October Song

Notes

Preface

1. On labor, community, and freedom, see Easton and Guddat, Writings of the Young Marx, 275, 293, 394–395, 457. On the radical expansion of democracy and the free development of each and all, see Gasper, The Communist Manifesto, 69, 71. On Marx, his comrades, and their ideas, see Gabriel, Love and Capital; Riazanov, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels; Le Blanc, From Marx to Gramsci.
2. Le Blanc, “Workers and Revolution.”
3. Le Blanc, Revolutionary Studies.
4. E. Mandel, D. Mandel, Trotsky, Luxemburg, Lenin, and Le Blanc, October 1917: Workers in Power.
5. Berman, Adventures in Marxism, 58.
6. E. Wilson, To the Finland Station, 547; Berman, Adventures in Marxism, 62. A limitation built into Wilson’s classic is an explicit misunderstanding and rejection (210–33) of the dialectical approach to reality—the notion that all elements of our ever-changing reality are alive with the interplay of contradictory dynamics, whose accumulation generates qualitative transformations. Marshall Berman’s writings are infused with this dialectical sensibility, and attentive readers will see it in the present volume as well. See Marcuse, Reason and Revolution; H. Lefebvre, Dialectical Materialism; Rees, The Algebra of Revolution.
7. Berman, Adventures in Marxism, 63.

Chapter 1: Nothing Can Ever Be the Same

1. Reed, “First Proletarian Republic Greets American Workers,” New York Call, November 22, 1917, reprinted in P. Foner, The Bolshevik Revolution, 54.
2. Bryant, Six Months in Red Russia, x, xi. Also see V. Gardner, Friend and Lover.
3. Beatty, The Red Heart of Russia, 479–80.
4. A. Williams, Through the Russian Revolution, 275. Also see the later and partly autobiographical Williams, Journey into Revolution.
5. Reed, Ten Days That Shook the World, xii. Also see Rosenstone, Romantic Revolutionary.
6. Trotsky, History of the Russian Revolution; Chamberlin, The Russian Revolution. The endorsements of Trotsky’s work can be found in Marzani, The Education of a Reluctant Radical, 198; and Thatcher, Trotsky, 187. On Chamberlin, see Engerman, “Modernization from the Other Shore,” 383–416; as well as Chamberlin’s two outstanding books of reportage—Soviet Russia and Russia’s Iron Age—and his memoir, The Confessions of an Individualist, 63–159; Fitzpatrick’s endorsement can be found on the back cover of the 1987 Princeton University Press reprint of his two-volume The Russian Revolution.
7. Commission of the Central Committee, History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, 196, 206, 224; Dimitrov, The United Front, 78, 280.
8. Wolfe, An Ideology in Power, 187, 188; Meyer, Leninism, 282–83; Daniels, ed. A Documentary History of Communism, vol. 1, xl; Daniels, The Conscience of the Revolution, 410; Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth, 160. For an informative general discussion, see Engerman, Know Your Enemy.
9. Carr’s History of Soviet Russia is summarized in Carr, The Russian Revolution from Lenin to Stalin. Deutscher’s foremost works are Stalin, and his three-volume biography of Trotsky, now gathered into one, The Prophet. Also see Haslam, The Vices of Integrity; M. Cox, E. H. Carr; Horowitz, Isaac Deutscher; Deutscher, The Non-Jewish Jew and Other Essays; and Caute, Isaac and Isaiah.
10. Tucker, Stalin as Revolutionary; Tucker, Stalin in Power.
11. Cohen, Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution; Lewin, Lenin’s Last Struggle, The Making of the Soviet System, and The Soviet Century.
12. Among the relevant texts here are: Liebich, From the Other Shore, esp. 271–326; Haimson, The Mensheviks from the Revolution, and The Making of Three Russian Revolutionaries; Rabinowitch, Rabinowitch, and Kristof, eds., Revolution and Politics in Russia. Influential Menshevik contributions to the historiography (in some ways consistent with what Reed, Chamberlin, and Trotsky present) include Sukhanov, The Russian Revolution 1917; Dan, The Origins of Bolshevism; and Abramovitch, The Soviet Revolution.
13. Avrich, The Russian Anarchists, and Kronstadt, 1921; Shanin, The Roots of Otherness.
14. Suny, “Toward a Social History of the October Revolution”; Kaiser, ed., The Workers Revolution in Russia 1917; Lincoln, In War’s Dark Shadow, Passage through Armageddon, and Red Victory; Acton, Cherniaev, and Rosenberg, eds., Critical Companion to the Russian Revolution. Rabinowitch’s The Bolsheviks Come to Power, published in 1976, was the earliest and one of the most influential of the new contributions.
15. Malia, The Soviet Tragedy; Pipes, The Russian Revolution; Volkogonov, Lenin; Yakovlev, A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia; Pipes, Alexander Yakovlev; Courtois, Werth, Panne, Paczkowski, Bartošek, and Margolin, The Black Book of Communism. Relevant to all of this is the critique offered by Domenico Losurdo in War and Revolution—and particularly effective is his considered demolition of the moral authority of The Black Book of Communism, with its indefensible silences on the terror, crimes, and repression associated with both liberal and illiberal capitalism, not to mention colonialism and imperialism (280–326). Also see Le Blanc, Marx, Lenin, and the Revolutionary Experience, 11–12.
16. Getty, Origins of the Great Purges, 203. Even broader social and cultural scope is provided in Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism.
17. Getty and Naumov, The Road to Terror, 14; Fitzpatrick, The Russian Revolution, 8–9.
18. Figes, A People’s Tragedy, 736, 823–24.
19. See Bebel, My Life; Michel, The Red Virgin; Morgan, Keir Hardie; P. Foner, ed., Mother Jones Speaks; and Allen, Alexander Shlyapnikov. Also relevant—among many other works—is P. Mason, Live Working or Die Fighting.
20. Wade, The Russian Revolution, 283.
21. McCall, “The Complexity of Intersectionality.”
22. Freeman, The Soviet Worker, 9–10; Wade, The Russian Revolution, 89.
23. See Siegelbaum and Suny, Making Workers Soviet.
24. Wade, The Russian Revolution, 91–97.
25. Haimson, “The Problem of Social Identities,” 5, 6. Also see Orlovsky, “The Lower Middle Strata in 1917”; and Iarov, “Workers,” in Acton, Cherniaev, and Rosenberg, eds., Critical Companion to the Russian Revolution, 529–33, 604–18.
26. Marxist theoretical perspectives are examined in Davis, Socialism and Nationalism, including an exposition of Lenin’s important defense of the right of oppressed nations to self-determination—but the realities are messier. Important discussions of evolving perspectives of revolutionaries (Lenin first of all) and practices before 1917 are explored in Suny, “Nationalism and Class in the Russian Revolution”; Riga, The Bolsheviks and the Russian Empire; and Blanc, “Anti-Imperial Marxism.”
27. Clements, Critical Companion to the Russian Revolution, 592–603.
28. Lapidus, Women in Soviet Society, 48, 51; Clements, Bolshevik Women, 18, 20, 105–8; Wade, The Russian Revolution, 118.
29. Lapidus, Women in Soviet Society, 44, 51–52; Stites, The Women’s Liberation Movement in Russia, 301; Clements, Bolshevik Women, 12; McDermid and Anna Hillyar, Midwives of the Revolution, 1; Wade, The Russian Revolution, 117.
30. Lapidus, Women in Soviet Society, 37, 40, 48, 49; Stites, The Women’s Liberation Movement in Russia, 289, 317; Clements, Bolshevik Women, 11, 12–13; Wade, The Russian Revolution, 118, 121, 124.
31. A. Williams, Lenin, 86, 87–88; I. Levine, The Man Lenin, 192, 193.
32. Service, Lenin; Lih, Lenin Rediscovered, and Lenin.
33. Le Blanc, Lenin and the Revolutionary Party; Dune, Notes of a Red Guard; Serge, Year One of the Russian Revolution; Lih, “Kautsky When He Was a Marxist”; Krausz, Reconstructing Lenin; Shandro, Lenin and the Logic of Hegemony.
34. Lih, “Zinoviev, Populist Leninist,” Martov and Zinoviev, and “The Ironic Triumph of Old Bolshevism”; Krupskaya, Reminiscences of Lenin; Lunacharsky, Revolutionary Silhouettes; Haupt and Marie, Makers of the Russian Revolution.
35. Elwood, Russian Social Democracy; Nimtz, Lenin’s Electoral Strategy from Marx and Engels through the Revolution of 1905, and Lenin’s Electoral Strategy from 1907 to the October Revolution; Zinoviev, History of the Bolshevik Party; Lih, “The Fortunes of a Formula.” The yet-to-be-translated Russian work cited by Lih is V. Nevskii, Istoriia RKP(b). St. Petersburg: Novyi Prometei, 2009.
36. Lewin, The Making of the Soviet System, 199.
37. Reed, Ten Days That Shook the World, 129.
38. A. Williams, Through the Russian Revolution, 276–77, 278. Outstanding contemporary critiques, holding up disturbingly well down to the present, are Bertrand Russell’s crisp The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism and Alexander Berkman’s passionate The Bolshevik Myth. Leggett’s devastating account, The Cheka, adds important detail, as does Rabinowitch, The Bolsheviks in Power. A broader elaboration can be found in Farber, Before Stalinism, usefully engaged with in Rees et al., In Defence of October. Koenker, Rosenberg, and Suny, Party, State, and Society is invaluable, and aspects of the debate are deepened in Pirani, The Russian Revolution in Retreat; and Murphy, Revolution and Counterrevolution. Also relevant is Mayer, The Furies.
39. Luxemburg, “The Russian Revolution,” in Rosa Luxemburg Speaks, 375, 391, 393.
40. Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism, 318–19. Corroboration regarding the relatively positive aspects of the 1920s, consistent with what Arendt says, can be found in Chamberlin, Soviet Russia; Fitzpatrick, Rabinowitch, and Stites, eds.,Russia in the Era of NEP, and Brovkin; Russia after Lenin.
41. Duranty, I Write as I Please, 179, 181.
42. In addition to materials already presented—from scholars as diverse as Deutscher, Tucker, and Getty—see Ali, ed., The Stalinist Legacy; Medvedev, Let History Judge; Rogovin, 1937, and Stalin’s Terror of 1937–1938; Lenoe, The Kirov Murder; and Khlevniuk, The History of the Gulag. For a sample of Furr’s prodigious output, see The Murder of Sergei Kirov.
43. An outstanding textbook is Suny, The Soviet Experiment; but also useful is S. A. Smith, The Russian Revolution; combined with Lovell, The Soviet Union.
44. Van der Linden, Western Marxism; Trotsky, The Revolution Betrayed. Trotsky’s perspective is brilliantly contextualized and analyzed in Twiss, Trotsky and the Problem of Soviet Bureaucracy.
45. Trotsky, The Revolution Betrayed, 56. This passage from Marx’s The German Ideology, quoted by Trotsky, can also be found in a slightly different translation in Marx and Engels, Selected Works, Vol. 1, 37.
46. Trotsky, The Revolution Betrayed, 59. A useful account of the Communist International, related to issues discussed by Trotsky, can be found in James, World Revolution. John Riddell and his collaborators have produced multiple volumes documenting the Communist International in Lenin’s time; the vitally important first four congresses are covered in Founding the Communist International; Workers of the World and Oppressed Peoples, Unite!; To the Masses; and Toward the United Front. On consequences of Stalin’s reorientation for the Comintern, see Carr, Twilight of the Comintern.
47. Gasper, ed., The Communist Manifesto, 69, 71; Hudis, Marx’s Concept of the Alternative to Capitalism.

