly Paper No., ID 1011134), Social Science Research Network, 2007.
11. DeMatteo, J. S., Eby, L. T., & Sundstrom, E. (1998). Team-based rwards: current empirical evidence and research in organizational behavior, 20, 141–183. Tamu.edu.
12. Richard Layard, in a conversation with the author, 2010.
13. Mokyr, J., The Enlightened Economy: An Economic History of Britain 1700–1850, Yale University Press, 2009, pp. 384–385.
14. Wilkinson, R., Pickett, K. (2009). Op. cit.
15. http://usa2012.coop/about-co-ops/cooperatives-around-world.
16. Hardin, G. (1968). The tragedy of the commons. Science, 162(3859), 1243–1248.
17. Cox S. J. (1985). No tragedy on the commons. Environmental Ethics, 7, 49–61 (p. 60).
18. Angus, I. (2008). The myth of the tragedy of the commons. Monthly Review Magazine, 25(08), 08.
19. Engels, F., The Mark, New York Labor News Co., 1902. (Originally published in German in 1892.)
20. Ostrom E., Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action, Cambridge University Press, 2010.
21. Ibid., pp. 90–104. Lecomte, J., La Bonté humaine [Human Goodness], Odile Jacob, 2012.
22. Elinor Ostrom, cited in Lecomte, J. (2012). Op. cit.
23. Rustagi, D., Engel, S., & Kosfeld, M. (2010). Conditional cooperation and costly monitoring explain success in forest commons management. Science, 330(6006), 961–965.
24. I am grateful to Dennis Snower for clarifying this point.
25. Hervé Le Crosnier, Le Monde diplomatique, July 15, 2012.
26. Tania Singer, Diego Hangartner, and I organized this conference, which included, around the Dalai Lama, among others, the psychologist Daniel Batson, the economist Ernst Fehr, the ethologist Joan Silk, the neuroscientist William Harbaugh, the leadership teacher Bill George, and the social entrepreneur Bunker Roy. The content of this conference has been published in Singer, T., & Ricard, M. (eds.), Caring Economics: Conversations on Altruism and Compassion, Between Scientists, Economists, and the Dalai Lama, Picador, 2015.
27. Fehr, E., & Gächter, S. (2000). Cooperation and punishment in public goods experiments. American Economic Review, 90(4), 980–994; Fehr, E., Fischbacher, U., & Gächter, S. (2002). Strong reciprocity, human cooperation, and the enforcement of social norms. Human Nature, 13(1), 1–25.
28. Fehr, E., & Gächter, S. (2002). Altruistic punishment in humans. Nature, 415(6868), 137–140.
29. Boyd, R., Gintis, H., Bowles, S., & Richerson, P. J. (2003). The evolution of altruistic punishment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100(6), 3531–3535; Flack, J. C., Girvan, M., Waal, F. B. M. de, & Krakauer, D. C. (2006). Policing stabilizes construction of social niches in primates. Nature, 439(7075), 426–429; Mathew, S., & Boyd, R. (2011). Punishment sustains large-scale cooperation in prestate warfare. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(28), 11375–11380.
30. Herrmann, B., Thöni, C., & Gächter, S. (2008). Antisocial punishment across societies. Science, 319(5868), 1362–1367.
31. Since 1995, the NGO Transparency International has published an annual Corruption Perception Index (or CPI) that classifies countries according to the level of corruption perceived by its citizens. This index is produced with the help of surveys carried out by businesspeople and sociologists.
32. A Danish woman was arrested by New York police for “abandoning her child” after leaving her baby in its stroller outside a restaurant—something she did as a matter of course in her country.
33. Nowak, M. A., Sasaki, A., Taylor, C., & Fudenberg, D. 2004. Emergence of cooperation and evolutionary stability in finite populations. Nature, 428, 646–50; Imhof, L. A., Fudenberg, D., & Nowak, M. A. (2005). Evolutionary cycles of cooperation and defection. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102(31), 10797–10800; Dreber, A., Rand, D. G., Fudenberg, D., & Nowak, M. A. (2008). Winners don’t punish. Nature, 452(7185), 348–351.
34. Hamlin, J. K., & Wynn, K. (2011). Young infants prefer prosocial to antisocial others. Cognitive Development, 26(1), 30–39; Hamlin, J. K., Wynn, K., Bloom, P., & Mahajan, N. (2011). How infants and toddlers react to antisocial others. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(50), 19931–19936.
35. Singer, T., Seymour, B., O’Doherty, J. P., Stephan, K. E., Dolan, R. J., & Frith, C. D. (2006). Empathic neural responses are modulated by the perceived fairness of others. Nature, 439(7075), 466–469.
36. Rand, D. G., Dreber, A., Ellingsen, T., Fudenberg, D., & Nowak, M. A. (2009). Positive interactions promote public cooperation. Science, 325(5945), 1272–1275.
37. Ozouf, M., “Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité, Peuplements de Pays Paix et la Guerre.” In Lieux de mémoire (dir. Pierre Nora), Quarto Gallimard, book 3, 1997, pp. 4353–4389.
38. Attali, J., Fraternités, Fayard, 1999, p. 172.
39. Ibid., p. 173.
40. Ibid., p. 174.
41. Ibid., pp. 170–171.
42. Martin Luther King Jr., speech on March 31, 1968.
43. Tomasello, M., Why We Cooperate, MIT Press, 2009.
44. Sober, E., & Wilson, D. S., Unto Others: The Evolution and Psychology of Unselfish Behavior, Harvard University Press, p. 166, 1999; Boyd, R., & Richerson, P. J. (1992). Punishment allows the evolution of cooperation (or anything else) in sizable groups. Ethology and Sociobiology, 13(3), 171–195. According to Colin Turnbull, among the Mbuti people in Africa, “even the most insignificant and routine action in the daily life of the family is potentially of major concern to the band as a whole.… It is important that there should be a pattern of behavior that is generally accepted, and which covers every conceivable angle.” Turnbull, C. M., The Mbuti Pygmies: An Ethnographic Survey, American Museum of Natural History, 1965, vol. 50, p. 118.
45. Nowak, M., & Highfield, R., SuperCooperators, The Free Press, 2011, pp. 270–1.
1. Seligman, M. E. P., Flourish: A Visionary New Understanding of Happiness and Well-Being, Atria Books, 2012.
2. Dalai Lama, G. T., Ancient Wisdom, Modern World, Abacus, 2000.
3. For a critique of “neutralism” in education and the teaching of universally desirable and acceptable values, see also White, J., Education and the Good Life: Autonomy, Altruism, and the National Curriculum, Advances in Contemporary Educational Thought, vol. 7, ERIC, 1991.
4. Greenberg, M. T. (2010). School-based prevention: Current status and future challenges. Effective Education, 2(1), 27–52.
5. Favre, D., Transformer la Violence des Élèves: Cerveau, Motivations et Apprentissage [Tranforming violence in students: The brain, motivations, and learning]. Dunod, 2006; Favre, D., Cessons de Démotiver les Élèves: 18 Clés pour Favoriser l’Apprentissage [Let’s stop demotivating students: 18 key ways to enhance learning]. Dunod, 2010.
6. Hawkes, N., From My Heart: Transforming Lives Through Values, Independent Thinking Press, 2013, p. 66–67. See also Hawkes, N., Does Teaching Values Improve the Quality of Education in Primary Schools? A Study About the Impact of Values Education in a Primary School, VDM Verlag, 2010. See also the website www.values-education.com.
