ability to wait, 100
absolute measures of poverty, 10, 11, 12, 20, 22, 80–8, 256, 257, 258, 262, 269; moving beyond, 267–73; underestimations of, 92–103
absolutism, versus relativism, 52–3
absolutist core of poverty, 52
academic institutions, northern, dependence on, 110
access and coverage, 244
accounting practices, biases in, 4
accumulation by dispossession, 4
Acemoglu, D., 219
additive versus substitutive changes in social provision, 250–2
adjustment with equity, 29
adverse incorporation, 143, 168, 175
affirmative/positive action, 49, 188
Afghanistan, 33
African-Americans in US prisons, 150
aggregate demand, effective, 199
aggregation: of factors, 124; of health and education, 5–6; of micro-level behaviours, 136; quandaries of, 113–28
agrarian economies, 195, 216; cash economy in, 100; food consumption in, 82; in Global South, 268; incomes in, 70; productivity in, 190; workforce in, in China, 34
agrarian productive assets, assessment of, 122
agriculture, productivity in, 205
aid transfers, 216
Alcántara, C.H., 45
alcohol, expenditure on, 85
Alkire-Foster method, 124
Amazon, 211
Amin, S., 149
Andersen, M.A., 210
anorexia nervosa, 111
anti-globalisation movements, 27, 30
anti-Muslim activism, in China, 169–70
anti-poverty policies, 6; in China, 230–1
Apple, 211
Appleton, S., 230
arbitrariness: in definition of social exclusion, 168; in establishing poverty lines, 80, 87, 88, 89, 106; in measurement of poverty, 60, 112; of money-metric measures, 103
Arendt, H., 180
Arrow, K., 207
Arrow-Debreu model, 185
asset approach, 54
asset depletion, 101
asset ownership, 101
austerity, 32, 40, 108–9; effects of, 124; imposed on debtor countries, 31
autarky, 134
Bagchi, A.K., 137
Banerjee, A.V., 13, 14, 44, 71, 85, 219, 234
Bangladesh: poverty rates in, 94; textile industry in, 268
barbers, comparative productivity of, 207
Barrientos, A., 243
basal metabolic rate (BMR), 82
basic income, 198; universal, 243, 257
basic needs, 77, 102–3; absolute, 13; determining of, 87
basic needs approach, 54, 80, 81, 130
basket of goods, 129; for poor people, comparable, 78–9; of food items, establishment of, 84; used to set poverty lines, 106
Bateman, M., 144
behavioural research, 14–15, 219
benefit lines, 89; driven by political considerations, 73; in China, 74
Big Mac index, 79
binaries, normative, avoidance of, 217
Birch, M.B.L., 88
Bismarck, O. von, 47
Block, F., 27
body-mass index (BMI), 111, 112, 114, 120
Bolsa Familia (Brazil), 232, 234, 236, 238, 251; cooptation of, 237
Bosworth, B.P., 210
Brazil, 119, 232, 234, 251; conditional cash transfers in, 235–8; consumer price index of, 78; poverty reduction programmes in, 232; rising bus fares protest in, 20
bulimia nervosa, 111
bus fares, rising, protests over, in Brazil, 20
Byrne, D., 166
calorie definition of poverty line, 81
calorie requirements: for heavy labour, 82; of poor people, 83, 102; of urban / rural populations, 81; of women, 81, 82–3; standards, whittling down of, 81
Cambridge capital controversies, 206
Canada, 241
capability, 141; enhancement of, through education, 136
capability approach, 13, 45, 50, 54, 107, 110, 111, 128, 131, 140, 143, 151, 153, 158, 159, 164, 272; emphasis on freedom, 130; failure of, 129; changing label of, 132–3
capability failure, 139, 143, 145, 182
capital, impossibility of measuring, 206
capitalism, 8, 17, 28, 41, 138, 143–4, 162, 185, 195, 213–14, 254
cardiovascular disease, among Asians, 112
cash, for purchasing of commodities, 5
cash economy, extension of, 99
cash transfers, 11, 97, 187, 198, 200, 201, 225, 232, 251, 257, 266; as human capital investments, 48; conditional (CCTs), 233, 234, 239, 247; conditional (CCTs) in Brazil, 235–8; demand effect of, 252; in Brazil, 234; indexing of, 238; popularity of, 47
causality, 184, 209; econometric tests for, 184
census-taking, 127
Centre for Global Development, 36
Centre for the Analysis of Social Exclusion (CASE), 159
Chandhoke, N., 266
charity, 9, 43, 196, 263, 264, 265, 267
Chenery, H., 207
child mortality see mortality, of children
Chile, 39
China, 31, 203, 256; currency of, undervalued, 79–80; education system in, 247; food poverty line in, 81; growth in, 3–4, 40; growth of corruption in, 20; household surveys in, 72; income and expenditure surveys in, 70; migration in, 171–2; poverty in, 1, 33–4, 91, 94; poverty lines in, 34, 76, 84, 86; school enrolment in, 115–16; targeted welfare in, 230–1; unfair trade practices in, 212; urban poverty in, 86, 88 Western, minorities in, 256; see also Tibetan areas of Western China, 100, 121
civil registries: improvement of, 127; inadequacy of, 69–70
class conflict, 17
class relations, 195
Clert, C., 166
coercion, use of, in development, 138
coffee sector, collapsing prices in, 193
Cold War, 39
Commission on Global Poverty, 76