Chapter 2: Prerevolutionary Russia

1. Rostow, The Dynamics of Soviet Society, 250; Timasheff, The Great Retreat, the Growth and Decline of Communism in Russia, 34, 394–95; Shanin, Russia as a “Developing Society,” 174; Rostow, The World Economy, 428.
2. Lichtheim, Collected Essays, 310, 325, 326–27. Lichtheim’s own interesting interpretation of Marxism is available in Marxism: An Historical and Critical Study, positing that “modern society has moved beyond the stage with whose analysis Marx was primarily concerned,” making it possible at last “to understand Marx because we have reached a point where neither his own modes of thought, nor those of his nineteenth-century opponents, are altogether adequate to the realities” (xx).
3. Shanin, Russia as a “Developing Society,” 186, 183. Among Soviet historians in the 1960s there was also a tendency to revive—without acknowledgement to Trotsky—the conception of uneven and combined development, according to Baron, “The Transition from Feudalism to Capitalism in Russia,” 724. The classic works that in the 1960s helped advance the debate on “dependency” were Baran, The Political Economy of Growth, and Frank, Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America.
4. Gatrell, The Tsarist Economy, 82–83; Bushnell, “Peasant Economy and Peasant Revolution at the Turn of the Century,” 78–79, 80, 82; S. A. Smith, “‘Moral Economy’ and Peasant Revolution in Russia,”145–46.
5. Bushnell, “Peasant Economy and Peasant Revolution,” 81; S. A. Smith, The Russian Revolution, 6, 8.
6. Polunov, Russia in the Nineteenth Century, 174, 176, 189, 190, 193, 201; Westwood, Endurance and Endeavour, 186–87.
7. Wheatcroft, “Crises and the Condition of the Peasantry in Late Imperial Russia,” 128–29, 136–46, 158, 165–66, 171–72.
8. Alec Nove, An Economic History of the USSR, 25–28.
9. Marot, The October Revolution in Prospect and Retrospect, 21–26.
10. Pokrovskii, Russia in World History, 48, 71, 72, 73–74, 75, 78, 80–81.
11. For an early critique, see Trotsky, 1905, 327–45. On later controversies see Szporluk, introduction to Pokrovskii, Russia in World History, especially 10–12, 35–46, and Barber, Soviet Historians in Crisis, 1928–1932, 47–79. More recent interpretations and controversies are described in Baran, “The Transition from Feudalism to Capitalism in Russia,” cited in note 3 above.
12. Shanin, Russia as a “Developing Society,” 93, 97, 101, 141.
13. Ibid., 25. Klyuckevskii also quoted on 25.
14. Kochan, The Making of Modern Russia, 18–19; Bryusov, Sakharov. Fadeyev, Chermensky, and Golikov, Outline History of the USSR, 23–135; Maynard, Russia in Flux, 19; Shanin, Russia as a “Developing Society,” 147; Wolf, Peasant Wars of the Twentieth Century,
15. Stepniak, Russia under the Tzars, 1.
16. Ibid., 2, 6.
17. Kerensky, Russia and History’s Turning Point, 96; Lenin, The Development of Capitalism in Russia, excerpted in Lenin, Revolution, Democracy, Socialism, 95, 99–100.
18. Wallace, Russia on the Eve of War and Revolution, 287; Maynard, Russia in Flux, 34–38; Wolf, Peasant Wars of the Twentieth Century, 58–64; Shanin, Russia as a “Developing Society,” 93.
19. Borders, Village Life under the Soviets, 107–8.
20. Shanin, Russia as a “Developing Society,” 67, 72–81, 82, 165..
21. Hindus, The Russian Peasant and the Revolution, xi–xii, 80, 81, 92.
22. Hindus, The Kremlin’s Human Dilemma, 185.
23. Shanin, Russia as a “Developing Society,” 66–72, 165–173, 82, 152, 147, 146, 141; Maynard, Russia in Flux, 50. A dessiatin is an archaic land measurement in tsarist Russia, equal to 2.702 English acres or 10,925 square meters.
24. Gatrell, The Tsarist Economy, 34; L. Wilson, The New Schools of New Russia, 11.
25. See Kingston-Mann, Lenin and the Problem of Marxist Peasant Revolution, and Shanin, Russia, 1905–07, 279–305.
26. Trotsky, The History of the Russian Revolution, 317.
27. Byres, “Peasantry,” A Dictionary of Marxist Thought, 413 (which provides the Kritsman quote). For a substantial study of the analytical orientation developed by Kritsman and his co-thinkers, see Cox, Peasants, Class, and Capitalism.
28. Shanin, Russia as a “Developing Society,” 82, 83.
29. Ibid. Also see Chayanov, The Theory of Peasant Economy, and Danilov, Rural Russia under the New Regime.
30. Lewin, Russian Peasants and Soviet Power, 21-2.
31. Gorky quoted in Shanin, ed., Peasants and Peasant Societies, 370–71.
32. Lewin, Russian Peasants and Soviet Power, 21–22.
33. Gorky, Untimely Thoughts, 44, 45.
34. Ibid., 39–40; Lewin, Russian Peasants and Soviet Power, 25.
35. Olgin, The Soul of the Russian Revolution, 26–27.
36. Hindus, The Russian Peasant and the Revolution, 10.
37. Walling, Russia’s Message, 108, 109, 113, 145.
38. Ibid., 110, 111, 115.
39. The Accumulation of Capital in The Complete Works of Rosa Luxemburg, vol. 2, Economic Writings 2, Hudis and Le Blanc, eds., 192.
40. Danilov, Rural Russia under the New Regime, 47, 49–51.
41. Alexinsky, Modern Russia, 114–15, 117, 146, 147. (Economist M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky, whose major study The Russian Factory in Past and Present appeared in 1898, is quoted by Alexinsky on 117.)
42. Ferro, Nicholas II, 1–4, 7, 87. Pavlova quoted in I. Levine, The Russian Revolution, 132.
43. Lieven, The End of Tsarist Russia, 83.
44. I. Levine, The Russian Revolution, 133.
45. Kochan, The Making of Modern Russia, 24; Volkov cited by Baron, “The Transition from Feudalism to Capitalism,” 727.
46. Wallace, Russia on the Eve of War and Revolution, 100, 101, 104–5, 106.
47. Trotsky, 1905, 45–46; Manning, The Crisis of the Old Order in Russia, Gentry and Government, 3.
48. Wallace, Russia on the Eve of War and Revolution, 158–59.
49. Shanin, Russia as a “Developing Society,” 33–49; Trotsky, Permanent Revolution, 41, 50; Kochan, The Making of Modern Russia, 175–77; Bryusov et al., Outline History of the USSR, 155; Dobb, Russian Economic Development since the Revolution, 70; Nove, An Economic History of the USSR, 18; Lyashchenko, History of the National Economy of Russia to the 1917 Revolution, 716, 717; but also see Gatrell, The Tsarist Economy, 227–28, who suggests that the extent of foreign domination may be overstated. Also see Wallace, Russia on the Eve of War and Revolution, 500–506.
50. Wallace, Russia on the Eve of War and Revolution, 193; Shanin, Russia as a “Developing Society,” 120 (also 118–21); Trotsky, Permanent Revolution, 53; Trotsky, 1905, 39–40; T. Owen, Capitalism and Politics in Russia: A Social History of the Moscow Merchants, 1855–1905, ix, 211; Ruckman, The Moscow Business Elite, 208, 209. Also see Brower, Estate, Class, and Community, 5–6.
51. Kunitz, Russia: The Giant That Came Last, 255, 258; Westwood, Endurance and Endeavour, 178; Lincoln, In War’s Dark Shadow, 74–82; Gatrell, The Tsarist Economy, 91, 208; McDaniel, Autocracy, Capitalism and Revolution in Russia, 178, 239, 264.
52. D. Levin, Stormy Petrel: The Life and Work of Maxim Gorky, 76, 106–10; Lincoln, In War’s Dark Shadow, 83–85; R. Williams, The Other Bolsheviks, 58–61.
53. Elwood, Inessa Armand, 40–41; “Interview with George Denike,” in Haimson, with Galili y Garcia and Wortman, The Making of Three Russian Revolutionaries, 384, 385; Wolfe, The Bridge and the Abyss, 24.
54. Liberman, Building Lenin’s Russia, 55–56.
55. McDaniel, Autocracy, Capitalism and Revolution, 405. On the earlier “irrepressible conflict,” see Seward, “The Irrepressible Conflict,” and B. Levine, Half Slave and Half Free.
56. McDaniel, Autocracy, Capitalism and Revolution, 29.
57. Dobb, Russian Economic Development, 71; Nove, An Economic History of the USSR, 18–19; Shanin, Russia as a “Developing Society,” 187.
58. Nove, An Economic History of the USSR, 28.
59. Lieven, The End of Tsarist Russia, 166.
60. Pokrovskii, Russia in World History, 109, 115–16; Shanin, Russia as a “Developing Society,” 58–59; Maynard, Russia in Flux, 140–41; Suny, “Nationality Policies,” in Acton, Cherniaev, and Rosenberg, eds., Critical Companion to the Russian Revolution, 659, 660; Polunov, Russia in the Nineteenth Century, 8, 52–53; Yarmolinsky, The Jews and Other Minor Nationalities under the Soviets, 6. (Herzen quoted in Polunov, 8).
61. Maynard, Russia in Flux, 152–53; Riga, The Bolsheviks and the Russian Empire, 4.
62. Shanin, Russia, 1905–07, 66, 72; Suny, “Nationality Policies,” 665; Riga, The Bolsheviks and the Russian Empire, 4.
63. The simplest definition is offered by Engels in an 1888 footnote to the Communist Manifesto, Marx and Engels, Selected Works, vol. 1, 108. Also see Boudin, The Theoretical System of Karl Marx, 191–214; E. Mandel and Novack, The Revolutionary Potential of the Working Class; Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital, 24–30; 377–423; Meiksins, “New Middle Class or Working Class?”; Meiksins, “Beyond the Boundary Question”; E. Wood, The Retreat from Class.
64. Bonnell, Roots of Rebellion, 24, 25. The quotation in Bonnell’s remarks is from E. P. Thompson.
65. Lenin, The Development of Capitalism in Russia, 563–67, 587–88, 602, 603, 604–5, 606.
66. Ibid., 588–89.
67. Shanin, Russia as a “Developing Society,” 118, 117; Glickman, Russian Factory Women, 83; Nove, An Economic History of the USSR, 17; Bonnell, Roots of Rebellion, 23, 35; Bater, “St. Petersburg and Moscow on the Eve of the Revolution,” , 25, 27, 28; Bryusov et al., Outline History of the USSR, 156, 162, 163; Trotsky, 1905, 20, 21, 339; Freeman, The Soviet Worker, 9–10, 26.
68. Bater, “St. Petersburg and Moscow,” 31; Shanin, Russia as a “Developing Society,” 63–64, 120, 121, 123. Regarding living conditions, community life, and consciousness, see Freeman, The Soviet Worker, 12–13; Brower, Estate, Class, and Community, 18–19, 28–33; Glickman, Russian Factory Women, 2–3; Haimson, “The Problem of Social Identities,” 4–5. Also see Bonnell, introduction to Bonnell, ed., The Russian Worker, 14–19.
69. Glickman, Russian Factory Women, 3.
70. Glickman, Russian Factory Women, 6, 7, 8; Freeman, The Soviet Worker, 10, 20, 25; Gordon, Workers before and after Lenin, 23–24.
71. Freeman, The Soviet Worker, 11, 18–19.
72. P. I. Denisov quoted in Kanatchikov, A Radical Worker in Tsarist Russia, 318–19.
73. Glickman, Russian Factory Women, 14–15, 85–87, 90; Freeman, The Soviet Worker, 10–11, 25; Bonnell, ed., The Russian Worker, 118.
74. Glickman, Russian Factory Women, 11–14; Freeman, The Soviet Worker, 12–13; Bater, “St. Petersburg and Moscow,” 49–50; Bonnell, ed., The Russian Worker, 21, 22, 23.
75. Bonnell, ed., The Russian Worker, 23–24; Bater, “St. Petersburg and Moscow,” 22; Freeman, The Soviet Worker, 26.
76. Bonnell, ed., The Russian Worker, 24–28; Glickman, Russian Factory Women, 16, 17, 18; Denisov quoted in Kanatchikov, A Radical Worker in Tsarist Russia, 320.
77. Zelnik, “Russian Bebels,” part 1, 277, 278; Kir’ianov, “On the Nature of the Russian Working Class,” 42.
78. Bonnell, ed., The Russian Worker, 39, 50.
79. Lyashchenko, History of the National Economy of Russia, 542–45; Trotsky, The Young Lenin, 148–50; Wildman, The Making of a Workers’ Revolution, 35.
80. Zelnik, “Russian Bebels,” part 1, 264.
81. Ibid., 265–66. On the Socialist Revolutionaries, see Radkey, The Agrarian Foes of Bolshevism; Ellison, “The Socialist Revolutionaries”; Perrie, “The Social Composition and Structure of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party before 1917.” On workers’ Marxism, see Zelnik, “Russian Bebels,” part II, 423.
82. Zelnik, “Russian Bebels,” part 1, 271, 274, 281.
83. Kollontai, Selected Writings, 41–42.
84. Zelnik, “Russian Bebels,” part 1, 277, 284; D. Mandel, The Petrograd Workers, 13, 23–24, 26.
85. Bonnell, ed. The Russian Worker, 11; D. Mandel, The Petrograd Workers, 17.
86. Haimson, “The Problem of Social Identities in Early Twentieth Century Russia,” 5, 6.
87. Zelnik, “Russian Bebels,” part 2, 434, 435, 436, 439; Engelstein, Moscow, 1905, 58.
88. Zelnik, “Russian Bebels,” part 2, 443.
89. Wildman focuses on the worker/intellectual conflict in The Making of a Workers’ Revolution. On the Zubatov unions, see Schwarz, The Russian Revolution of 1905.