7. Farrer, F., A Quiet Revolution: Encouraging Positive Values in Our Children, Rider, 2005.
8. Lovat, T., Toomey, R., & Clement, N., International Research Handbook on Values Education and Student Wellbeing, Springer, 2010; Lovat, T., & Toomey, R., Values Education and Quality Teaching: The Double Helix Effect, Springer-Verlag, 2009.
9. Forms of meditation combining intellectual analysis and attention development, mindfulness, and benevolence are taught in certain educational establishments in North America and various countries in Europe. Greenland, S. K., The Mindful Child: How to Help Your Kid Manage Stress and Become Happier, Kinder, and More Compassionate, The Free Press, 2010. Also, regarding the practice of mindfulness in parental education, see Kabat-Zinn, J., Everyday Blessings: The Inner Work of Mindful Parenting, Hyperion, 1998.
10. Ozawa-de Silva, B., & Dodson-Lavelle, B. (2011). An education of heart and mind: Practical and theoretical issues in teaching cognitive-based compassion training to children. Practical Matters, 1(4), 1–28.
11. Pléty, R., L’Apprentissage coopérant [Cooperative Learning], Presses Universitaires de Lyon (PUL), 1998, p. 7.
12. Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Stanne, M. B., Cooperative Learning Methods: A Meta-Analysis, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota, 2000. See also this seminal work by two top specialists: Johnson, D. H., & Johnson, R. T., Learning Together and Alone: Cooperative, Competitive, and Individualistic Learning, 5th ed., Pearson, 1998.
13. Slavin, R. E., Hurley, E. A., & Chamberlain, A., Cooperative Learning and Achievement: Theory and Research, Wiley Online Library, 2003. A more recent study has confirmed that cooperative education improves school results: Tsay, M., & Brady, M. (2010). A case study of cooperative learning and communication pedagogy: Does working in teams make a difference? Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 10(2), 78–89.
14. Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Holubec, E. J., Cooperation in the Classroom, Interaction Book Company, 1991.
15. Cohen, P. A., Kulik, J. A., & Kulik, C. L. C. (1982). Educational outcomes of tutoring: A meta-analysis of findings. American Educational Research Journal, 19(2), 237–248. See also the section “Enseignment” [Teaching] on the site http://www.psychologie-positive.net, founded by Jacques Lecomte.
16. Barley, Z., Lauer, P. A., Arens, S. A., Apthorp, H. S., Englert, K. S., Snow, D., & Akiba, M., Helping At-Risk Students Meet Standards, Mid-Continent Research for Education and Learning, 2002; Finkelsztein, D., Le Monitorat: S’entraider pour réussir, Hachette, 1997.
17. Ray Chambers began his career as a successful financier. After tiring of life on Wall Streets he decided to help hundreds of poor, deserving students from New Jersey to further their studies. He is now the UN’s Special Envoy for Malaria. See Perry, A., Lifeblood: How to Change the World One Dead Mosquito at a Time, PublicAffairs, 2011.
18. See http://erdcanada.com/.
19. Topping, K. J., & Trickey, S. (2007). Collaborative philosophical enquiry for school children: Cognitive effects at 10–12 years. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(2), 271–288; Trickey, S., & Topping, K. J. (2004). Philosophy for children: A systematic review. Research Papers in Education, 19(3), 365–380.
20. Aronson, E., & Patnoe, S., Cooperation in the Classroom: The Jigsaw Method, 3d rev. ed., Pinter & Martin, 2011.
21. Lucker, G. W., Rosenfield, D., Sikes, J., & Aronson, E. (1976). Performance in the interdependent classroom: A field study. American Educational Research Journal, 13(2), 115–123; Fini, A. A. S., Zainalipour, H., & Jamri, M. (2011). An investigation into the effect of cooperative learning with focus on jigsaw technique on the academic achievement of second-grade students. J. Life Sci. Biomed. 2(2), 21–24.
22. For more on the life of Sanjit “Bunker” Roy, see Chapter 1, “The Nature of Altruism.”
23. Jennings, P. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2009). The prosocial classroom: Teacher social and emotional competence in relation to student and classroom outcomes. Review of Educational Research, 79(1), 491–525; Aspy, D. N., & Roebuck, F. N., Kids Don’t Learn from People They Don’t Like, Human Resource Development Press, 1977.
24. Lecomte, J. (April 2009). Les résultats de l’éducation humaniste [The results of humanist education]. Sciences humaines, 203.
25. Aspy, D. N., & Roebuck, F. N. (1977). Op. cit.
26. Gordon, M., Roots of Empathy: Changing the World Child by Child, Thomas Allen & Son, 2005.
27. Schonert-Reichl, K. A. (2005). Effectiveness of the roots of empathy program in promoting children’s emotional and social competence: A summary of research outcome findings. Appendix B in Gordon, M. (2005). Op. cit.
28. Santos, R.G., Chartier M. J., Whalen, J. C., Chateau, D., & Boyd, L. “Effectiveness of the Roots of Empathy (ROE) Program in Preventing Aggression and Promoting Prosocial Behavior: Results from a Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial in Manitoba.” Poster presented at the Banff Conference on Behavioral Sciences, Banff, March 2008.
29. Ibid.
30. Rivkin, M. S., The Great Outdoors: Restoring Children’s Right to Play Outside, ERIC, 1995; Karsten, L. (2005). It all used to be better? Different generations on continuity and change in urban children’s daily use of space. Children’s Geographies, 3(3), 275–290.
31. George, D. S. Getting lost in the great indoors. Washington Post, June 19, 2007. Cited in Rifkin, J. (2012). The Third Industrial Revolution. Op cit., p. 352.
32. Louv, R., Last Child in the Woods: Saving Our Children from Nature-Deficit Disorder, Algonquin Books, 2008, p. 10. Cited in Rifkin, J. (2012). Op. cit., p. 353.
33. Kellert S. R., “The Biological Basis for Human Values of Nature.” In Kellert, S. R., & Wilson, E. O., The Biophilia Hypothesis, Island Press, 1995.
34. Cited in Rifkin, J. (2012). Op. cit., p. 360.
35. Lewinsohn, P. M., Rohde, P., Seeley, J. R., & Fischer, S. A. (1993). Age-cohort changes in the lifetime occurrence of depression and other mental disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102(1), 110.
36. For this and the experiment at the Geelong School, see Seligman, M. E. P. (2012). Flourish, Op.cit.
1. Morin, E., La Voie: Pour l’avenir de l’humanité, Fayard, 2011.
2. For details of calculations and sources, see Stiglitz, J. (2011), Stiglitz, J., The Price of Inequality, Kindle Edition, Location 103.
3. Occupy Wall Street is a peaceful protest movement condemning the rapacious systems of financial capitalism. It began in September 2011 when one thousand people demonstrated at the New York Stock Exchange on Wall Street. This movement, which resembles that of the Indignés in France or the Indignados in Spain, taking their name from Stéphane Hessel’s essay Indignez-vous! [Time for Outrage!], spread rapidly across the whole of the United States, reaching 500 cities in 82 countries.
4. Stiglitz, J. (2012). Op. cit., location 103. See also Stiglitz, J. (2011). Of the 1%, by the 1%, for the 1%. Vanity Fair, May 2011.
5. Kuroda, H., & Bank, A. D., Asian Development Outlook 2012: Confronting Rising Inequality in Asia, Asian Development Bank, 2012.