commodification, 34, 97; extension of, 99; fictitious, 248; of labour, 98, 271; of livelihoods, 4, 18–19, 258; of social provisioning, 105
commodity booms, 31
commodity consumption, monetised, 67
commodity economy, 101
compatibility of incentives, 134
compelling social needs, 12
composite index, use of term, 113
composite indicators, 113–28; perils of, 110
composite indices: construction of, 140; problem of meaning in, 117–22
conception and production of poverty statistics, politics of, 24, 49–53
conditionalities, 48, 265; in social protection, 43, 141; moral issues of, 233
Congo, Democratic Republic of, 33
consumer behaviour studies, 73
consumer price indices (CPI), 92; in China, 94
consumption: correlations regarding, 56; non-food, determining of, 65, 87; non-monetised, 63; smoothing of, 71; sustainability of, 71
consumption profiles, changes in, 3; measurement of, 4
Correa, Rafael, 112
corruption, 225; costs associated with, 20; data regarding, 32
cost disease, 209
cost-recovery, 20
costing/pricing in social policy, 226, 244, 248–9; see also social policy, costing and pricing
costs of living, 15, 76, 79, 84, 91–2; in urban areas, 4, 172, 258–9
coverage, dimension of, 229, 244
critical poverty studies, 24, 186, 218
Cuba, free health and education in, 97
Dalits, 168
De Soto, H., 148
de-politicisation of poverty, 6, 9, 11, 25, 27, 35, 223, 238–40, 252, 254, 263, 265, 274
death rates, measurement of, 113–14
Deaton, A., 9, 69, 76, 90, 184, 263
debt, 5; arising from health costs, 93; international crisis of, 29, 30, 32; repayments of, 13, 20
deciles, income, or representative households, use of, 72
deconstruction of poverty approaches, 6–8, 259–61
defecation, open, 120; preference for, 122
demand-side factors, 47, 198, 218
democracy, 261
demographic and health surveys (DHS), 126
demographic transitions, 5, 11–12, 19, 258
dependency: behavioural, 83, 265; institutional, 110, 260; school, 29, 149; structural, 33
deprivation: as form of exclusion, 157–8; relative, 158, 182
deregulation, 26, 148, 166, 214
development agendas, 9–10, 23, 29, 41; political engagement with, 25, 226, 273–4; within wider social policy lens, 252–3
development, critique of, 7
Devereux, S., 243
diabetes, among Asians, 112
diet: balanced, 84; shifts in quality of, 102
differentiation, of social exclusion from poverty, benefits of, 174–81
Dilma administration (Brazil), 232, 251
dimensionality, 62
direct approaches to poverty measurement, 111–13
disadvantage, 143, 146, 160, 162, 221
discrimination, 143, 146, 150, 151, 176–7, 179, 182, 221, 245; see also identity discrimination and non-discrimination
disempowerment, by top-down targeting modalities, 266
dispossession, 4
distribution: category of 193–6; distinct from pre-distribution, 193–4; secondary, 196
divergences, between social exclusion and poverty, 171–4
dollar-a-day (PPP) poverty measure, 34, 45, 76–80, 91–2, 103, 106, 270
double movement, 27
dowries, inflation of, 173
Drewnowski, J., On Measuring and Planning the Quality of Life, 108
Du Toit, A., 143, 145, 168, 175
Duflo, E., 13, 14, 44, 71, 85, 219, 234
East Asian crisis, 30
Easterly, W., 32
economic environment of the poor, 14
Ecuador, 233, 238; undernutrition in, 57, 91; undernutrition in, measurement of, 112
education, 47, 54, 64, 67, 111, 114, 117, 127, 136, 175, 176, 177, 178, 187, 197, 200, 227, 242, 243, 258; affected by austerity, 124; aggregated into statistics, 5; in defence of colonial legacies, 8; commodification of, 20, 34, 97, 248; costs not included in poverty lines, 93; enrolment in, 48, 114, 117, 118, 119, 121, 123, 221, 238; enrolment in, in China, 115–16; fragmentation in, 247; importance of, for poverty reduction, 46; levels of schooling, 12; measured by literacy, 118; monopolistic practices in, 248; needs for employment, 13, 270; of migrants, 145; period of schooling, 125; post-primary, paying for, 100; private, 249; privatisation of, 105; public, under-funded, 249; reflected in expenditure surveys, 107; rising schooling levels, 272; school attendance, 47, 141, 234, 241; school system segmented, 245; spending on, in China, 227; supply-side in, 198; tuition costs, in China, 94–5; universal provision of, 224
education transitions, 19
El Salvador, 39
electricity, access to, 120
Elson, D., 23
empirical project, methodology of, 7
empowerment, use of term, 11, 266
Engels curves, 87
enrolment rates see education, enrolment in
entitlement approach, 13, 45, 54, 131
entitlement failure, 131, 133, 143
entitlements: claiming of, 267; mapping of, 131; transition from, 110
entrepreneurship, 178
equity, 229, 244; framing of, 230
Ethiopia, 137
ethnic cleansing, 181
European Commission, 143; definition of social exclusion, 155
European Union, poverty line in, 74
European Union Social Protection Committee, 155
evaluation over time, of poverty lines, 88–92