Chapter 3: Revolutionary Triumph

1. Bell, The End of Ideology, 334, 336, 352, 353, 355; Perlman, review of Marxism: Is It Science?, 972.
2. Koenker, Moscow Workers and the 1917 Revolution, 6; Le Blanc, “Ideology and Revolution,” 3. Also see Waxman, ed., The End of Ideology Debate.
3. Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures, 216; Delany, “The Role of Ideology,” in Waxman, The End of Ideology Debate, 296; Rudé, Ideology and Popular Protest, 23, 24. Especially important to this analysis is Gramsci’s theorization of the struggle for intellectual-cultural hegemony between classes and the key role of “organic intellectuals” organized in the revolutionary party. See Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks, for example, 5–23, 144–47, 150–55, 185, 188–90, 195–200, 204–5, 323–25, 340.
4. Carr, “Marx, Lenin and Stalin,” 372.
5. Deutscher, Soviet Trade Unions, 1.
6. In particular, see Le Blanc, Lenin and the Revolutionary Party, new ed., with additional material in Le Blanc, Unfinished Leninism; Lenin, Revolution, Democracy, Socialism.
7. Lewin, The Soviet Century, 308; Rousset, The Legacy of the Bolshevik Revolution, 86.
8. See discussion in Schwarz, The Russian Revolution of 1905, 267–84, and in Suhr, “Petersburg’s First Mass Labor Organization.”
9. In addition to works by Schwarz and Suhr just cited, see Trotsky, 1905, and Engelstein, Moscow, 1905.
10. Avrich, The Russian Anarchists.
11. In addition to works by Radkey, Perrie, and Ellison cited above in chapter 2, note 81, see Chernov, The Great Russian Revolution; I. Steinberg, Spiridonova, and Shanin, Russia, 1905–07.
12. Radkey, The Agrarian Foes of Bolshevism, 65–67; Melancon, The Socialist Revolutionaries and the Russian Anti-War Movement, 1914–1917, 11–12, 20–40.
13. Pipes, Struve, 174–84; Hasegawa, The February Revolution, 14–18; Timberlake, ed., Essays on Russian Liberalism.
14. Shanin, Russia, 1905–07, 23, 43.
15. See ibid., 236–51, for a useful discussion of Stolypin.
16. Ibid., 238; Lenin, Selected Works, vol. 3, 343.
17. Useful works on this period include Elwood, Russian Social Democracy in the Underground, and Piatnitsky, Memoirs of a Bolshevik.
18. For an interesting account of this period from a “conciliator” standpoint, see Swain, Russian Social Democracy and the Legal Labor Movement. Covering the same period, pages 85–161 of Trotsky’s Stalin offer a more insightful and knowledgeable account by a former “conciliator.”
19. In addition to sources cited in footnotes above, see Zinoviev, History of the Bolshevik Party, and Krupskaya, Reminiscences of Lenin.
20. Dan quoted in Popov, Outline History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, vol. 1, 283, and in Dutt, The Life and Teachings of V. I. Lenin, 34. Information on the state of the revolutionary movement can be found in: Haimson, “The Problem of Social Stability in Urban Russia,” part 1, 631–32; Bonnell, Roots of Rebellion, 393–408.
21. Zelnik, “Russian Workers and the Revolutionary Movement,” 217–18.
22. Haimson, “The Problem of Social Stability,” part 1, 630–31; Krupskaya, Reminiscences of Lenin, 242; Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 20, 466. Also see Bonnell, Roots of Rebellion, 410–17.
23. Haimson, “The Russian Workers Movement on the Eve of the First World War,” 83–84, 85.
24. Geyer, The Russian Revolution, 27; Service, The Russian Revolution, 23.
25. Service, The Russian Revolution, 23.
26. Useful sources on this period are Shlyapnikov, On the Eve of 1917; Trotsky, History of the Russian Revolution, vol. 1; Hasegawa, The February Revolution.
27. Lih, Lenin Rediscovered. Also see Le Blanc, “Lenin Studies: Method and Organization.”
28. James, “Lenin and the Vanguard Party,” 327.
29. Basil, The Mensheviks in the Revolution of 1917, 15, 16, 18, 19, 179, 182.
30. Ibid.
31. Shanin, Russia, 1905–07, 224.
32. Chernov, The Great Russian Revolution, 398–99; Ellison, “The Socialist Revolutionaries,” 4, 5; Shanin, Russia, 1905–07, 224, 227, 228.
33. Ellison, “The Socialist Revolutionaries,” 3, 4, 10; I. Steinberg, Spiridonova, 179, 181, 182, 187.
34. Lenin, “Our Revolution (Apropos of N. Sukhanov’s Notes),” Collected Works, vol. 33, 476.
35. Ibid., 477.
36. Ibid., 478.
37. Serge, Revolution in Danger, 88, 90.
38. Ibid., 94, 95.
39. Eastman, Marx, Lenin and the Science of Revolution, 159–60.
40. Haimson, “The Problem of Social Stability in Urban Russia,” part 1, 627–29; Haimson, “The Problem of Social Stability in Urban Russia” part 2, 17.
41. Trotsky, 1905, 269.
42. Sandburg, The People, Yes, 221.
43. D. Mandel, The Petrograd Workers, 16.
44. Lieven, The End of Tsarist Russia, 303, 306–7
45. Ibid., 307.
46. J. Thompson, Revolutionary Russia, 1917, 9–16.
47. Ibid., 11; Medvedev, The October Revolution, 39.
48. J. Thompson, Revolutionary Russia, 1917, 21, 11.
49. Hasegawa, The February Revolution, 140; Medvedev, The October Revolution, 40.
50. Zinoviev, History of the Bolshevik Party, 192–93; Trotsky, History of the Russian Revolution, vol. 1, 154, 153.
51. McDermid and Hillyer, Midwives of the Revolution, 3.
52. D. Mandel, The Petrograd Workers, 63–64.
53. Ibid., 64.
54. McDermid and Hillyer, Midwives of the Revolution, viii.
55. D. Mandel, The Petrograd Workers, 65.
56. Melancon, Rethinking Russia’s February Revolution, 22.
57. I. Levine, The Russian Revolution, 216.
58. Melancon, Rethinking Russia’s, 35.
59. I. Levine, The Russian Revolution, 219–20, 223, 225. Levine, who had emigrated from Russia to the United States in 1911 (at the age of 19), would later spend time in the early Soviet Republic as a US journalist in the early 1920s, but in April 1917 the newspaper for which he was a foreign correspondent, the New York Tribune, acquired a remarkable set of leaflets and news bulletins from revolutionary Russia that enabled him to write, as he later noted, “the first authoritative inside account of the revolution.” I. Levine, Eyewitness to History, 37.