6. Cited in Bourguinat, H., & Briys, E., L’Arrogance de la finance: Comment la théorie financière a produit le krach, La Découverte, 2009.
7. Piketty, T., & Saez, E., Income Inequality in the United States, 1913–1998, National Bureau of Economic Research, 2001.
8. Comment made by Andrew Sheng in Charles Ferguson’s documentary Inside Job, a startling perspective on the consequences of deregulation and on the psychology of the individuals at the root of the financial crisis. He won the Oscar for Best Documentary in 2011. Ferguson, C., Inside Job, Sony Pictures Entertainment, 2011.
9. Feller, A., Stone, C., & Saez, E. (2009). Top 1 percent of Americans reaped two-thirds of income gains in last economic expansion. Center on Budget and Policy Priorities.
10. http://www.statistiques-mondiales.com/part_du_revenu.htm.
11. Quoted in Special Report, For richer, for poorer, The Economist, October 13, 2013, p. 6.
12. Kuroda, H., & Bank, A. D., Asian Development Outlook 2012: Confronting Rising Inequality in Asia, Asian Development Bank, 2012.
13. OECD (2014), “Focus on Inequality and Growth—December 2014.” The summary of the report as well as figures and underlying data can be downloaded via www.oecd.org/social/inequality-and-poverty.htm
14. Christopher, C., Daly, M., & Hale, G. (2009). Beyond Kutznets: Persistent Regional Inequality in China. FRBSF Working Paper 09–07; Wan, G., Lu, M., & Chen, Z. (2007). Globalization and regional income inequality: Empirical evidence from within China. Review of Income and Wealth, 53(1), 35–59. Recently, a strong anticorruption campaign has been set in motion by the new Chinese president, Xi Jingping, and many high- and low-level officials have been arrested.
15. In the United States, the economists Emmanuel Saez and Thomas Piketty have observed how 94% of the gains made in the post-2009 recovery have gone to the wealthiest 1%. Shaw, H., Stone, C., Piketty, T., & Saez, E. (2010). Tax data show richest 1 percent took a hit in 2008, but income remained highly concentrated at the top. Center on Budget and Policy Priorities.
16. “World of Work Report 2008—Income inequalities in the age of financial globalization.” ILO report, October 2008.
17. http://www.weforum.org/issues/global-risks.
18. Lustig, N., Lopez-Calva, L., & Ortiz-Juarez, E. (2012). The decline in inequality in Latin America: How much, since when and why. Since When and Why (April 24, 2011).
19. Breceda, K., Rigolini, J., & Saavedra, J. (2009). Latin America and the social contract: Patterns of social spending and taxation. Population and Development Review, 35(4), 721–748.
20. Wilkinson, R., & Pickett, K. (2009). Op. cit.
21. National Opinion Research Center. General Social Survey. Chicago NORC, pp. 1999–2004.
22. In other words, if the Gini index were to go from 0.36 to 0.29. This index equals 0 if everyone has equal resources, and 1 if a single person owns all the wealth. See Kondo, N., Sembajwe, G., Kawachi, I., Van Dam, R. M., Subramanian, S. V., & Yamagata, Z. (2009). Income inequality, mortality, and self rated health: Meta-analysis of multilevel studies. BMJ, 339.
23. Wilkinson, R. (2009). Op. cit., p. 64.
24. Tocqueville, A. de, Democracy in America, trans. Henry Reeve, Part 3, Chapter 1, 1839. Project Gutenberg.
25. Berg, A., Ostry, J. D., & Zettelmeyer, J. (2012). What makes growth sustained? Journal of Development Economics, 98(2), 149–166.
26. Molina, E., Narayan, A., & Saveedra, J. (2013). “Outcomes, Opportunity and Development: Why Unequal Opportunities and Not Outcomes Hinder Economic Development,” by Molina, Ezequiel, Narayan, Ambar, & Saveedra, Jaime. World Bank report. Cited by The Economist, Special report, October 13, 2012.
27. Ibid.
28. Morin, E. (2011). Op. cit., pp. 114–115.
29. Morin, E., & Hessel, S., Le Chemin de l’espérance, Fayard, 2011, p. 44.
30. OECD (2014), “Focus on Inequality and Growth—December 2014.” The summary of the report as well as figures and underlying data can be downloaded via www.oecd.org/social/inequality-and-poverty.htm.
1. Pennac, D., La Fée carabine, Gallimard, 1997.
2. Persky, J. (1995). Retrospectives: The ethology of Homo economicus. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 9(2), 221–231.
3. Based on their preferences, they are meant to maximize their satisfaction by using the resources available, calculating both costs and benefits. See Gary Becker’s 1976 book The Economic Approach to Human Behavior, University of Chicago Press, 2009. This is one of the most representative works of this line of thinking.
4. Samuelson, P. A., & Nordhaus, W. D., Economics, 19th ed., edited and revised, McGraw Hill Higher Education, 2009. This quotation is taken from the 12th ed. (1983), p. 903.
5. Kourilsky, P., Le Temps de l’altruisme, Odile Jacob, 2009, p. 142.
6. Edgeworth F. Y., Mathematical Psychics: An Essay on the Application of Mathematics to the Moral Sciences, A. M. Kelley, 1964, p. 16.
7. Francis Edgeworth (1845–1926) was appointed to a chair in economics at Oxford and is one of the foremost representatives of the so-called neoclassical school of economics.
8. Landes, W. M., & Posner, R., Altruism in Law and Economics, National Bureau of Economic Research, 1977.
9. Blau, P., Exchange and Power in Social Life, John Wiley and Sons, 1964, p. 17.
10. Walster, E. H., Hatfield, E., Walster, G. W., & Berscheid, E., Equity: Theory and Research, Allyn and Bacon, 1978.
11. Sen, A., Éthique et économie, PUF, 1993, p. 18. Cited by Lecomte, J. (2012), La Bonté humaine. Op. cit.
12. Kourilsky, P. (2009). Op. cit., p. 145.
13. The individual who thinks only of his own gain “is led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention.… By pursuing his own interest, he frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it.” Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, Book 4, Chapter 2, 1776.
14. Smith, A. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (The Project Gutenberg eBook, 2009), p. 12.
15. Friedman, M., Capitalism and Freedom, University of Chicago Press, 1962, pp. 133–134.
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18. Smith, A. (2011). The Theory of Moral Sentiments. Available through Project Gutenberg.
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21. Ariely, D., The Irrational Bundle: Predictably Irrational, the Upside of Irrationality, and the Honest Truth About Dishonesty, Harper, 2013.
22. Soros, G. (1997). The capitalist threat. Atlantic Monthly, 279(2), 45–58. Cited in Oreskes, N., & Conway, E. M. M. (2011). Op. cit., note 36, p. 338.
23. Ibid.
24. Sandel, M., What Money Can’t Buy: The Moral Limits of Markets, Open Market edition, Allen Lane, 2012.
25. Interview with Michael Sandel by Edward Luce in the Financial Times, April 5, 2013.
26. Le Monde, June 9, 2009.
27. Stiglitz, Joseph E., The Price of Inequality, pp. 178–179.
28. Sen, A., L’Idée de justice, Flammarion, 2012; Sen, A., Repenser l’inégalité, Seuil, 2012.
29. Stiglitz, Joseph E., The Price of Inequality.
30. Piketty, T., Capital in the Twenty-First Century, Harvard University Press, 2014.
31. Stiglitz, J. (2012). Op. cit., locations 159–169.
32. In 2000, InfoSpace employed some shady accounting techniques to declare profits of 46 million dollars in spite of the fact that it had lost 46 million dollars.