exclusion, 272; as synonym for disadvantage, 174; concept of, Eurocentric aspect of, 148–9; definition of, 150; see also social exclusion
exclusion lines, 167
expenditure: on festivals and lifecycle events, 71; smoothing of, 71
exploitation, definition of, 21
factoral, use of term, 202
factoral terms of trade, 216
fads, waves of, 260
Faisalabad, municipal sweepers in, 166
fallacy of productivity reductionism, 192, 205–18
famine, 10, 53, 113, 131, 258; explanations of, 16; in Bengal, 132; in India, 38
farm economy, model of, 195, 197, 201, 212
fascism, 181; social origins of, 180
Felipe, J., 207
feminisation of poverty, 172–4
Figueiredo, J.B., 143, 145, 152, 154–5, 161, 166, 170
finance, as redistributive process, 197
financialisation, 5, 208, 237, 255, 264
financing of social policy see social policy, financing of
financing, modality of social provisioning, 249–50
flat-rate tax, 230
flexibility of labour see labour market, flexible
food: consumption of, comparative costs of, 79; declines relative to other needs, 102–3; historically low prices of, 267; prices of, 85; prices, falling, 102–3; terms of trade for, 105
Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), 81–3
food availability, decline of, 131, 132
food consumption: foregoing of, 15; repressed, 258
food insufficiency, shift from, 268
food poverty lines, 81; establishment of, 87; in China, 81
food security, 82; in rich countries, 91
food stamps, work requirement for, 257
foreign exchange, 201
formal employment, integration into, 186
Foster-Greer-Thorbecke Index, 87
freedom, 40
freedom not to work, 22
freedom, concept of, 138
freedoms, conflicting, 136
functionings, 130, 133, 137, 159, 171; determination of, 261; use of term, 129
Furtado, C., 19, 149, 213, 214, 215, 271, 272
gender, 146, 178; relation to poverty, 173
gender approaches to poverty, 23, 54, 63, 172, 173
gender relations, in Indian households, 173
Germany, 240
Gershenkron, A., 240
Ghai, D., 45
girl child, discrimination against, in India, 173
Global South, 268; recurrent crises of, 255; rising productivity of, 212
globalisation, 16, 28, 214, 270; use of term, 8, 26–7, 254
Good Governance Agenda, 42
Goodwin, G., 213
Google, 211
Gore, C., 143, 145, 149, 152, 154–5, 158, 161, 163, 166, 170
graduation from welfare, 48, 238
Greece, 42
Green Revolution, 173
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) 79, 108, 189, 193; statistics, criticism of, 66
growth: fetishism of, 66; theorisation of, 185–6
Guatemala, 39
Guomintang, 39
happiness, 2–3, 67, 111, 137; measurement of, 115
Harriss-White, B., 41
Harvey, D., 4
headcount ratios, 87
health, 54, 57, 64, 67, 117, 141, 187, 197, 200, 234, 242; aggregated into statistics, 5; colonial legacies of, 8; of rich, 120
health care, 227, 233; access to, 13; affected by austerity, 124; commodification of, 20, 34, 97, 248, 250; costs of, 15; costs of, in China, 94–5; costs of, not included in poverty lines, 93–7; importance of, for poverty reduction, 46; in Asia, 250; monopolistic practices in, 248; privatisation of, 105; reflected in expenditure surveys, 107; reform of, in USA, 249, 250; supply-side in, 198; universal, 222
health insurance, 15, 241; in China, 249; in India, 249; private, 41
Helwege, A., 88
Heumann, L., 8
Hills, J., 167
Hirschman, A.O., Exit, Voice and Loyalty, 232
Hirway, I., 127
household boundaries, defining of, 70
housing, 13, 270; commodification of, 34
human capital, 47, 200, 208, 209, 224, 248, 269; improvement of, 128
Human Development Index HDI), 108, 109, 117, 118, 122–5 passim, 129, 130, 140, 151; criticism of, 118–19; used for regional targeting, 119
Human Development Reports (HDR), 108, 118, 135, 137
human rights, 6; as guidelines for policy, 273
human rights-based approaches, 48, 239–40
humanitarian imperatives, 10
hunger, 10, 111; measurement of, 91; persistence of, 258
identification, 57, 254, 266; as moral issue in political economy, 58; process of, 50; tension with segregation, 24, 221–53, 263
identity discrimination, 160
ideology, 8, 23, 25, 28, 44, 60, 138, 148, 255, 263; use of term, 7–8; pejorative, 8
illiteracy, rate of, 119
immigrants: subordination and segregation of, 177; to North America, 112; see also migrants
immigration, international, constraints on, 177
import substitution policies, 38
inclusion: exploitative, 269; financial, 144; subordinated, 175–7; see also social inclusion
income: converted into outcomes of wellbeing, 111; non-monetised, 63, 67
income and expenditure surveys: conventional, 62; in China, 70
income distribution, flattening-out of, 175
income-generation projects, 190–1
income-reporting systems, 93