60. I. Levine, The Russian Revolution, 226.
61. Ibid., 227, 271, 276, 278.
62. D. Mandel, The Petrograd Workers, 80, 85, 227; Liebman, Leninism under Lenin, 119–20.
63. I. Levine, The Russian Revolution, 257–58.
64. M. Steinberg, Voices of Revolution, 1917, 63, 64.
65. Clark, Lenin, 196–99, 202–11, 216–17, 219. (Churchill quoted on 197.)
66. Longley, “The Division in the Bolshevik Party in March 1917,” 75; Raskolnikov, Kronstadt and Petrograd in 1917, 77; Dune, Notes of a Red Guard, 56; Ilyin-Zhenevsky, From the February Revolution to the October Revolution 1917, 80, 85–86. The outstanding study of the complexities among the Mensheviks in this period is Galili, The Menshevik Leaders in the Russian Revolution. Although the common interpretation of Lenin “correcting” some of his “old Bolshevik” comrades in 1917 has recently been challenged—particularly by Lih, “The Ironic Triumph of Old Bolshevism,” a number of eyewitnesses and participants remember what happened in ways consistent with the older interpretation—for example, Raskolnikov, cited above, as well as Krupskaya, Reminiscences of Lenin, 348–51, and the alert Menshevik critic Sukhanov, The Russian Revolution 1917, 282–92.
67. Lenin quoted in Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 2, 31.
68. I. Levine, The Russian Revolution, 275–76.
69. Dune, Notes of a Red Guard, 48–49.
70. Rabinowitch, The Bolsheviks Come to Power, 62.
71. Kerensky, Russia and History’s Turning Point, 368.
72. Ibid., 370–71. The historical controversies are capably reviewed in Munck, The Kornilov Revolt, and a well-researched narrative is offered in Abraham, Alexander Kerensky, 247–87.
73. Kerensky, Russia and History’s Turning Point, 400.
74. Suny, “Toward a Social History of the October Revolution,” 51, 54; also see Rabinowitch, The Bolsheviks Come to Power, xvii, 311–12; Volobuev, “The Proletariat—Leader of the Socialist Revolution,” 67, 68.
75. Hook, “Bolshevik Coup Lacked Popular Support.”
76. Luxemburg, Rosa Luxemburg Speaks, 372; Abramovitch, The Soviet Revolution, 1917–1939, 57, 75, 76, 77; also see Sidney Hook’s introduction on pages vii–xii, as well as an earlier, less hostile discussion of Bolshevism in Towards the Understanding of Karl Marx, which offers a more positive—and I believe more useful, less distorted—understanding of Marxism in general than can be found in his disillusioned works after 1939.
77. Quoted in Abramovitch, The Soviet Revolution, 70.
78. Hook, “Bolshevik Coup Lacked Popular Support”; Francis, Russia from the American Embassy, 141, 143, 193–94.
79. Trotzky [Trotsky], From October to Brest-Litovsk, 78. This analysis was not held by the Bolsheviks alone. The Left SRs also saw the realities in precisely this way, which is presented in Isaac Steinberg’s Spiridonova. Steinberg was a Left SR leader who soon became an uncompromising opponent of Bolshevism but still viewed the attempt to establish soviet power as profoundly democratic. Hook recounts that even while living in the United States during the early Cold War period, Steinberg—although now a firm anti-Communist—continued to defend this analysis, which validated the October Revolution and the dismissal of the Constituent Assembly in favor of rule by the soviets. See Hook, Out of Step, 316–17. E. H. Carr’s analysis of the Constituent Assembly also corresponds to that of the Bolsheviks and Left SRs—see Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 1, 109–21.
80. Luxemburg, Rosa Luxemburg Speaks, 385, 395.
81. Quoted in I. Steinberg, Spiridonova, 191.
82. Schapiro, The Communist Party of the Soviet Union, 183; Wolfe, An Ideology in Power, 172; Pipes, Communism: A History, 38–39.
83. Meyer, Leninism, 175, 176.
84. Mstislavskii, Five Days Which Transformed Russia, 112, 114.
85. Ibid., 116–17.
86. Rabinowitch, The Bolsheviks in Power, 392.
87. Meyer, Leninism, 196; Keep, ed., The Debate on Soviet Power, 24, 31, 32, 35, 339.
88. Lockhart, British Agent, 239–40, 255–56.
89. Meyer, Leninism, 196.
90. Ibid., 185–86. What Meyer says here can be further buttressed by two summary accounts written in the 1950s and 1990s by respected US academics; both feature ample collections of documents and articles—see Curtiss, The Russian Revolutions of 1917, and Suny and Adams, The Russian Revolution and Bolshevik Victory.
91. Ferro, The Bolshevik Revolution, 100–103.
92. Ibid., 103.
93. Yarmolinsky, The Jews and Other Minor Nationalities under the Soviets, p 8.
94. Ferro, The Bolshevik Revolution, 103–11; Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 1, 365, 379.
95. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 1, 254.
96. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 1, 367, 370, 373; Lewin, Lenin’s Last Struggle, 43–64.
97. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 1, 272. See Gollwitzer, Europe in the Age of Imperialism; Sweezy, The Theory of Capitalist Development, 287–328; and Magdoff, Imperialism.
98. Medvedev, The October Revolution, 115.
99. Keep, ed., The Debate on Soviet Power, 31, 32, 33, 34.
100. Deutscher, The Prophet Armed, 287; Cliff, Lenin, vol. 3, 162; Wolfe, Lenin and the Twentieth Century, 179; Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 25, 378.
101. Cliff, Lenin, vol. 3, 10; Shachtman, “Revolution and Counter-revolution in Russia,” 10; Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 26, 498.
102. Serge, Year One of the Russian Revolution, 243.
103. Kameneff [Kamenev], The Dictatorship of the Proletariat, 9, 10.
104. Bone, ed., The Bolsheviks and the October Revolution, 144–45, 146, 147. Valuable works on the governmental structures and the functioning of the Soviets and the Sovnarkom are Brailsford, How the Soviets Work, Anweiler, The Soviets, and Rigby, Lenin’s Government.
105. Abramovitch, The Soviet Revolution, 120; Radkey, The Sickle under the Hammer, 155; I. Steinberg, Spiridonova, 187; Avrich, The Russian Anarchists.
106. Trotsky, The Stalin School of Falsification, 119, 120; Bone, ed., The Bolsheviks and the October Revolution, 137; Brovkin, The Mensheviks after October, 21–35.
107. Pankhurst, Soviet Russia as I Saw It, 68.
108. Beatty, The Red Heart of Russia, 431–34. This lengthy passage is reproduced from Le Blanc, Marx, Lenin, and the Revolutionary Experience, 85–86. The text of Lenin’s speech can be found in Lenin, Revolution, Democracy, Socialism, 280–84, in Lenin’s Collected Works, vol. 26, 437–41, and in Keep, ed., The Debate on Soviet Power, 260–64.
109. Keep, ed., The Debate on Soviet Power, 243–44.
110. Ibid., 247–48, 249, 264–65, 265–66.
111. Wade, The Russian Revolution, 1917, 282. The well-documented account in Rabinowitch, The Bolsheviks in Power, 104–27, lends credence to Wade’s reasoned critique, as does the less restrained account in Lincoln, Passage through Armageddon, 475–79.
112. This passage is reproduced from Le Blanc, Marx, Lenin, and the Revolutionary Experience, 270n20.
113. Lincoln, Passage through Armageddon, 476; Radkey, The Sickle under the Hammer, 456–58; Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 1, 118, 121; Meyer, Leninism, 193.