33. At a Senate hearing, the senator Carl Levin asked the chairman of Goldman Sachs, Lloyd Blankfein: “Is it not a conflict when you sell something to someone, and then are determined to bet against that same security, and you don’t disclose that to the person you’re selling to?” To which Blankfein responded: “In the context of market making, that is not a conflict.” In 2008, Blankfein was earning $825,900 per week. He declared elsewhere that as a banker he was doing “God’s work” (Sunday Times, November 8, 2010).
34. Including $485 million for their CEO Richard Fuld.
35. Stiglitz, J. (2012). Op. cit., location 209.
36. Ferguson, C. (2011). Op. cit.
37. Comment made by N. Roubini in Inside Job. Op. cit.
38. Kallas, S. (March 3, 2005). “The Need for an European Transparency.” Speech in Nottingham. Cited by Kempf, H. L’oligarchie ça suffit, vive la démocratie, Seuil, 2013, p. 78.
39. Galbraith, J. K., L’État prédateur: Comment la droite a renoncé au marché libre et pourquoi la gauche devrait en faire autant, Seuil, 2009, p. 185. Cited in Kempf, H. (2013). Op. cit., p. 69.
40. The “City” is located in London and represents one of the world’s major financial centers.
41. Cited in Irène Inchauspé, L’État redéfinit son rôle. Challenges, 179, September 10, 2009, p. 53.
42. See Chapter 35 on “Institutionalized Selfishness.”
43. George Soros, during a presentation at Davos Word Economic Forum, January 2014.
44. Attali, J., Demain, qui gouvernera le monde?, Fayard/Pluriel, 2012.
45. Porter, M., & Kramer, M. (January–February 2011). How to fix capitalism. Harvard Business Review, p. 74.
46. Filippi, C.-H., L’Argent sans maître, Descartes, 2009.
47. Stiglitz, J. (2012). Op.cit, p. 154.
48. Frank, R. H., Passions Within Reason: The Strategic Role of the Emotions, W. W. Norton, 1988, p. 236.
49. See http://www.global-economic-symposium.org/symposium-2014/download/GES2014OpeningAdressDSnower.pdf.
50. Kolm, S.-C. (1984). Op. cit., p. 109.
51. Ibid.
52. Ibid., p. 56.
53. See also Kolm, S.-C., Reciprocity: An Economics of Social Relations, Cambridge University Press, 2009; Kolm, S.-C., & Ythier, J. M., Handbook of the Economics of Giving, Altruism and Reciprocity: Foundations, North Holland, 2006.
54. Detœuf, A., Propos de O. L. Barenton, confiseur, Éditions du Tambourinaire, 1962.
55. Kolm, S.-C. (1984). Op. cit., p. 227.
56. For more information, see “Mondragon” on http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mondragon, as well as the article by Prades, J. (2005). L’énigme de Mondragon. Comprendre le sens de l’expérience. Revue internationale de l’économie sociale, 296, 1–12.
57. Wolff, R. Yes, there is an alternative to capitalism: Mondragon shows the way. Guardian, June 24, 2012.
58. Morin, E., La Voie: Pour l’avenir de l’humanité, Fayard, 2011.
59. Taken from the author’s notes from the event.
60. Personal communication between the author and Muhammad Yunus.
61. Extract from a speech made by Muhammad Yunus at UNESCO’s Earth University, Paris, April 27, 2013.
62. Lecomte, T., Le Commerce equitable, Éditions d’Organisation, 2004, pp.12, 17.
63. Ibid., p. 20.
64. Ibid., p. 25.
65. Ibid., pp. 48–49.
66. Darnil, S., & Roux, M. L., 80 Hommes pour changer le monde: Entreprendre pour la planète, Le Livre de Poche, 2006.
67. Ibid.
68. According to figures quoted by Eurosif (European Sustainable Investment Forum): European SRI Study, 2012. www.eurosif.org.
69. See http://www.triodos.com/en/about-triodos-bank/ as well as http://www.calvert.com/.
70. “Impact Investments: An Emerging Asset Class,” co-authored by Rockefeller Foundation and J. P Morgan Investment Bank, is presented as the first report that rigorously sizes, projects, and defines the current impact investment opportunity. http://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/blog/impact-investments-emerging-asset.
71. OECD, Development: aid to developing countries falls because of global recession, press statement, April 4, 2012.
72. Despite the undeniably major achievements of the Gates Foundation, several public health experts have highlighted that by investing massively in the fight against certain diseases like malaria and AIDS, other areas have been neglected by the foundation, and, by consequence, also neglected by local health authorities charged with implementing Gates Foundation programs. This is particularly true of the fight against tuberculosis, as well as maternal and child health and other problems affecting the poor. See especially What has the Gates Foundation done for global health? Lancet, 373 (9675), 1577.
73. O’Clery, C., The Billionaire Who Wasn’t: How Chuck Feeney Secretly Made and Gave Away a Fortune, PublicAffairs, 2013.
74. Forbes, February 19, 2013.
75. Bertoni, Steven, & Feeney, Chuck. The billionaire who is trying to go broke. Forbes, October 8, 2012.
76. Ibid.
77. Under the auspices of the Ditchley Foundation; http://www.ditchley.co.uk/page/394/philanthropy.htm. Cited by Vaccaro, A. (2012). Encourager le Renouveau de la Philanthropie, conference held on March 15, 2012 at the École de Paris du Management.
78. Vaccaro, A. (2012). Le renouveau de la philanthropie. Journal de l’École de Paris du management, 96(4), 31–37. See also L’Herminier, Sandrine, L’Espoir philanthropique, Lignes de Repères, 2012.
79. According to Broderick, Daniel, Crowdfunding’s untapped potential in emerging markets, Forbes, August 5, 2014.
80. About us, Kiva.org.
81. Morin, E., & Hessel, S., Le Chemin de l’espérance, Fayard, p. 29.
82. Giles, J. (April 13, 2013). Wiki-opoly. New Scientist, 2912, 38–41.
83. Babinet, G. (February 2013), Pour un new deal numérique, Institut Montaigne, p. 26.
84. Porter, M., & Kramer, M. (January–February 2011). How to fix capitalism. Harvard Business Review, p. 68.
85. Ibid., p. 71.
86. Greenest companies in America. Newsweek, October 22, 2012.
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2. Stiglitz, J. (2012). Op. cit., p. 318.
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4. Elgin, D., & Mitchell, A. (1977). Voluntary simplicity. The Co-Evolution Quarterly, 3, 4–19.
5. Rabhi, P., Vers la sobriété heureuse, Actes Sud, 2010.
6. Cited by Scott Russell Sanders. To fix the economy, we first have to change our definition of wealth. Orion, July/August 2011.
7. Dalai Lama, Sagesse ancienne, monde moderne, Fayard, 1999.
8. Sheldon, K. M., & Kasser, T. (1995). Coherence and congruence: Two aspects of personality integration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(3), 531.
9. Kasser, T., The High Price of Materialism, MIT Press, 2003; Kasser, T. (2008). Can buddhism and consumerism harmonize? A review of the psychological evidence. Presented at the International Conference on Buddhism in the Age of Consumerism, Mahidol University, Bangkok, pp. 1–3.
10. Kasser, T. (2003). Op. cit., p. 831.
11. Schwartz, S. H. (1994). Are there universal aspects in the structure and contents of human values? Journal of Social Issues, 50(4), 19–45.