India, 112, 186; calory consumption in, 81; caste system in, 166; Dalits in, 168; famine in, 38; gendered analysis of households in, 172–3; Great Poverty Debates, 77; gross national income of, 36–7; nutrition in, 107; poverty allviation in, 127; poverty debates in, 90; poverty lines in, 76, 77, 78; poverty lines in, setting of, regional, 87; purchasing power in, 79; social exclusion study in, 155; undernutrition in, 57
Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), 82, 83
inductive empiricist approach, 73
industrialisation, 19, 38, 47, 217, 240–1; importance of, 202; urban, 39
inequality, 29, 52, 69, 72, 74, 139, 172, 175, 186, 252, 264, 270; among the non-poor, 180; conflict arising from, 183; horizontal, 175; in rural communities, 98; reduction of, 230, 231, 236; sources of, 191, 195
inequality-induced conflict, 179–81
infant mortality see mortality, of infants
inflation, 86, 238; effects of, on the poor, 92
informal sectors, non-integratability of, 264
informalisation of labour, 144
information, economy of, 134
insecurity, 181; of poor people, 171
Institute of Development Studies (IDS), 156
institutionalist political economy approach, 184–220
insurance, social, 227; private, 247
integrated systems, 174, 244–5
interest rates, double in US, 33
international financial institutions, role of, 31
International Institute of Labour Studies (IILS), 148, 149, 152, 158, 161, 163, 168, 170
International Labour Office (ILO), 148, 222, 247
International Monetary Fund (IMF), 251; Framework on Social Spending, 224
International Poverty Centre (Brazil), 236
internships, unpaid, as class screening system, 99
inverted-U hypothesis, 191
Jackson, C., 146, 172, 173–4, 178
Japan, 240; poverty lines in, 78
Jews, exclusion of, 167
job guarantee programmes, 242–3
Jolliffe, D., 71
Jordan, poverty research in, 71
justice, concept of, 138
Keynesianism, 43, 46, 110, 199, 201; military, 46
Khan, M., 195
Korpi, W., 230
Kozel, V., 90
labour, 187–8; commodification of, 98, 271; disciplining of, 269; organisation of, 185, 187; resistance of, 46; value of, 202, 203, 204; value of,determined by power relations, 213; value of, in finance services, 208; working-class, value of, 194; see also productivity, of labour
labour intensity, use of term, 208, 209
labour market, 131, 236; flexible, 43, 48, 271
labour productivity, 190
Laderchi, C.R., 154, 155, 162, 163, 164
Latin America: economic crisis in, 148; household surveys in, 88; lost decade of, 28; neoliberalism in, 264; poverty policies in, 233
Latin Americanisation of socioeconomic structures, 149
lawyers, comparative productivity of, 207
legibility of poor populations, 7
Lenoir, R., 149; Les Exclus, 147
Levien, M., 213
Levitas, R., 153, 155, 157, 159, 167
Levy, S., 234
Levy Institute, 243
Lewis, A., 17, 201, 202–5, 216
life expectancy, 108, 130, 258; as measure of health, 118; measurement of, 119; rate, of rich people, 120
linguistic competency, as aspect of social exclusion, 174
Lipton, M., 42
literacy, 5, 12, 117, 121, 135, 258; as input or outcome, 129; assumption of, 70; rates of, 108, 114, 118, 130; rates of, low in rural areas, 116; see also illiteracy
livelihood approach, 54
livelihoods: commoditisation of, 18–19; diversification of, 70
livestock assets, ownership of, 101
'low-hanging fruit', 44
Lula administration (Brazil), 232, 236
macro-systemic view, 215
Maddison, A., 18
Mahatma Gandhi Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme, 242
malnutrition, measurement of, 91
Malthus, Thomas, 17, 43, 50, 105, 132, 194, 268
Mann, M., 181
marginal productivity theory of wages, 204, 213
marginalisation, 146, 148, 149, 186; meaning of, 186–7
market freedom, 133
market process of price discovery, 46
market society, use of term, 213
market system, 46
markets, obstruction of, 133, 135, 194, 212, 224
Martinez Franzoni, J., 221, 229, 225, 244
Marx, K., 7, 17, 50, 105, 194, 268
maternity leave, non-taking of, 21
McCombie, J.S.L., 207
means and outcomes, distinction between, 54
means-testing, 73, 229, 241, 242, 246, 247, 266; in Brazil, 237; proxy testing, 64–5, 235
measurement: of consumption, proxy measurement, 64–5; of expenditures, 70; of income, 69; of productivity, 192, 207; of social exclusion, 153; subjectivity of, 55; see also proxy measures
measurement of poverty, 25, 42, 52, 68, 125, 152, 172; a political project, 261; complexity of, 141; direct, 110, 140; indirect, 62, 67–8; politics of, 6–8; precision in, 232; regionally based, 86–7
methodological individualism, 135
micro-foundations, 14, 136, 219
microfinance, 44, 70, 144, 191
middle classes, 232, 247, 265, 269; in USA, 178
migrants: international, exclusions of, 144; omitted from surveys, 70; urban, 4
migration, 137, 175; European, 204; in China, 101, 171–2; of nineteenth century, 204; rural-to-urban, 100
Milanovic, B., 192
Miliband, E., 193
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), 1–2, 12–13, 20–1, 23, 30, 31, 35, 41, 48, 109, 223, 238, 252, 254, 258, 262, 268; goals for income poverty, 1; reliance on absolute poverty targets, 9