Chapter 4: Proletarian Rule and Mixed Economy

1. Gilly, La nueva Nicaragua, 45–46.
2. Freeman, The Soviet Worker, 31–32; Dobb, Russian Economic Development, 71–77, 82–83; Trotsky, 1905, 344.
3. A. Williams, Journey into Revolution, 137; Beatty, The Red Heart of Russia, 313, 314, 316.
4. Lenin, Selected Works, vol. 2, 15; Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 2, 69, 81; Ross, Russia in Upheaval, 208, 212.
5. Medvedev, The October Revolution, 94, 118–19; Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 2, 70; Dobb, Russian Economic Development, 31, 33, 50.
6. Cohen, Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution, 70, 71.
7. Ibid., 76; Medvedev, The October Revolution, 131; Daniels, A Documentary History of Communism, vol. 1, 152, 154, 155.
8. Lenin, Selected Works, vol. 2, 692, 697–98, 699, 707; Medvedev, The October Revolution, 132; Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 2, 87; Dobb, Russian Economic Development, 47–57.
9. Dobb, Russian Economic Development, 44–45; Nove, An Economic History of the USSR, 53.
10. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol., 73–78, 97.
11. Ibid., 60–61.
12. Dobb, Russian Economic Development, 50; Ross, Russia in Upheaval, 284; Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 2, 70; Nove, An Economic History of the USSR, 54; Freeman, The Soviet Worker, 33.
13. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 2, 75, 78, 81; Lih, Bread and Authority in Russia, 1914–1921, 152.
14. Souvarine, Stalin, 121–22.
15. Mathiez, “Bolshevism and Jacobinism,” 76.
16. Ibid., 121. Dan and Martov quoted in Draper, The “Dictatorship of the Proletariat” from Marx to Lenin, 74.
17. Luxemburg, “On the Occasion of the Hundredth Anniversary of 1793,” Socialism or Barbarism, 41–42.
18. Ibid., 226.
19. Ibid., 234.
20. Ibid., 170.
21. Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 7, 380, 381; Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 8, 222.
22. Souvarine, Stalin, 63; Lih, Lenin Rediscovered, 524.
23. Quoted in Draper, The “Dictatorship of the Proletariat,” 70–71.
24. Kautsky cited in Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 21, 98.
25. Mayer, The Furies, 119–20.
26. Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 8, 393, 432; Lenin, vol. 10, 136–37.
27. Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 25, 57–58.
28. Bukharin, The Politics and Economics of the Transition Period, 48, 60, 63, 76.
29. Ibid., 79, 96, 101, 104, 105, 106.
30. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 2, 88.
31. Ibid., 72.
32. Lih, Bread and Authority, 149, 150, 151.
33. Ibid., 105.
34. Ibid., 134, 136, 137.
35. Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 27, 293, 294, 297, 300, 301, 303–4, 305.
36. Cohen, Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution, 71; Lenin, On Workers’ Control and the Nationalization of Industry, 31; Lenin, Selected Works, vol. 6, 265 (italics in original); S. A. Smith, Red Petrograd, 155.
37. S. A. Smith, Red Petrograd, 156, 167, 226, 228, 237–38.
38. Ibid., 231, 240; Ross, Russia in Upheaval, 271.
39. Ross, Russia in Upheaval, 275.
40. Ibid., 283, 284–85.
41. S. A. Smith, Red Petrograd, 224, 229, 230, 239.
42. Chamberlin, The Russian Revolution, vol. 1, 415.
43. Ross, Russia in Upheaval, 271, 272, 273, 275.
44. Goodey, “Factory Committees and the Dictatorship of the Proletariat (1918),” 42–44.
45. Serge, Year One of the Russian Revolution, 235; Ross, The Russian Soviet Republic, 341–42.
46. Serge, Year One of the Russian Revolution, 353, 356.
47. Chamberlin, The Russian Revolution, vol. 2, 110; Ross, The Russian Soviet Republic, 342; Serge, Year One of the Russian Revolution, 241, 350, 351; Nove, An Economic History of the USSR, 68; Chase, Workers, Society, and the Soviet State, 21, 308; Serge and Sedova [Trotsky], The Life and Death of Leon Trotsky, 104. (The quotes from Kritsman and Rykov can be found in Chamberlin and Ross, respectively.)
48. Ransome, Russia in 1919, 30, 38, 40, 41, 42, 62–63.
49. Cohen, Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution, 79.
50. Dobb, Russian Economic Development, 44, 45; Chamberlin, The Russian Revolution, vol. 2, 113, 114. Krupskaya’s anecdote is cited in Robertson, Marxism’s Lessons for Today, 23.
51. Medvedev, The October Revolution, 130.
52. Serge, Memoirs of a Revolutionary, 135. Also see Nove, An Economic History of the USSR, 46–82; and Dobb, Russian Economic Development, 98–165.
53. Medvedev, The October Revolution, 134–35; Dobb, 163, 165.
54. This draws from Le Blanc, Marx, Lenin, and the Revolutionary Experience, 124.
55. Foster, The Russian Revolution, 40–42.
56. Ibid., 43.
57. Haynes, “The Debate on Popular Violence and the Popular Movement in the Russian Revolution,” 193; also see Haynes and Wolfreys, eds., History and Revolution; Read, From Tsar to Soviets, 86–88, 114–17.
58. Kunitz, “Men and Women in Soviet Literature,” in Freeman, Kunitz, and Lozowick, Voices of October, 96–97.
59. Ibid., 80–81. For more on Kirillov and his sad fate, see Zavalishin, Early Soviet Writers, 149–53.
60. Fitzpatrick, The Commissariat of Enlightenment, xii, xiv.
61. Ibid., xiii, 79–80, 154; Chamberlin, Soviet Russia, 300; Slonim, Soviet Russian Literature, 34, 38.
62. Slonim, Soviet Russian Literature, 36; Fitzpatrick, The Commissariat of Enlightenment, xii–xiii, xiv, xv–xvi, 26, 29–30, 54, 97; Enteen, The Soviet Scholar-Bureaucrat, 3, 26, 27; McNeal, Bride of the Revolution, 192–94, 198–99.
63. Fitzpatrick, The Commissariat of Enlightenment, xv–xvi; Lenin, On Culture and Cultural Revolution, 233, 234, 247.
64. Kunitz, “Men and Women in Soviet Literature,” 98.
65. Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution, 162.
66. Ibid., 163
67. Ibid., 171.
68. Ibid., 168.
69. Ibid., 170.
70. A. Williams, The Russian Land, 15; Harper, Civic Training in Soviet Russia, 197–200.
71. Borders, Village Life under the Soviets, 151.
72. Ibid., 152.
73. Hindus, Broken Earth, 185–86.
74. A. Williams, The Russian Land, 9, 11, 13–16; Haines, Health Work in Soviet Russia, 98–99.
75. L. Wilson, The New Schools of New Russia, 45–46, 164.
76. Haines, 163–64.
77. Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, 30–31.
78. Ibid., 21.
79. Ibid., 38.
80. Baitalsky, Notebooks for the Grandchildren, 56, 58.
81. Ibid., 9–10.
82. M. Steinberg, “Vanguard Workers and the Morality of Class,” 66. This is also discussed in Le Blanc, Lenin and the Revolutionary Party, 28–42, 106–14, 178–85, 247–57, 260–63.
83. Steinberg, “Vanguard Workers,” 67, 68, 69, 74; Kunitz, “Men and Women in Soviet Literature,” 73.
84. Steinberg, “Vanguard Workers,” 78–79.
85. Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, 43.
86. Baitalsky, Notebooks for the Grandchildren, 11, 59, 60.
87. Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, 54.
88. Ibid., 36, 37. On Lazarev’s own later dissidence and purging, see 86–87, 251–52.
89. Ibid., 27–28.
90. Ibid., 27–29.
91. Trotsky, The Challenge of the Left Opposition, 1923–25, 127.
92. Ciliga, The Russian Enigma, 79–80.
93. Trotsky, The Struggle against Fascism in Germany, 213.