12. Schultz, P. W., Gouveia, V. V., Cameron, L. D., Tankha, G., Schmuck, P., & Franvek, M. (2005). Values and their relationship to environmental concern and conservation behavior. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 36(4), 457–475. Transcultural studies reveal that the greater the importance people attach to objectives such as wealth and status, the less likely they are to worry about protecting the environment or of the need for having a “beautiful world.” Through their behavior they show less benevolence and sense of connectedness with the rest of humankind. See Schwartz, S. H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 25(1), 1–65; Saunders, S., & Munro, D. (2000). The construction and validation of a consumer orientation questionnaire designed to measure Fromms (1955) marketing character in Australia. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 28(3), 219–240.
13. Sheldon, K. M., & Kasser, T. (1998). Pursuing personal goals: Skills enable progress, but not all progress is beneficial. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24(12), 1319–1331.
14. Paul Mazur in a 1927 article in the Harvard Business Review, cited by Häring, N., & Douglas, N., Economists and the Powerful: Convenient Theories, Distorted Facts, Ample Rewards, Anthem Press, 2012, p. 17.
15. Ruskin, G. (1999). Why they whine: How corporations prey on our children. Mothering, November–December 1999. Cited by Kasser, T. (2003). Op. cit., 1127.
16. Reported by Ruskin, G. (1999). Op. cit.
17. Rabhi, P. (2010). Op. cit., p. 18.
18. Ellen McArthur Foundation (2012). Towards the Circular Economy.
19. Stahel, W. R., The Performance Economy, Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.
20. AFP, April 23, 2013.
21. For broader information on relevant books and review articles, see Layard, R., Happiness: Lessons from a New Science, Penguin, 2006; Kahneman, D., Diener, E., & Schwarz, N., Well-being: The Foundations of Hedonic Psychology, Russell Sage Foundation, 2003.
22. Myers, D. G. (2000). The funds, friends, and faith of happy people. American Psychologist, 55(1), 56.
23. Graham, C., Happiness Around the World: The Paradox of Happy Peasants and Miserable Millionaires, Oxford University Press, 2012.
24. Layard, R. (2007). Op. cit.
25. Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2008). Spending money on others promotes happiness. Science, 319(5870), 1687.
26. Aknin, L. B., Barrington-Leigh, C. P., Dunn, E. W., Helliwell, J. F., Biswas-Diener, R., Kemeza, I.,… Norton, M. I., Prosocial Spending and Well-Being: Cross-Cultural Evidence for a Psychological Universal, National Bureau of Economic Research, 2010.
27. Dunn, E. W., Gilbert, D. T., & Wilson, T. D. (2011). If money doesn’t make you happy, then you probably aren’t spending it right. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 21(2), 115.
28. Brown, K. W., & Kasser, T. (2005). Are psychological and ecological well-being compatible? The role of values, mindfulness, and lifestyle. Social Indicators Research, 74(2), 349–368.
29. http://www.courrierinternational.com/article/2012/11/28/uruguay-le-vrai-president-normal. Courrier International, “Uruguay, le vrai président normal,” No 1152, November 28, 2013.
30. http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-20243493, 15 November 2012.
31. BBC World Service report, November 15, 2012, Vladimir Hernández, Montevideo.
32. “Human Happiness and the Environment,” address by Uruguayan president Jose Mujica at Rio+20 Earth Summit, June 20, 2013. English translation, see http://therightsofnature.org/category/rio20.
1. Rockström, J., & Klum, M., The Human Quest: Prospering Within Planetary Boundaries, Bokförlaget Langenskiöld, 2012, p. 112.
2. Hawks, J., et. al. (1999). Population bottlenecks and Pleistocene human evolution. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 17(1). According to another theory, around seventy thousand years ago, the human population may have been reduced to about ten thousand people following a catastrophic volcanic eruption that profoundly altered the world’s climate. See Dawkins, Richard, The Ancestor’s Tale: A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Life, Houghton Mifflin, 2004, p. 416.
3. McEvedy, C., & Jones, R., Atlas of World Population History, Penguin, 1978; Thomlinson, R., Demographic Problems: Controversy over Population Control, Dickenson, 1975.
4. Richardson, K., Steffen, W., & Liverman, D., Climate Change: Global Risks, Challenges and Decisions, Cambridge University Press, 2011, Chapter 1, p. 4.
5. http://www.ccema-portal.org/article/read/planetary-boundaries-a-safe-operating-space-for-humanity. See also Steffen, W., Persson, Deutsch, L., Zalasiewicz, J., Williams, M., Richardson, K.,… Gordon, L. (2011). The Anthropocene: From global change to planetary stewardship. Ambio, 40(7), 739–761.
6. Ellis, E. C., Klein Goldewijk, K., Siebert, S., Lightman, D., & Ramankutty, N. (2010). Anthropogenic transformation of the biomes, 1700 to 2000. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 19(5), 589–606; Taylor, L., The Healing Power of Rainforest Herbs: A Guide to Understanding and Using Herbal Medicinals, Square One Publishers, 2004. As much as 90% of Western Africa’s coastal rainforest has disappeared since 1900. In Southern Asia, around 88% of the tropical rain forest has been lost. A large part of the remainder of the world’s tropical rainforest is located in the Amazon basin, covering an area of around 4 million km5. In Central America, two thirds of the low-altitude tropical rainforest has been transformed into farmland since 1950, and 40% of all forestry has been lost over the course of the last forty years. Madagascar has seen the destruction of 90% of its eastern tropical rainforest. For all scientific references, see the Wikipedia article on “Deforestation.”
7. Some scientists place the start of the Anthropocene further back, in the eighteenth century. Most environmentalists, however, consider the “Great Acceleration” of 1950 as the beginning of this era, by virtue of the wide-ranging ecological shifts that began happening then.
8. Thompson, L. G., Mosley-Thompson, E., & Henderson, K. A. (2000). Ice-core palaeoclimate records in tropical South America since the Last Glacial Maximum. Journal of Quaternary Science, 15(4), 377–394.
9. Deforestation and resulting forest fires represent as much as 20% at least of man-made CO2 emissions.
10. Wijkman, A., & Rockström, J. (2013). Op. cit.; Lenton, T. M., Held, H., Kriegler, E., Hall, J. W., Lucht, W., Rahmstorf, S., & Schellnhuber, H. J. (2008). Tipping elements in the Earth’s climate system. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105(6), 1786–1793.
11. Wijkman, A., & Rockström, J. (2013). Op. cit., p. 117.
12. Rockström, J., Steffen, W., Noone, K., Persson, Chapin, F. S., Lambin, E. F.,… Schellnhuber, H. J. (2009). A safe operating space for humanity. Nature, 461(7263), 472–475.
13. Ibid.
14. Guinotte, F. (2008), Ocean acidification and its potential effects. Annals of New York Academy of Sciences, 1134, 320–342.
15. Díaz, S., et al., “Biodiversity Regulation of Ecosystem Services” in Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Current State and Trends (Hassan, H., Scholes, R. & Ash, N. [eds.]), Island Press, 2005, pp. 297–329.
16. Aerosol particles in the atmosphere are responsible for around 800,000 premature deaths each year worldwide. The quantity of aerosols is significant enough for them to feature among the “planetary boundaries,” but the safety threshold has not yet been determined in sufficiently accurate quantitative terms.