Millennium Declaration, 30
Minhas, S., 207
Mkandawire, T., 31, 49, 219, 223, 225, 227, 228, 230, 231, 232, 241, 243, 261
mobile phones, ownership of, 56, 66, 100, 125
mobility, social, 176, 272; social, obstacles to, 177–8, 179; upward, 177–8
modernisation without economic development, 215
monetarism, 26
monetary policy, 219
monetisation of livelihoods, 4
money-metric, use of term, 62–7
money-metric approach, 9, 23, 54, 60–106, 115, 254, 270; arbitrariness of, 68–92; tendency to underestimate, 61, 62
morbidity, rates of, 12, 111, 114, 130
mortality: maternal, measurement of, 114; maternal, under-reporting of, 116; of children, 121; of children, measurement of, 114; 119–20; of infants, 108; of infants, measurement of, 114; rates of, 12, 113, 125; rates of, decline of, 33; rates of, improvements in, 123–4; rates of, measurement of, 119, 123–4; related to road accidents, 120
motorcycles, ownership of, 100
Moyo, D., 32
Mukerjee, M., 132
multidimensional: approaches to poverty, 5, 9, 10, 23, 41, 42, 45, 50, 54, 62, 64, 107–41, 145, 160, 162, 164, 182, 256, 258, 269; social exclusion, 169
Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI), 109, 116, 117, 119–22, 123, 127, 129, 130, 140, 141; as evaluative device, 127; institutionalisation of, 126; operationalised as targeting device, 126
Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys, 126
multiple jobs, holding of, 21
Myrdal, G., 136
national accounting, 67–8, 88, 189, 193
National Bureau of Statistics (China), 74, 81, 89
National Institute of Nutrition (India), 83
neo-extractivism, 31
neoclassical economics, 24, 26, 133, 134, 185, 189, 203–4, 205–6, 213, 219; revival of, 136
neoliberal governmentality, 255
neoliberal subjectivities, 26, 256
neoliberalism, 25, 29, 40, 43, 44, 61, 92, 105, 134, 137, 148, 199, 214, 223, 225, 254–74; concern with markets, 143; critique of, 7; paradigmatic shift in, 32; use of term, 8
New Democrats, 29
New Institutionalist Economics, 42, 219
New Keynesianism, 206
New Labour, 29
New Left, 44
New Poverty Agenda, 42
New Public Management, 26
non-contributory social protection, 264
non-discrimination: meaning of, 48–9; principle of, 239
non-food needs, 13, 61, 81, 87, 89, 103, 105, 258, 268
North, D.C., 219
numeracy, assumption of, 70
nutrition, 111; fluctuations in weight measurement, 112; in India, 107; levels of, 81, 130
nutritional norms of working class and poor, 84
Obama, B., 249
obesity, rise of, 102
O'Brien, D., 166
obscuration by aggregation, problem of, 122–5
ontology: individualist, 139; use of term, 135–6
Oportunidades programme (Mexico), 232, 234, 239
orchestral performers, productivity of, 211
ordering, 142
out-of-pocket payments, 97, 250
overlaps of categories, binary, 167
Palma ratio, 36
Palme, J., 230
participation, political, lack of, 151
participatory approaches, 54, 58
paternalism, 43
payments to the factors of production, 193
peasant production, not seen as driver of growth, 217
Peck, J., 255
pensions, 243
performing arts, salaries in, 210
peripheralisation, 149
Peru, social exclusion study in, 156
Physical Quality of Life Index, 108
Planning Commission of the Government of India, 91
Pogge, T., 13, 45, 55, 78, 263
Polanyi, K., 135, 138, 180, 196, 213, 225, 248; The Great Transformation, 27
Polanyi Levitt, K., 137
policy debates, politicisation of, 226, 274
political activism, role of, 272
political economy, classical, 185
political power, structure of, 214
politics of poverty measurement, deconstruction of, 6
poor people: as reserve army, 179; behavioural contexts of, 14; blaming of, 182–3, 273; contribution to state revenues, 264; 'deserving', 43, 99; disciplining of, 254; managing behaviours of, 233; productivity of, 190; urban, calory requirements of, 83
population growth, 17; in sub-Saharan Africa, 33
populism, right-wing, rise of, 129, 181, 255
post-development studies, 7
post-Washington Consensus, 42
poverty: absolute, 40, 75, 103; absolute, reduction of, 142; absolute, underestimation of, 104; analysis of, variety of approaches to, 53–7; as deficient productivity, 190; as ideology, 254–74; as state of being, 168; causes of, 185, 262; causes of, holistic perspective regarding, 189; changing nature of, 267–8; concept of, 129; concept of, inherently political and ideological, 8–12, 22, 28, 59; definitions of, 15, 50–1; definitions of, as secondary and primary, 85; definitions of, proliferation of, 51; evolves within capitalism, 259; falling levels of, 2, 259; falling levels of, globally, 1, 33; growth of, in China, 33; growth of, in Latin America and Caribbean, 31; growth of, in USA, 257; measurement of see measurement, of poverty; modern, location of, 184–220; modern, relative nature of, 12–15, 257–8; reduction of, 12, 91, 190, 199–200, 215, 220, 226, 228, 230, 231, 233, 235, 239, 247, 265, 269; reduction of, in Brazil, 232; reduction of, in India, 127; reduction of, leading to gender equity, 172; reduction of, position of IMF, 251; reduction of, position of World Bank, 251; relation to unemployment, 56; relational theory of, 139, 143; relative, 20, 40, 162, 168; relative, definition of, 12; relative, reduction of, 142; statistics of, global, 6; structural transformation of, 270; targets of MDGs and SDGs, 12–13; theorisation of, 184–220; urban, 231; urban, in China, 86; see also absolute poverty; measurement, of poverty; time poverty