Chapter 5: Global Context

1. Lenin, Revolution, Democracy, Socialism, 221, 222.
2. This passage draws from an editor’s note in Lenin, Revolution, Democracy, Socialism, 216. The statistics are taken from Snyder, The World in the Twentieth Century, 35 (including the figure of the war’s total cost, which Snyder calculated to be $400 billion).
3. Lieven, The End of Tsarist Russia, 4–5. There is a vast literature on varied Marxist analyses of imperialism, but for a partial summary see Le Blanc, From Marx to Gramsci, 38–43.
4. Riddell, ed., Lenin’s Struggle for a Revolutionary International, 34, 35.
5. Mayer, Wilson vs. Lenin, 37, 41.
6. Ibid., 24.
7. Riddell, Lenin’s Struggle for a Revolutionary International, 161.
8. Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 23, 299.
9. Trotsky, Leon Trotsky Speaks, 90.
10. Quoted in Rabinowitch, The Bolsheviks in Power, 376–77.
11. Lenin, Revolution, Democracy, Socialism, 299–300.
12. L. Gardner, LaFeber, and McCormick, eds., Creation of the American Empire, vol. 2, 336. The interpretation offered here obviously owes much to W. Williams, The Tragedy of American Diplomacy. Also of value are LaFeber, America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945–1980, and L. Gardner, Imperial America.
13. Francis, Russia from the American Embassy, 332, 333, 334, 335.
14. Kennan, Russia and the West under Lenin and Stalin, 50–51; Harper, The Russia I Believe In, 91–106. Regarding Kennan, who later helped shape US foreign policy in the early Cold War years following World War II, biographer-historian Walter Isaacson remarks that he was himself a man “of decidedly anti-populist, even anti-democratic attitudes” (Isaacson, “The World According to Mr. X,” 16); see also Isaacson and Thomas, The Wise Men. This assertion seems consistent with the sensibilities of Francis, Lansing, President Woodrow Wilson, and their colleagues, at least in regard to Russian realities.
15. L. Gardner, Architects of Illusion, 9.
16. Spargo, Russia as an American Problem, 10, 11. Spargo had for many years been a prominent intellectual in the Socialist Party of America, but the First World War propelled him into being a supporter and foreign policy advisor of the US government—a trajectory followed by others who came to be called “State Department socialists.” See Radosh, American Labor and United States Foreign Policy, 185–267.
17. N. Levin, Jr., Woodrow Wilson and World Politics, 234, 235, 260.
18. Mayer, Politics and Diplomacy of Peacemaking, 284, 285.
19. Ibid., 343.
20. Ibid., 184–88, 320–23, 340, 457–58; Occleshaw, Dances in Deep Shadows, 284, 289, 290.
21. Mayer, Politics and Diplomacy of Peacemaking, 656–57, 813–14; Fischer, The Soviets in World Affairs, 188–237; Arnot, Soviet Russia and Her Neighbors, 24.
22. Serge, Year One of the Russian Revolution, 139, 143–44, 168; Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 2, 131. Also see Shukman, ed., The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the Russian Revolution, 141–46.
23. Wollenberg, The Red Army, 92; Foglesong, America’s Secret War against Bolshevism, 188.
24. On the old “Chiakovsky Circle” and Chiakvoksy’s later evolution, see Yarmolinsky, Road to Revolution, 175–85, 187.
25. Foglesong, America’s Secret War against Bolshevism, 178.
26. Ibid., 178–79, 180; Kerensky, Russia and History’s Turning Point, 507.
27. Miliukov, Russia Today and Tomorrow, 162.
28. Mawdsley in Shukman, ed., The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the Russian Revolution, 141–46; Suny, The Soviet Experiment, 73–74, 82.
29. Miliukov, Russia Today and Tomorrow, 168, 170, 171, 172.
30. Mayer, Politics and Diplomacy of Peacemaking, 486; Brovkin, ed., The Bolsheviks In Russian Society, 127.
31. Mayer, Why Did the Heavens Not Darken?, 57.
32. Quoted in Wollenberg, The Red Army, 101–2.
33. Nove, An Economic History of the USSR, 68; Chamberlin, The Russian Revolution, vol. 2, 112.
34. Kennan, Russia and the West, 118–19; Chamberlin, The Russian Revolution, vol. 2, 170.
35. Chamberlin, The Russian Revolution, vol. 2, 171; Mayer, Politics and Diplomacy of Peacemaking, 563.
36. Chamberlin, The Russian Revolution, vol. 2, 171; Balabanoff, My Life as a Rebel, 184; Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 2, 245.
37. Mawdsley, The Russian Civil War, 285–88; Kahn, High Treason, 5–6; Chamberlin, The Russian Revolution, vol. 2, 112; Freeman, The Soviet Worker, 39.
38. Ross, The Russian Soviet Republic, 83; Wollenberg, The Red Army, 110–11.
39. Wollenberg, The Red Army, 5; Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 3, 60–64.
40. Mawdsley, The Russian Civil War, 59–62, 169; Lincoln, Red Victory, 17, 18, 21, 82–84, 190–92; Chamberlin, The Russian Revolution, vol. 2, 37–40; Wollenberg, The Red Army, 162; Serge and Sedova [Trotsky], The Life and Death of Leon Trotsky, 85.
41. Reissner quoted in Wollenberg, The Red Army, 153; Ross, The Russian Soviet Republic, 84; Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 3, 66, 67.
42. Lincoln, Red Victory, 189; Mawdsley, The Russian Civil War, 242; Reissner quoted in Wollenberg, The Red Army, 152–54; Seldes, You Can’t Print That!, 193.
43. Ross, The Russian Soviet Republic, 87.
44. Trotsky, My Life, 397; Lincoln, Red Victory, 295–96.
45. Seldes, You Can’t Print That!, 189–90.
46. Wollenberg, The Red Army, 156–57.
47. Suny, The Soviet Experiment, 71; Lincoln, Red Victory, 48; Swain, Russia’s Civil War, 148.
48. Swain, Russia’s Civil War, 145, 150; Trotsky, My Life, 401, 407, 411; Chamberlin, The Russian Revolution, vol. 2, 30.
49. Swain, Russia’s Civil War, 150.
50. Seldes, You Can’t Print That!, 192.
51. Suny, The Soviet Experiment, 128. Also see Lincoln, Red Victory, 478–79.
52. Lenin quoted in C. L. R. James, World Revolution, 131.
53. Van Ree, “Lenin’s Conception of Socialism in One Country, 1915–17,” 160.
54. Lenin quoted in James, World Revolution, 131, 132; Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 31, 397, 399.
55. Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 32, 479–80.
56. Lenin quoted in Lewin, Lenin’s Last Struggle, 3–4; James, World Revolution, 132.
57. See, for example, “Fundamentals of Leninism” and “Concerning Questions of Leninism,” in Stalin, Problems of Leninism, 36, 208–11. At the time, US journalist Walter Duranty commented: “Stalin deserved his victory [i.e., winning leadership of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in the mid-1920s] because he was the strongest, and because his policies were most fitted to the Russian character and folkways in that they established Asiatic absolutism and put the interests of Russian Socialism before those of international socialism” (Duranty, I Write as I Please, 274). Also see Tucker, Stalin as Revolutionary, 368–94.
58. Bukharin and Preobrazhensky, The ABC of Communism, 138–39.
59. Riddell, ed., Lenin’s Struggle for a Revolutionary International, 164.
60. See Senn, The Russian Revolution in Switzerland, and Nation, Lenin, the Zimmerwald Left, and the Origins of the Communist International.
61. Riddell, ed. Founding the Communist International, 231–32.
62. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 3, 119–23, 131.
63. Riddell, ed., Workers of the World and Oppressed Peoples, Unite!, 105, 825.
64. Seldes, You Can’t Print That!, 163, 164.
65. Wolfe, A Life in Two Centuries, 564.
66. Serge, From Lenin to Stalin, 36, 38.
67. Wells, Russia in the Shadows, 155.
68. Ypsilon [Volk and Gumperz], Pattern for World Revolution, 19.
69. Rosmer, Moscow under Lenin, 46.
70. Ypsilon [Volk and Gumperz], Pattern for World Revolution, 22; Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 3, 188, 191.
71. Ypsilon [Volk and Gumperz], Pattern for World Revolution, 19.
72. Ibid., 21–22.
73. Roy, Selected Works of M. N. Roy, vol. 1, 468.
74. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 3, 191–96; Riddell, ed., Workers of the World and Oppressed Peoples, Unite!, 763–71.
75. Lenin, Revolution, Democracy, Socialism, 316, 317, 318.
76. Trotsky, The First Five Years of the Communist International, vol. 1, 295.
77. Riddell, ed., Toward the United Front, 1158.
78. Riddell, ed., Toward the United Front, 1164, 1165, 1171, 1173.
79. Wolfe, A Life in Two Centuries, 229, 373–75.
80. Cannon, The History of American Trotskyism, 14–15.
81. Lovestone, “Testimony of Jay Lovestone,” in Le Blanc and Davenport, eds., The “American Exceptionalism” of Jay Lovestone and His Comrades, 640.
82. Cannon, The First Ten Years of American Communism, 65, 78, 85.
83. Rosmer, Moscow under Lenin, 63.
84. Riddell, ed., Workers of the World and Oppressed Peoples, Unite!, 410, 804.
85. Zinoviev, “Nikolai Lenin,” 14; Trotsky, The Third International after Lenin, 155–56, 238; Serge, From Lenin to Stalin, 43; Rosmer, Moscow under Lenin, 57. Also see Geier, “Zinovievism and the Degeneration of World Communism.”
86. Kuusinen, “Under the Leadership of Russia,” 134.
87. Lovestone, “Testimony of Jay Lovestone,” 640.
88. Balabanoff, My Life as a Rebel, 221; Ypsilon [Volk and Gumperz], Pattern for World Revolution, 15–16.
89. Ypsilon [Volk and Gumperz], Pattern for World Revolution, 16.
90. Balabanoff, My Life as a Rebel, 223.
91. Marot, The October Revolution in Prospect and Retrospect, 27.
92. Ibid., 26–28.
93. Ibid., 28.
94. Ibid., 16, 18.
95. Ibid., 28.