17. Mace, G., et al., “Biodiversity” in Ecosystems and Human Well-being, pp. 79–115.
18. According to the “2014 Living Planet Report” issued by the WWF.
19. WWF (October 2004). Bad blood? A survey of chemicals in the blood of European ministers. www.worldwildlife.org/toxics/pubs/badblood.pdf. Cited in Rockström, J., & Klum, M. (2012). Op. cit., p. 209.
20. Rockström, J., Steffen, W., Noone, K., Persson, Chapin, F. S., Lambin, E. F.,… Schellnhuber, H. J. (2009). A safe operating space for humanity. Nature, 461(7263), 472–475.
21. Diana Liverman, personal conversation at the Mind and Life Institute meeting: “Ecology, Ethics, and Interdependence.” Dharamsala, October 2011.
22. According to an evaluation by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA), a United Nations initiative.
23. Pavan Sukhdev, in the preface of Wijkman, A., & Rockström, J. (2013). Op. cit. Sukhdev is also the founder of Corporation 2020, an organization that promotes environmentally friendly business.
24. According to the World Meteorological Organization, press release No. 1002, September 9, 2014.
25. This global warming, which reflects the general changes in climate over the course of the last century, must not be confused with variable meteorological patterns, which—though sometimes extreme—come about whatever the circumstances in some places. The winter of 2010, for example, was particularly cold in Scandinavia, Russia, and the east coast of the United States, but it was hotter than normal in the rest of the world. In the Arctic and in Canada, temperatures were 4°C above average.
26. Battisti, D. S., & Naylor, R. L. (2009). Historical warnings of future food insecurity with unprecedented seasonal heat. Science, 323(5911), 240–244.
27. Shakhova, N., Semiletov, I., Salyuk, A., Yusupov, V., Kosmach, D., & Gustafsson, Ö. (2010). Extensive methane venting to the atmosphere from sediments of the East Siberian Arctic Shelf. Science, 327(5970), 1246–1250.
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29. Care, N. S. (2008). Future generations, public policy, and the motivation problem. Environmental Ethics, 4(3), 195–213.
30. Parfit, D., Reasons and Persons, Clarendon Press, 1984.
31. I am grateful to Clare Palmer, professor at the University of Texas, for these clarifications and references. She is the author of several books and coeditor of a five-volume collection on environmental philosophy. Palmer, C., & Baird, Callicott J., Environmental Philosophy, Routledge, 2005.
32. Degeorge, R. T. (1981). The environment, rights, and future generations. Responsibilities to Future Generations, 157–165.
33. Partridge, E. (1990). On the rights of future generations. In Scherer, D., ed., Issues in Environmental Ethics, Temple University Press, 1990.
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36. Steven Forbes, statement during a Fox News debate, October 18, 2009.
37. Wijkman, A., & Rockström, J. (2013). Op. cit., p. 145; Wackernagel, M., & Rees, W. E., Our Ecological Footprint: Reducing Human Impact on Earth, vol. 9, New Society Publications, 1996.
38. Pacala, S. Cited in Lambin, É., Une écologie du bonheur, Le Pommier, 2009, p. 13.
39. Wijkman, A., & Rockström, J. (2013). Op. cit. pp.154–155.
40. Ibid., p. 156.
41. Ibid., p. 22.
42. Ibid., p. 19.
43. Diamond, J., Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed, Viking, 2005.
44. Wijkman, A., & Rockström, J. (2013). Op. cit., p. 4.
45. Study carried out by the International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development (IAASTD), an organization founded by the United Nations and the World Bank.
46. These five boundaries concern: soil usage, levels of nitrogen and phosphorous released into the biosphere, loss of biodiversity, chemical pollution, and climate change.
47. Ibid., p. 54.
48. Robin, M.-M., Les Moissons du Futur: Comment l’Agroécologie Peut Nourrir le Monde, La Découverte, 2012.
49. Caillat, Sophie, “Le grand entretien,” Rue 89, Le Nouvel Observateur, October 15, 2012.
50. Schneider, S. H., & Lane, J. (2006). Dangers and thresholds in climate change and the implications for justice. Fairness in adaptation to climate change, 23–51. In Adger, W. N., Paavola, J., Hug, S., & Mace, M. J., eds., Fairness in Adaptation to Climate Change, MIT Press, 2006; Thomas, D. S., & Twyman, C. (2005). Equity and justice in climate change adaptation amongst natural-resource-dependent societies. Global Environmental Change, 15(2), 115–124.
51. Patz, J. A., Gibbs, H. K., Foley, J. A., Rogers, J. V., & Smith, K. R. (2007). Climate change and global health: Quantifying a growing ethical crisis. EcoHealth, 4(4), 397–405; Myers, S. S., & Patz, J. A. (2009). Emerging threats to human health from global environmental change. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 34, 223–252; as well as the IPCC report, 2009, and Climate Change, Oxford University Press, 2015, Chapter 10.
52. McMichael, A. J., Levy, B., & Patz, J., Climate Change and Human Health: Risks and Responses, WHO, 2003.
53. Patz, J. A., Olson, S. H., Uejio, C. K., & Gibbs, H. K. (2008). Disease emergence from global climate and land use change. Medical Clinics of North America, 92(6), 1473–1491.
54. Checkley, W., Epstein, L. D., Gilman, R. H., Figueroa, D., Cama, R. I., Patz, J. A., & Black, R. E. (2000). Effects of EI Niño and ambient temperature on hospital admissions for diarrhoeal diseases in Peruvian children. Lancet, 355(9202), 442–450.
55. Vittor, A. Y., Gilman, R. H., Tielsch, J., Glass, G., Shields, T. I. M., Lozano, W. S.,… Patz, J. A. (2006). The effect of deforestation on the human-biting rate of Anopheles darlingi, the primary vector of falciparum malaria in the Peruvian Amazon. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 74(1), 3–1.
56. Guerra, C. A., Snow, R. W., & Hay, S. I. (2006). A global assessment of closed forests, deforestation and malaria risk. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 100(3), 189; Cohuet, A., Simard, F., Wondji, C. S., Antonio-Nkondjio, C., Awono-Ambene, P., & Fontenille, D. (2004). High malaria transmission intensity due to Anopheles funestus (Diptera: Culicidae) in a village of savannah-forest transition area in Cameroon. Journal of Medical Entomology, 41(5), 901–905; Coluzzi, M. (1994). Malaria and the Afrotropical ecosystems: Impact of man-made environmental changes. Parassitologia, 36(1–2), 223.
57. Sachs, J., & Malaney, P. (2002). The economic and social burden of malaria. Nature, 415(6872), 680–685.
58. Ray Chambers, via personal communication.
59. Statement by Yann Arthus Bertrand in his movie Home. http://www.homethemovie.org/
60. WBGU (2011), A vision for a renewable energy future by 2050.
61. According to a report by the International Energy Agency, in 2010, 37 governments spent $409 billion in subsidies to keep fossil fuel energy prices below the cost price. IEA (International Energy Agency), Energy Technology Perspectives, annual report. Cited in Wijkman, A., & Rockström, J. (2013). Op. cit., p. 78.
62. See in particular the following reports McKinsey CO2 Abatement: Exploring Options for Oil and Natural Gas Companies; Carbon & Energy Economics; Roads Toward a Low-Carbon Future; www.mckinsey.com.
63. European Wind Energy Association, or EWEA: Factsheets, 2010. Cited in Rifkin, J. (2012), Op. cit., p. 63.
64. According to estimates by Joseph Stiglitz and Linda Bilmes. The true cost of the Iraq war. Washington Post, September 5, 2010.