poverty analysis: as evaluative device, 57; as tool of policy intervention, 57
Poverty and Social Exclusion Survey (UK), 155
poverty lines, 13, 115, 153, 235, 237, 258; absolute, 75, 86, 89; absolute, in China, 76; adjustment of, 89; adjustment of, for poor countries, 89; area of political contestation, 104; definition of, 60–1, 69, 72, 83, 262, 268; in China, 34, 74, 76, 84, 86; in European Union, 52, 74; in India, 77, 78; narratives regarding, 255; related to basic needs, 81; rooted in food needs, 259; source of political contestaton, 76; used by World Bank, 75; varieties of, 73–88; see also food poverty line
poverty measures, politics of, 28–59
poverty relief, as act of benevolence, 267
poverty studies, 44–5, 51, 184–220, 255, 261; behavioural research in, 14; boom in, 43; depoliticisation in, 6; moral politics of, 57–9; poverty of, 261–3; predominance of economists in, 7; professionalisation of, 58; social democratic tradition in, 263; see also critical poverty studies
poverty traps, 15, 234; overcoming of, 219
price: determination of, 203; theories of, 204
price discovery, principle of, 134
prioritisation, politics of, 24, 41–5
priority, problems of, in multidimensional indices, 125–8
private property, 219; protection of, 255
privatisation, 20, 26, 93, 198–9, 214; of education, 105; of health, 105
pro-poor growth, 222
production: category of, 189–93; politics of, 49–53
production, distribution and redistribution triad, 189
productivity: definition of, 40, 206; of England and Europe, 18; of food production, 102–3; global, 267; global, increase of, 2; of individuals, 218; of industry, 19; of labour, 4, 64, 205, 210, 215, 217; marginal, 185; measurement of, 207; measurement in services, 208–9; national, 40, 218; output-based measurement of, 192; reductionism, 205–12; in service sector, 211
provisioning modalities of social policy, 226, 243–7
proxies, changing relevance of, 66
proxy measures of poverty, 56, 120, 127; opacity and obscurity of, 66
poverty lines, 2, 34, 45, 55, 60, 65, 72, 75–80, 103, 106, 118, 270; upwards adjustment of, 91
purchasing powers, evaluation of, 78
purchasing power parity (PPP) poverty lines, 34, 60, 72, 76–80, 86, 91, 106, 118, 270
purdah, 173
Rana Plaza disaster, 268
Rangarajan Committee (India), 77
rape, under-reporting of, 115
Ravallion, M., 68, 75, 78, 92, 95; Poverty Comparisons, 89
Rawls, J. 139
re-politicisation, of social justice, 273–4
Reddy, S.G., 45, 13, 55, 78, 130
redistribution, 40, 219, 221, 223, 225, 228, 231, 243; a political terrain, 252; category of, 196–8; importance of, 37–41; paradox of, 231; tension with growth, 39; vital role of, 269
redistributive approach, 187, 188, 189
relationality, meaning of, 162–5
relative and relations, use of terms, ambiguous, 152
relative approaches to poverty, 11–12, 20, 40, 52–3, 55, 75, 121, 142, 145, 150, 159, 162, 168, 176, 269
relative position, loss of, 175
relative surplus extraction, 18
relativism, versus absolutism, 52–3
relativity, 269; causal and positional, 145, 146, 168–71; meaning of, 162–5; of poverty, 12–15, 16
rents, in neoclassical economics, 194
representation, 11; politics of, 3, 23, 28–41
resettlement policies, 122
residency status, as vector of exclusion, 171
retirement, delaying of, 21
revisionism of poverty narrative, 30–7
Ricardo, D., 17, 105, 132, 194, 268
rich people, disposal of wealth of, 99
rights-based approaches, 48, 239; see also human rights-based approaches
Rodger, J.J., 255
Rodgers, G., 150
Room, G.J., 157, 161, 164, 170, 174, 178; Beyond the Threshold, 162
Rosenstein-Rodan, P.N., 56
Rothstein, B., 230
Rowntree, S., 85
rural areas: inequality in, 98; inequality in, lesser, 191; living standard measures biased again, 121
Russia, social exclusion study in, 155
Saad-Filho, A., 263
Sachs, J.D., 32
Samuelson, P., 206
Sanchez-Ancochea, D., 221, 225, 229, 244
sanitation facilities, 122
Sathyamala, C., 81, 82, 83, 84, 91
scarcity amidst abundance, 16, 18
schooling, 233
segmentation of social provisioning systems, 232, 238, 246
segregation, 142, 156, 182, 223, 226, 229, 232, 247, 254, 256, 264; normalisation of, 25, 263–4; of migrants, 177; of provisioning systems, 233–8; return of, 263–5; tension with identification, 24, 221–53, 263; tendencies towards, appear progressive, 265