Chapter 6: Losing Balance

1. Serge, Revolution in Danger, 90, 91.
2. Ibid., 92.
3. Ibid., 93–94.
4. Deutscher, Marxism in Our Time, 86–87.
5. Mayer, The Furies, 256–57; Leggett, The Cheka, 16, 22.
6. N. Harding, Lenin’s Political Thought, 326; on Plekhanov, see his 1903 comment, quoted in Draper, The “Dictatorship of the Proletariat,” 70–71.
7. Burbank, Intelligentsia and Revolution, 83, 84; Chernov, The Great Russian Revolution, 417, 419; Tchernoff, New Horizons, 106.
8. Radkey, The Sickle under the Hammer, ix, 4, 17, 18, 21; Chernov, The Great Russian Revolution, 326–27; Lockhart, British Agent, 178–79; Shukman, ed., The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the Russian Revolution, 374–75.
9. Brook-Shepherd, Ironmaze, 34–35; Fischer, The Soviets in World Affairs, vol. 1, 118; Radkey, The Sickle under the Hammer, 453; Occleshaw, Dances in Deep Shadows, 137.
10. Burbank, Intelligentsia and Revolution, 19–20, 21; Radek, Proletarian Dictatorship and Terrorism, 51. On Menshevik policy and aspects of Bolshevik response, see Dan, Two Years of Wandering, and especially the informative essay by the book’s translator and editor, Francis King, on pages 1–45.
11. Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 29, 273; Johnstone, “Socialism, Democracy and the One-Party System,” part 2, Marxism Today, 181; Russell, The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism, 41; Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, 68–70; Serge, Year One of the Russian Revolution, 243–44; Liebman, Leninism under Lenin, 251.
12. Dune, Notes of a Red Guard, 48.
13. Ilyin-Zhenevsky, The Bolsheviks in Power, 102–3; Rabinowitch, The Bolsheviks in Power, 314.
14. Barmine, One Who Survived, 66.
15. Avrich, The Russian Anarchists, 183–84, 185–86, 188.
16. Miller, “Anarchists in the State.”
17. Rabinowtich, The Bolsheviks in Power, 393.
18. Murphy, Revolution and Counterrevolution, 159.
19. I. Steinberg, Spiridonova, 216, 194–217; Serge, Year One of the Russian Revolution, 261–62; Chamberlin, The Russian Revolution, vol. 2, 42–83; Rabinowitch, The Bolsheviks in Power, 292, 294–95; Osipova, “Peasant Rebellions,” 157; Trotsky, How the Revolution Armed, vol. 1, 370–402; Trotsky, Leon Trotsky Speaks, 109–12; Ilyin-Zhenevsky, The Bolsheviks in Power, 110–11.
20. Murphy, Revolution and Counterrevolution, 160; Read, From Tsar to Soviets, 207; Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 1, 170–79; Brovkin, Behind the Front Lines of the Civil War, 249, 251.
21. Brovkin, Behind the Front Lines of the Civil War, 26, 27, 50, 51, 56, 239–69.
22. Leggett, The Cheka, 85; Serge, Year One of the Russian Revolution, 264.
23. Quoted in Anweiler, The Soviets, 235.
24. Barmine, One Who Survived, 92–93.
25. Zinoviev in Riddell, ed., Workers of the World and Oppressed Peoples, Unite!, 152; Tomsky quoted in Matgamna, ed., The Fate of the Russian Revolution, 173.
26. Quoted in Shukman, ed., The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the Russian Revolution, 182.
27. Leggett, The Cheka, 104–5, 119–20; Chamberlin, The Russian Revolution, vol. 2, 66–83.
28. Fischer, The Soviets in World Affairs, vol. 1, 117.
29. Ilyin-Zhenevsky, The Bolsheviks in Power, 18, 104.
30. Ibid., 109.
31. Salisbury, Black Night, White Snow, 566.
32. Rabinowitch, The Bolsheviks in Power, 314–16.
33. Leggett, The Cheka, 67.
34. Rabinowitch, The Bolsheviks in Power, 324, 331, 332, 342–43.
35. Ransome, Russia in 1919, 17.
36. Rabinowitch, The Bolsheviks in Power, 314, 330; Pipes, ed., The Unknown Lenin, 50.
37. Rabinowitch, The Bolsheviks in Power, 330; Farber, Before Stalinism, 134.
38. Berkman, The Bolshevik Myth, 240.
39. Read, From Tsar to Soviets, 207; Mayer, The Furies, 310.
40. I. Steinberg, Spiridonova, 235, 236; Russell, The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism, 54.
41. Mayer, The Furies, 310–11.
42. Ibid., 230–31.
43. Leggett, The Cheka, 84.
44. Ibid., 102.
45. Read, From Tsar to Soviets, 207.
46. Kohn, Living in a World Revolution, 107–8.
47. Ibid. Kohn’s point that the White Terror was worse than the Red Terror in important ways is corroborated by the fact that the high estimate some scholars give for total Cheka executions during the entire Civil War period (140,000) is lower than the number of Jews killed by White forces in just one area, the Ukraine, in the single year of 1919—Rees et al., In Defence of October, 89n124.
48. Chamberlin, The Russian Revolution, vol. 2, 66.
49. Trotsky, Terrorism and Communism, 58, 59.
50. Sheridan, Mayfair to Moscow, 95; Leggett, The Cheka, 252.
51. Deutscher, The Prophet Unarmed, 109; Leggett, The Cheka, 162, 188.
52. Seldes, You Can’t Print That!, 243–44.
53. Ibid., 245.
54. Tchernoff, New Horizons, 125.
55. Ibid., 128. Other reports describe the same mode of operation, periodically throughout the Red Terror, in Odessa, for example. See Berkman, The Bolshevik Myth, 254–55.
56. Lyons, Assignment in Utopia, 470–71.
57. Ibid., 471, 472–73.
58. Ibid., 473.
59. Quoted in Leggett, The Cheka, 162.
60. Zinoviev quoted in Brovkin, Behind the Front Lines of the Civil War, 60; Zavalishin, Early Soviet Writers, 189–94, 215–17, 288–98; Rühle, Literature and Revolution, 43–77; Lukács quoted in Rühle, Literature, 74. The works mentioned can be found in Morrison, ed., The Collected Stories of Isaac Babel; Serge, Conquered City; Tarasov-Rodionov, Chocolate; Gladkov, Cement; and Sholokhov, And Quiet Flows the Don.
61. Farber, Before Stalinism, 128, 129.
62. Ulam, The Bolsheviks, 426.
63. Leggett, The Cheka, 117.
64. Ibid., 162.
65. Pipes, ed., The Unknown Lenin, 61.
66. Leggett, The Cheka, 340.
67. Ibid., 136, 137, 163–64, 342.
68. A. Wood, “The Revolution and Civil War in Siberia,” in Acton, Cherniaev, and Rosenberg, eds., Critical Companion to the Russian Revolution, 712–13; Serge, Year One of the Russian Revolution, 252–54, 343–46.
69. Tchernoff, New Horizons, 147.
70. Lincoln, Red Victory, 241–42, 254, 255; A. Wood, “The Revolution and Civil War in Siberia,” 715.
71. Tchernoff, New Horizons, 147–48.
72. Kameneff, Dictatorship of the Proletariat, 11; Trotsky, Terrorism and Communism, 109, 169–70; Trotsky, On the Paris Commune, 53; Clark, Lenin, 353–429; Le Blanc, Lenin and the Revolutionary Party, 270–279; Rabinowitch, The Bolsheviks in Power, 289.
73. Leggett, The Cheka, 340.
74. James, “Lenin and the Vanguard Party,” 327; Rees, The Algebra of Revolution, 83.
75. Lenin, Revolution, Democracy, Socialism, 233–34.
76. Liebman, Leninism under Lenin, 267; Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 29, 559; Kamenev quoted in Cliff, Lenin, vol. 3, 175; Ransome, The Crisis in Russia, 52–53.
77. Bukharin and Preobrazhensky, The ABC of Communism, 84, 91.
78. Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 32, 21.
79. Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 2, 451, 452–53.
80. Luxemburg, Rosa Luxemburg Speaks, 391; Trotsky, Terrorism and Communism, 57, 59, 64.
81. Luxemburg, Rosa Luxemburg Speaks, 395.
82. Ibid., 394–95.

Chapter 7: Majority of the People

1. This is usefully surveyed in Kingston-Mann, Lenin and the Problem of Marxist Peasant Revolution, 19–37.
2. Bukharin, Selected Writings on the State and the Transition to Socialism, 218.
3. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 2, 34–35.
4. Quoted in ibid., 35–36.
5. Hindus, The Russian Peasant and the Revolution, 281; Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 2, 36.
6. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 2, 39.
7. Tchernoff, New Horizons, 137.
8. This draws from Lenin’s late nineteenth-century tome The Development of Capitalism in Russia and his remarkable 1903 pamphlet To the Rural Poor, both excerpted in Lenin, Revolution, Democracy, Socialism. Book-length studies of Lenin’s thought on “the peasant question” can be found in Kingston-Mann, Lenin and the Problem of Marxist Peasant Revolution, and Rochester, Lenin on the Agrarian Question, but also see Shanin, Russia, 1905–07, 279–305.
9. Lenin, Revolution, Democracy, Socialism, 94.
10. Ibid., 95, 96, 97.
11. Ibid., 99–100.
12. Ibid., 145, 146.
13. Ibid., 151.
14. Shanin, Russia as a “Developing Society,” 99, 154, 155, 156, 158.
15. See, for example: Danilov, Rural Russia under the New Regime in its entirety; Lewin, Russian Peasants and Soviet Power, 21–28; Lih, Bread and Authority, 139–52; Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution, 144–52; and Marot, The October Revolution in Prospect and Retrospect, 11–86. On the critique of the “moral economy” argument, see S. A. Smith, “‘Moral Economy’ and Peasant Revolution in Russia.”
16. Luxemburg, The Complete Works of Rosa Luxemburg, vol. 2, 497–98.
17. Luxemburg, Rosa Luxemburg Speaks, 377, 378.
18. Bukharin, Selected Writings, 218–19.
19. Both were victimized in the late 1920s—arrested, put on trial, successfully pressured to confess to phony charges, and imprisoned—as the crystallizing Stalin dictatorship was beginning to prepare for its “revolution from above,” in a precursor to later “purge trials” that would savage the ranks of old Bolsheviks in 1936–38 (in the wake of which the already incarcerated Sukhanov and Chayanov were exterminated, with so many others). For biographical information, see Getzler, Nikolai Sukhanov, and Kerblay, “A. V. Chayanov,” in The Theory of Peasant Economy.
20. Quoted in Getzler, Nikolai Sukhanov, 11–15, 16, 17.
21. Ibid., 128, 133.
22. Shanin, “Chayanov’s Message,” and Thorner, “Chayanov’s Conception of the Peasant Economy,” both in Chayanov, The Theory of Peasant Economy, 17, xiii.
23. Chayanov, The Theory of Peasant Economy, 55, 60, 225.
24. Ibid., 49, 224, 225–26, 257.
25. Ibid., 255, 256.
26. Ibid., 257.
27. Ibid., 257–58.
28. Lih, Bread and Authority, 1.
29. Quoted in Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 2, 32.
30. Lih, Bread and Authority, 105.
31. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 2, 270.
32. I. Steinberg, Spiridonova, 203.
33. Medvedev, The October Revolution, 153, 155, 156, 157; Lih, Bread and Authority, 175.
34. Osipova, “Peasant Rebellions,” 155
35. Lewin, Russian Peasants and Soviet Power, 78.
36. Hindus, Broken Earth, 137.
37. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 2, 149–50.
38. Baitalsky, 4–5.
39. Lih, Bread and Authority, 187–88.
40. Malle, The Economic Organization of War Communism, 365; Lih, Bread and Authority, 197; Nove, An Economic History of the USSR, 62–63, 108; Wells, Russia in the Shadows, 160.
41. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 2, 165.
42. Osipova, “Peasant Rebellions,” 173. Also see Arshinov, History of the Makhnovist Movement, and Makhno, The Struggle against the State and Other Essays.
43. Quoted in Tony Cliff, Lenin, vol. 3, 141, 142.
44. Lih, Bread and Authority, 199.
45. Lincoln, Passage through Armageddon, 191, 376–77; A. Williams, Journey into Revolution, 82; D. Mandel, The Petrograd Workers, 211–12; Lih, Bread and Authority, 100–102.
46. Lih, Bread and Authority, 102, 154, 167.
47. Nove, An Economic History of the USSR, 106.
48. Lih, Bread and Authority, 136, 137.
49. Ibid., 126.
50. Ibid., 165.
51. Ibid., 146–47, 154–55.
52. I. Steinberg, Spiridonova, 212–13, 237; Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 2, 174; Lih, Bread and Authority, 161.
53. Lih, Bread and Authority, 169, 194, 211–12.
54. Ibid., 175, 176–77, 195, 201, 202; Heinzen, Inventing a Soviet Countryside, 156.
55. Lih, Bread and Authority, 168, 170, 171, 173, 190, 191, 196–97.
56. Hindus, The Russian Peasant and the Revolution, 279.
57. Lih, Bread and Authority, 196, 198, 212, 214, 217, 218.
58. DuGarm, “Peasant Wars in Tambov Province,” 177.
59. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 2, 271; Osipova, “Peasant Rebellions,” 171–72, 173; DuGarm, “Peasant Wars in Tambov Province,” 177–78, 194.
60. Nove, An Economic History of the USSR, 84; Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 2, 272–73; Rousset, The Legacy of the Bolshevik Revolution, 18–19.
61. Hindus, The Russian Peasant and the Revolution, 277.
62. Bukharin and Preobrazhensky, The ABC of Communism, 186–87, 382. Similar reasoning, predominating in the late 1920s, was offered to British observer H. N. Brailsford, who passed it on in How the Soviets Work, 65–66. On the Menshevik perspective, see Brovkin, Behind the Front Lines of the Civil War, 241.
63. Medvedev, The October Revolution, 161; Gregor, ed., Resolutions and Decisions of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, vol. 2, 16; Farber, Before Stalinism, 50.
64. Ross, The Russian Soviet Republic, 317.
65. Getzler, Nikolai Sukhanov, 128.
66. Wolfe, Three Who Made a Revolution, 117.
67. Marot, The October Revolution in Prospect and Retrospect, 37.
68. Hindus, Broken Earth, 15.
69. Trotsky, How the Revolution Armed, vol. 5, 365; Preobrazhensky, The Crisis of Soviet Industrialization, 20; Bukharin, Selected Writings, 215, 216–17.
70. Trotsky, The First Five Years of the Communist International, vol. 2, 232–33.
71. Ibid., 192.
72. Shanin, Russia, 1905–07, 294–95, 302, 305; Lewin, Russian Peasants and Soviet Power, 23–24, 93–94, 318–19.
73. Lewin, Russian Peasants and Soviet Power, 26; Getzler, Nikolai Sukhanov, 130.
74. Getzler, Nikolai Sukhanov, 129, 130, 132, 134. On the newly discovered works of Marx to which Sukhanov referred, see Shanin, ed. Late Marx and the Russian Road.
75. Lewin, Russian Peasants and Soviet Power, 93.
76. Hindus, The Russian Peasant and the Revolution, 82–84, 272–73. By the late 1960s, Hindus seems to have reversed himself: “The folk democracy of the muzhik was a solid foundation on which the Soviets, had they chosen to do so, could have built a modern-style democracy” (The Kremlin’s Human Dilemma, 186).
77. Chayanov, The Theory of Peasant Cooperatives, xxxi, 3; Chayanov, The Theory of Peasant Economy, 263–64.
78. Chayanov, The Theory of Peasant Economy, 265–68.
79. Ibid., 269. It is interesting to note that this approach is consistent with the 1920 suggestions of the US researcher who himself had been born and reared in a Russian peasant village, Maurice Hindus—see Hindus, The Russian Peasant and the Revolution, 285–90.
80. Lih, Bread and Authority, 195–96.
81. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 2, 165, 277.
82. These closing reflections respond to an insightful critique of an earlier draft of this book from Lars Lih.