65. TEEB, Sukhdev, 2008. Cited by Wijkman, A., & Rockström, J. (2013). Op. cit., p. 290.
66. Wijkman, A., & Rockström, J. (2013). Op. cit., p. 60.
67. Including Fredrick Robelius, a member of the Swedish team headed up by Kjell Aleklett (Global Energy System in Uppsala), who looked into the world’s entire oil reserves; the APSO (Association for the Study of Peak Oil and Gas), also presided over by Professor Aleklett; the German Central Bank and Merrill Lynch & Co.; the “Sustainable Energy and Security” report published by the insurance market Lloyd’s; “The Oil Crunch,” a report written by several business heads assembled by Richard Branson; and the UK Industry Task Force on Peak Oil and Energy Security. All cited in Wigkman, A., & Rockström, J., Bankrupting Nature: Denying Our Planetary Boundaries, Routledge, 2013, p. 69.
68. Rockström, J., & Klum, M. (2012). The Human Quest. Op. cit., p. 281.
69. WBGU (2012), “World in Transition—A Social Contract for Sustainability, Flagship Report 2011. German Advisory Council on Climate Change.
70. Kurokawa, K., Komoto, K., Van Der Vleuten, P., & Faiman, D., Energy from the Desert: Practical Proposals for Very Large Scale Photovoltaic Systems, Earthscan London.
71. Wijkman, A., & Rockström, J. (2013). Op. cit., p. 74.
72. Ibid., p. 65.
73. Rockström, J., & Klum, M. (2012). Op. cit., pp. 286–287.
74. Including reports from the IAASD, the UN Water Development Report, “Water in a Changing World” (2010); the GGIAR Comprehensive Assessment (CA 2007), cited by Wijkman, A., & Rockström, J. (2013). Op. cit., p. 55; WWAP, United Nations (2009). “Water in a Changing World” (vol. 3). United Nations Educational; Jackson, R. B., Carpenter, S. R., Dahm, C. N., McKnight, D. M., Naiman, R. J., Postel, S. L., & Running, S. W. (2001). Water in a changing world. Ecological applications, 11(4), 1027–1045.
75. Rockström, J., & Falkenmark, M. (2000). “Semiarid Crop Production from a Hydrological Perspective” (FAO) 2011. Save and Grow: A Policymaker’s Guide to the Sustainable Intensification of Smallholder Crop Production, FAO (Rome), 2011, 7369, 337–342.
76. Carson, R., Silent Spring, Houghton Mifflin, 1962.
77. Foley, J. A., Ramankutty, N., Brauman, K. A., Cassidy, E. S., Gerber, J. S., Johnston, M.,… West, P. C. (2011). Solutions for a cultivated planet. Nature, 478(7369), 337–342.
78. Rabhi, P., Du Sahara aux Cévennes: Itinéraire d’un homme au service de la Terre-Mère, Albin Michel, 2002.
79. See Dubesset-Chatelain, L. (February 2003). L’homme qui a réussi à faire reculer le desert. GEO, 408, p. 20.
80. There are about twenty species of rice numbering thousands of varieties often classified according to the speed with which they ripen (precocity) and the length of their vegetative cycle (which ranges from ninety to over two hundred and ten days).
85. UNEP (2011). Report on “Recycling Rates of Metals.”
86. Evaluation report by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Cited in Wijkman, A., & Rockström, J. (2013). Op. cit., p. 164.
87. How long will it last? (2007). New Scientist. Cited in Rockström, J., & Klum, M. (2012). The Human Quest. Op. cit., p. 221.
88. Rifkin, J. (2012). The Third Industrial Revolution. Op. cit.
89. Ibid., p. 79, 105.
90. Meyfroidt, P., & Lambin, É. (2008). The causes of the reforestation in Vietnam. Land Use Policy, 25(2), 182–197.
91. Ethical Markets 2012. The Green Transition Scorecard. Ethical Markets Media.
92. Portland, America’s eco-capital. GEO, 392, October 2011.
93. Morin, E. (2011). Op. cit., p. 256.
94. See http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningzone/clips/the-beddington-zero-energy-development-a-sustainable-design-solution/6338.html.
95. Sunita Narain. Cited in Wijkman, A., & Rockström, J. (2013). Op. cit.
96. Lomborg, B., The Skeptical Environmentalist: Measuring the Real State of the World, Cambridge University Press, 2001, pp. 165–172.
97. “Harmony with Nature” report, presented by the Secretary General of the United Nations on August 19, 2010. This aspect of the report is based on a study contributed by Chivian, Éric (dir.), Biodiversity: Its Importance to Human Health—Interim Executive Summary, Center for Health and the Global Environment, Harvard Medical School, 2002.
1. Partha Dasgupta, cited in Wijkman, A., & Rockström, J. (2013), Op. cit., p. 125.
2. Wijkman, A., & Rockström, J. (2013), Op. cit., p. 37.
3. Ibid.
4. Stern, N., The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review, Cambridge University Press, 2007.
5. Daly, H. E., Beyond Growth: The Economics of Sustainable Development, Beacon Press, 1997.
6. Jackson, T., Prosperity Without Growth: Economics for a Finite Planet, Routledge, 2010.
7. Ibid.
8. Speth, J. G., The Bridge at the Edge of the World: Capitalism, the Environment, and Crossing from Crisis to Sustainability, Yale University Press, 2009.
9. Le Monde, June 9, 2009.
10. Costanza, R., Kubiszewski, I., Giovannini, E., Lovins, H., McGlade, J., Pickett, K. E.,… Wilkinson, R. (2014). Time to leave GDP behind. Nature, (505), 283–285.
11. Kuznets, S., “National Income, 1929–1932,” 73rd Congress, 2nd session, Senate document no. 124, 1934, p. 7.
12. Kuznets, S. How to judge quality. New Republic, October 20, 1962, pp. 29–32.
13. Seligman, M., Flourish, Belfond, 2013. Kindle locations 4829–4854; Diener, E., & Seligman, M. E. (2004). Beyond money toward an economy of well-being. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 5(1), 1–31.
14. Personal communication, Dasho Karma Ura of the Centre for Bhutan Studies & GNH Research, http://www.bhutanstudies.org.bt/. See also the GNH Centre, http://www.gnhbhutan.org/.
15. Kennedy, R. Speech on March 18, 1968, at the University of Kansas. In The Gospel According to RFK, Westview Press, p. 41.
16. Including Herman Daly, Robert Costanza, Manfred Max-Neef, and Charles Hall, as well as progressive economists like Joseph Stiglitz, Nicholas Stern, Dennis Snower, Partha Dasgupta, and Amartya Sen.
17. Their studies are summarized in Miringoff, M. L., & Miringoff, M.-L., The Social Health of the Nation: How America is Really Doing, Oxford University Press, 1999.
18. Daly, H. E., Cobb, Jr., J. B., & Cobb, C. W., For the Common Good: Redirecting the Economy toward Community, the Environment, and a Sustainable Future, Beacon Press, 1994.
19. The Bhutanese do, however, slaughter animals for meat, and only a small number of them are vegetarian. Former kings used to engage in hunting as a form of special privilege, but that practice has now been abandoned.
20. H. E. Lyonchen Jigme Thinley, personal communication.
21. Up to the end of the nineteenth century, Bhutan was a federation of small provinces overseen by a central government. The first king, Ugyen Wangchuck, reigned from 1907 to 1952. Bhutan joined the United Nations in 1971. In 2006, the fourth king, Jigme Sengye Wangchuck, announced his intention to introduce democracy, abdicating in favor of his son, Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, who in 2010 became the fifth king at the head of a constitutional monarchy similar to the British monarchy.