self-determination, 274
self-targeting, 242
Sen, A., 13, 26, 45, 50, 52, 54–5, 64, 75, 90–1, 107, 110, 111, 126, 128–40, 143, 144, 158, 165, 168, 233, 261, 263; Development as Freedom, 157; endorsement of market freedom, 133–5; Poverty and Famine, 132; poverty index of, 87; theorisation of development, 16
Serajuddin, U., 71
service sectors, productivity in, 208–9, 210, 211
services, cost of, 55
sick leave, non-taking of, 21
small but healthy and efficient hypothesis, 112
social capital, 248
social citizenship, concept of, 159
social competencies, 135
social exclusion, 22, 24, 221, 232, 269; as policy approach, 54, 142–83; ambiguities of, 147–52, 152–65, 181; as result of struggle, 170; as type of poverty, 152, 154–62; concept of, Eurocentrism of, 165; concept of, redundancy of, 151, 182, 183; definition of, 154, 158, 162, 168; definition of, by European Commission, 155; distinct from poverty, 147, 161, 165–74; in terms of identities, 160; in terms of rights or choice, 159; measurement of, 153; operationalisation of, 153, 156, 179, 180, 181; redundant concept, 143, 144; vertically occurring process of, 180
social inclusion, 142, 269; definition of, 166; definition of, by World Bank, 186; policies of, 165–6
social insurance, 226, 247, 248, 249
social integration, 142
social isolation, 151
social justice, 10, 259–61; re-politicisation of, 273–4
social needs, 6, 12, 13–15, 24, 103, 118, 188, 218, 220, 227, 258–60, 267–70: calculation of, in poverty lines, 10, 105–6; in relation to development, 15–22
social policy, 24; and ordering, 227–40; conception of, 226; financing of, 226, 244; tension between identification and segregation, 221–53
social protection, 227, 242, 243, 247, 251
social safety net, approach of World Bank, 232
social scientific measurement, 6–7
social security: access to, 200; reform of, 251; retrenchment of, 265; universalisation of, 264
social security systems, 48, 270–1, 272; rural-based, 232
socially conditioned preferences, 15
Solow growth model, 185, 195, 206
Song, L., 230
South Korea, 38, 224; universalism in, 240
Sraffa, P., 206
starvation, 111; gradations of, 75, 102
state, intervention by, 40, 48
statistical agencies, 260; pressures on, 116
statistical capacity, shortcomings of, 76
statistical project, needs of, 259–60
statistics: arbitrariness of, 88; political nature of, 8, 90, 254; sampling methods of, 182; techniques of, 124; use of, in China, 256
Stewart, F., 179
Stolper-Samuelson model, 185
stratification, 142, 146, 182, 264, 270, 273; in exclusions, 175–7
streaming, 245
streamlining of incomes, 270
structural adjustment programmes (SAP), 30, 31, 35, 40, 45, 76, 108–9, 117, 137, 148, 232, 264; effects of, 124; failure of, 42; in Africa, 32
structuralist analysis, 184–220, 260
Sub-Saharan Africa, 33, 216; growth in, 1; lost decades of, 28, 30
subjective measures, 55
subjective preferences, 14
subprime crisis, 144
subsidies, 251; removal of, 20
subsistence, 5, 61, 105, 194, 215, 258; changing requirements of, 18; defined in terms of food, 17, 268; minimum levels of, 13; risk averse insurance principle, 100; sufficiency of, 16; use of term, 98
subsistence capacity, 271; absolute, 98; erosion of, 97–102
subsistence production, 62–3, 67, 116, 203, 204; shift away from, 100
sugar industry, productivity in, 202
suicide, under-reporting of, 115
super commodity and financial cycles, 1–2
supply-side, as concept, 128; has negative connotation, 201
supply-side perspective on poverty, 46, 47, 110, 131–40, 198, 218
surplus populations, 144
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), 2, 9, 12–13, 20–1, 23, 35, 223, 238, 252, 254, 258, 262, 268
Taiwan, 38, 224; universalism in, 240
Tanzania, 38; social exclusion study in, 155
targeting, 42, 49, 119, 134, 140, 187, 222, 225, 238, 239, 245, 256, 265; administrative capacity for, 232; criticism of, 126, 141, 242, 256–7; in education, 246; in social provision, 10; institutional modalities of, 11; of Bolsa Familia transfers, 236; of welfare, in China, 230–1; shifting modalities of, 265–7; top-down, 11; trials of, 228–33; versus universalism, 221, 244; within universalism, 231, 241, 246; see also self-targeting
Tauger, M.B., 132
taxation, 67, 96, 194, 195, 249; flat rate, 230; indirect, 264; progressive, 230, 269; value-added, 39, 196, 264
televisions, ownership of, 14, 85
Tendulkar Committee (India), 77, 83, 91
tertiary sector, 216; labour in, 209
Thatcher, M., 44
The Economist, 3, 35–6, 41, 79, 222, 224, 225
theories of change, 47, 184, 262
thresholds, 162; application of, 153
Tibetan areas of western China, 8, 100–1, 121, 169–70, 176; development strategies in, 8; resettlement in, 122
Tibetan graduates, in China, disadvantaged, 178
Tibetans, in China, discrimination against, 179
time poverty, 3
Tinbergen, J., 108
Titmuss, R., 233
tobacco, expenditure on, 85, 91
Townsend, P., 7, 12, 16, 52–3, 55, 75, 152–3, 157
trade unions, 224
transition from agrarian earnings, 22
transnationalisation, 211, 214
transnational corporations, 203, 211, 271
transparency, 58, 80, 104, 253
transport, 13, 270; as basic need, 258; removal of subsidies from, 20; required for urban employment, 15
trickle-down economics, 2, 46, 228
Triplett, J.E., 210
Ul Haq, M., The Poverty Curtain, 130
under-coverage, errors of, 231
under-reporting of incomes, 70
undernutrition, 57, 111; in Ecuador, 57, 112; in India 57, 83, 91
unemployment, 56, 99, 147, 151, 165, 190, 191, 236; disguised, 56
unemployment insurance, 43, 271
UNICEF, 29
unidimensional aspect of poverty, 50, 62–5, 109
unified planning, 214
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), 201
United Nations (UN), 88, 142, 221, 222
UN Common Understanding, 49, 239
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 108, 117, 119, 126, 148; Human Development Reports (HDR), 29, 109, 115; see also Human Development Index (HDI)
United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD), 45, 108, 225
United States of America (USA), 77, 79; poverty in, 257; role of, in coup d'etats, 39
Universal Credit, punitive measure, 257
universalisation, of social security, 264
universalism, 228–31, 241, 250; as umbrella term, 25; criticism of, 49, 239; definition of, 225; flat-rate, 247; in UN agencies, 242; maximalist view of, 229; meaning of, 240, 243, 253; meaning of, shift in, 241; minimalist view of, 221; principle of, 241; strong, 245–6, 247, 248, 249; terrain of political disputes, 250; universalising of, 240–52; versus targeting, 221, 244; weak, 245, 247, 249; World Bank's view of, 222
universalistic principle, 244–7
universalistic social provisioning, 24–5, 126, 134, 148, 187, 198, 224, 226, 239, 253, 264; bias against, 93–7, 244
university graduates, exclusionary pressures again, 272
urbanisation, 5, 12, 122, 172, 175, 199, 232, 270, 272
utility, measurement of, 68, 128
value: creation of, 185; determination of, within development, 213–18; relation to labour, 201
value-added: as shorthand for productivity, 207; source of productivity measurement, 192
value-added taxes (VAT), 39, 196–8, 200, 264
van Doorslaer, E., 94, 97, 250
Veras, Fabio, 236
Vietnam, poverty rates in, 94
vulnerability, 272; as vertically occurring condition, 272; at upper end of social hierarchy, 273; structural transformation of, 270
wages, 195, 201–5, 218, 228, 236; association with productivity, 271; determination of, 203; differentials in, 208, 209, 212, 213; market wages versus net wages, 194; minimum wages, 43; minimum wages, legislation for, 235; squeezed to subsistence level, 105; stagnation of, 3–4, 17
Walzer, Michael, 161
Washington Consensus, 31, 35, 41, 45
water, safe, access to, 120
wealth, 139–40; creation and division of, 24, 184–220, 262; measurement of, 108
wealthy people, bulk purchasing by, 78
weight-for-age measurement, for nutrition, in children, 121
weighting of factors, 118, 124; decisions regarding, in money-metric poverty lines, 115
welfare: restriction of, 240; seen as creating perverse incentives, 234–5; seen as creating passive recipients, 49; universal, criticism of, 222–3; use of term, 68
welfare benefits, cutting of, 257
welfare state, 147; retrenchment of, 229
wellbeing, 100, 107, 111, 118, 128, 137, 145–6; measurement of, 67, 104; relativity of, 169
wellbeing approach, 54
Wen Jiabao, 74
wheat industry, productivity in, 202
white-collar employment, 178
widow-headed households, in India, 173
Wikipedia, on Poverty in India, 78
Wolfensohn, James, 30
women: displaced from waged work, 173; labour force participation of, 22, 228; social exclusions of, 178; strengthening of, 11; subordination of, 173–4; targeted by cash transfers, 266; work of, 82–3
work: intensification of, 3, 21; worsening conditions of, 21
working class, mobilisation by, 271
working hours, lengthening of, 21
working poor, as emerging phenomenon, 56
World Bank, 2, 30, 33, 34, 36, 37, 45, 51, 74, 106, 109, 117, 126, 142, 165, 166, 223, 229, 233, 251, 262; arbitrariness of poverty estimates of, 61; coopts idea of universalism, 242; definition of social inclusion, 186; Monitoring Global Poverty report, 88; poverty lines established by, 75–80, 89; purchasing-power-parity parameter see purchasing power parity (PPP); social safety net approach of, 232; view of universalism, 222; World Development Reports (WDR), 29, 30, 36, 41, 51, 108, 223–4, 230
World Bank Atlas approach, 36
World Bank Commission, 78
World Health Organisation (WHO), 112
World Summit for Social Development (WSSD), 148
Xia, Q., 230
Yemen, social exclusion study in, 156