22. Cited in Jyoti Thottam. The pursuit of happiness. Time, October 22, 2012, p. 49.
23. The discussions can be viewed on the site http://www.gnhc.gov.bt/2012/04/un-webcast-on-happiness-and-wellbeing-high-level-panel-discussion/. My modest contribution occurs at 1:58:30 of Part 1.
24. Among them the Nobel Prize winner Daniel Kahneman, Joseph Stiglitz, and George Akerlof, the economists Jeffrey Sachs and Richard Layard, along with eminent scientists including Richard Davidson, Daniel Gilbert, Martin Seligman, Robert Putnam, John Helliwell, and many others.
25. Wijkman, A., & Rockström, J. (2013). Op. cit., p. 3.
26. H. E. Lyonchen Jigme Thinley, “Bhutan will be the first country with expanded capital accounts.” Press conference at the occasion of the release of the first national accounts factoring in natural, social, and human capital, February 10, 2012.
27. Meda, D., Au-delà du PIB: Pour une autre mesure de la richesse, Flammarion, 2008, p. 98.
28. Say, J. B., Traité d’économie politique, ou simple exposition de la manière dont se forment, se distribuent, et se consomment les richesses, Adamant Media, 2001 (original edition, 1803).
29. Wijkman, A., & Rockström, J. (2013). Op. cit., pp. 132–133.
30. Ibid., p. 3.
31. Article 9, section 2, of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan reads, “The State shall strive to promote those conditions that will enable the pursuit of Gross National Happiness.”
32. Interview with Lyonchen Tshering Topgay by Jo Cofino for the Guardian, April 2014.
33. Lambin, É., Une écologie du bonheur, Le Pommier, 2009. Éric Lambin shares his time between the Georges-Lemaître Centre for Earth and Climate Research, the Université catholique de Louvain, and the School of Earth Sciences at Stanford University, California.
34. Zidansek, A. (2007). Sustainable development and happiness in nations. Energy, 32(6), 891–897. Cited in Lambin, É. (2009). Op. cit., p. 38.
35. Kellert, S. R., & Wilson, E. O., The Biophilia Hypothesis, Island Press, 1995.
36. Lambin, É. (2009). Op. cit., p. 51.
37. Ulrich, R. (1984). View through a window may influence recovery. Science, 224, 224–225. Cited in Lambin, É. (2009). Op. cit., p. 52.
38. Rifkin, J. (2012). The Third Industrial Revolution. Op. cit., p. 380.
1. James Freeman Clarke (1810–1888) was an American theologian, a human rights defender, and a social activist.
2. My thanks go to my friend Thierry Lombard, philanthropist and partner of Lombard Odier & Co, for the discussions we have had on this subject.
3. Comte-Sponville, A. (September 10, 2009). Challenges, 179, p. 51.
4. Lamy, P. (2005). “Global Governance: Lessons from Europe.” Gunnar Myrdal lecture, UN, Geneva.
5. Tubiana, L., Severino, J.-M. (2002). “Biens publics globaux, gouvernance mondiale et aide publique au développement,” CAE (Conseil d’Analyse Économique) report on global governance.
6. Collegium International counts, or counted, among its principal members Edgar Morin, Michel Rocard, Mireille Delmas-Marty, Richard von Weizsäcker, Stéphane Hessel, Fernando Henrique Cardoso, Peter Sloterdijk, Patrick Viveret, Ruth Dreifuss, and many others.
7. Deneault, A., Gouvernance: Le Management totalitaire, Lux, 2013.
8. Forum on New World Governance; http://www.world-governance.org/spip.php?article144.
9. Jacquet, P., Pisani-Ferry, J., & Tubiana, L. (2003). À la recheche de la gouvernance mondiale. Revue d’économie financière, 70, January 2003.
10. Attali, J., Demain, qui gouvernera le monde?, Fayard/Pluriel, 2012.
11. Stiglitz, J. E. (2006). “Global public goods and global finance: does global governance ensure that the global public interest is served?” In Touffut, J.-P., Advancing Public Goods, Edward Elgar, 2006.
12. Ibid.
13. Jacques Attali, interview on 20minutes.fr, November 19, 2006, following the release of Brève histoire de l’avenir, Fayard, 2009.
14. See his manifesto Rebalancing Society on the site http://www.mintzberg.org.
15. Reverchon, A. Henry Mintzberg contre l’entreprise arrogante, Le Monde/économie. LeMonde.fr., May 21, 2012.
16. Rifkin, J. (2012). The Third Industrial Revolution. Op cit., p. 374.
17. Salamon, L. M. (2010). Putting the civil society sector on the economic map of the world. Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics, 81(2), 167–210. Cited in Rifkin, J. (2012). Op. cit., p. 374. The eight countries that were studied most fully were the United States, Canada, France, Japan, Australia, the Czech Republic, Belgium, and New Zealand.
18. Kurzweil, R., The Singularity Is Near, M21 éditions, 2005, p. 30.
19. Ibid.
20. Rifkin, J. (2012). Op. cit., p. 377.
21. Dalai Lama, Sagesse ancienne, monde moderne, Fayard, 1999.
22. Morin, E., & Hessel, S., Le Chemin de l’espérance, Fayard, 2011, p. 11.
23. Stiglitz, J. E., The Price of Inequality, Norton, 2012.
24. Francis Fukuyama, Acemoglu and Robinson on Why Nations Fail, The American Interest, March 26, 2012.
25. Stiglitz, J. (2012). Op. cit., p. 145.
26. Rodrik, D., The Globalization Paradox: Democracy and the Future of the World Economy, W. W. Norton, 2011.
27. Morin, E., & Hessel, S. (2011). Op. cit., p. 12.
28. Pascal Lamy, “Towards Global Goverance?” Conference at the Institut d’Études Politiques de Paris, October 21, 2005. Lamy, P., La Démocratie-monde: Pour une autre gouvernance globale, Seuil, 2004.
29. Dalai Lama, & Hessel, S., Déclarons la paix! Pour un progrès de l’esprit, Indigène Éditions, 2012.
30. Ibid.
31. Winston Churchill, in a speech on November 11, 1947 in the House of Commons, London. The Official Report, House of Commons (5th series), November 11, 1947, vol. 444, pp. 206–207.
32. Presentation at a workshop by the French NGO Fondation Sciences Citoyennes at the World Social Forum; http://sciencescitoyennes.org/.
33. Berggruen, N., & Gardels, N., Intelligent Governance for the 21st Century: A Middle Way Between West and East, Polity, 2012.
34. 21st Century Council, a Berggruen Institute initiative, has a number of distinguished members, including Gordon Brown, Gerhard Schröder, Amartya Sen, Joseph Stiglitz, Francis Fukuyama, and Pascal Lamy.
35. Berggruen, N., & Gardels, N. (2012). Op. cit., pp. 172–3.
36. Ibid., p. 181.
37. Ibid., p. 183.
38. Attali, J., Demain, qui gouvernera le monde? Fayard/Pluriel, 2012, pp. 305–6.
1. Nowak, M., & Highfield, R. (2011), SuperCooperators. Op. cit., pp. 271–2 and 280.
2. The origin of this famous quote, attributed to Bertrand Russell, has not been traced.
3. Albert Schweitzer, from a speech given at Silcoates School in Great Britain, December 1935.