Chapter 8: Liberty under the Soviets

1. Dewey, Impressions of Soviet Russia and the Revolutionary World, 67–68.
2. Ibid., 22. For valuable discussion and contextualization of Dewey’s experience and reflections, see Engerman, “John Dewey and the Soviet Union.”
3. Baldwin, Liberty under the Soviets, 1–2.
4. International Committee for Political Prisoners, Letters from Russian Prisons, iii, xiii, xiv–xv.
5. Baldwin, Liberty under the Soviets, 2–3, 7–9; Murphy, Revolution and Counterrevolution, 105. The matter of religion in the early Soviet Republic is usefully explored at length in Hecker, Religion under the Soviets—although the relative freedom of religion Hecker describes would soon be destroyed in the midst of Stalin’s “revolution from above,” and Hecker himself would be executed.
6. Baldwin, Liberty under the Soviets, 3–4, 7.
7. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago; Dallin and Nicolaevsky, Forced Labor in Soviet Russia; Khlevniuk, The History of the Gulag. Solzhenitsyn famously argued that the infamous gulag was designed and inaugurated under Lenin, and many have followed him in such assertions, but the data in Dallin and Nicolaevsky, Khlevniuk, and others tell a different story. Also see E. Mandel, “The Gulag Archipelago.”
8. Baldwin, foreword to Baldwin, ed., A New Slavery, Forced Labor, 18–19.
9. Ibid., 19, 20.
10. A shrewd analytical account of the former is provided in Flewers, The New Civilization?, and samples of the latter can be found in J. Steinberg, ed., Verdict of Three Decades.
11. This account is based on chapter 11 of Hindus’s Broken Earth (cited above), particularly 229, 230, 232, 233, 234, 238, 239, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246–47.
12. Flewers, The New Civilization?, 40–41.
13. Lyons, The Red Decade, 111–12. An outstanding and informative study dealing with Lyons, William Henry Chamberlin, Walter Duranty, Maurice Hindus, and Louis Fischer, among others, is Engerman, Modernization from the Other Shore.
14. Caute, The Fellow Travellers, 186–87; also see Harper, The Russia I Believe In.
15. Purcell et al., Russia Today, 48–49.
16. On demonstrations, see Burbank, Intelligentsia and Revolution, 38; Baron, Plekhanov, 354; Avrich, The Russian Anarchists, 227; Serge, Memoirs of a Revolutionary, 144–45; Rosmer, Moscow under Lenin, 99–102. On the press, see Avrich, The Russian Anarchists, 179–85, 191–95, 199–202, 237, 244; Brovkin, The Mensheviks after October, 103–10; Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, 113–15, 138.
17. Baldwin, Liberty under the Soviets, 136; Mazour, The Writing of History in the Soviet Union, 4; Kenez, The Birth of the Propaganda State, 240, 245–47; Eastman, Artists in Uniform, 33–38; Slonim, Soviet Russian Literature, 43, 48; Graham, Science and Philosophy in the Soviet Union, 10. Also see: Freeman, Kunitz, and Lozowick, Voices of October; Joravsky, Soviet Marxism and Natural Science; Rosenberg, ed., Bolshevik Visions; Barber, Soviet Historians in Crisis.
18. Chamberlin, Soviet Russia, 397–98, 399, 401.
19. Murphy, Revolution and Counterrevolution, 155, 161–64.
20. Strong, The First Time in History, 51.
21. Eastman, Love and Revolution, 357–58, 359–60, 361, 370–71, 372, 380–81.
22. Ibid., 366–68.
23. Murphy, Revolution and Counterrevolution, 73–74, 82, 83, 86, 87, 91, 96, 98, 114.
24. S. A. Smith, review of Revolution and Counterrevolution.
25. Harper, Civic Training in Soviet Russia, 96–98.
26. Ransome, The Crisis in Russia, 178–79.
27. Ibid., 180, 181, 183.
28. See, for example, Diggins, Up from Communism.
29. Chamberlin, Confessions of an Individualist, 1–2, 15–16, 28–32, 40–43, 45–50, 64, 65, 66, 97.
30. Ibid., 65, 88, 100. On Lunacharsky’s and Krupskaya’s dissent, see Lapidus, “Educational Strategies and Cultural Revolution,” 92.
31. Chamberlin, Confessions of an Individualist, 145–48. These fake show trials—which were an integral element in pushing forward the Stalinist “revolution from above” of forced collectivization of the land and breakneck industrialization—are discussed in more detail in Lyons, Assignment in Utopia, 357–61, 369, 370–80. On these early persecutions, see also Serge, Russia Twenty Years After, 83–85, 173–74; R. W. Davies, The Soviet Economy in Turmoil, 110–25, 406–11; André Liebich, From the Other Shore, 199–214. Further exploration and contextualization can be found in the essays in Fitzpatrick, ed., Cultural Revolution in Russia, 1928–1931, and in Fitzpatrick, The Cultural Front, 91–148.
32. Chamberlin, Confessions of an Individualist, 102–3; Chamberlin, Soviet Russia, 417.
33. Chamberlin, Confessions of an Individualist, 102.
34. Chamberlin, Soviet Russia, 148–49.
35. Ibid., 36, 149, 150–51, 152, 155–56.
36. Ibid., 157–58; Chamberlin, Confessions of an Individualist, 68.
37. Siegelbaum, Soviet State and Society between Revolutions, 188–223; Davies, The Soviet Economy in Turmoil, 60–75; Filtzer, Soviet Workers and Stalinist Industrialization, 13–33; Erlich, The Soviet Industrialization Debate.
38. Filtzer, Soviet Workers and Stalinist Industrialization, 20–21, 156.
39. Marot, The October Revolution in Prospect and Retrospect, 62–63, 64.
40. Ibid., 45; Rousset, The Legacy of the Bolshevik Revolution, 31.
41. Carr, The Russian Revolution from Lenin to Stalin, 124, 128, 161; Hindus, House without a Roof, 217.
42. Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 29, 153; Stalin, Collected Works, vol. 7, 268. Also see Stone, “Peaceful Coexistence.”
43. Harper, Civic Training in Soviet Russia, 102–3.
44. Ibid., 103; Lincoln, Between Heaven and Hell, 321–22.
45. Nettl, The Soviet Achievement, 110, 111, 114; Freeman, “A Year of Grace,” 108.
46. A valuable discussion of the prerevolutionary cultural avant-garde and aspects of its interconnection with the early Soviet Republic can be found in Lincoln, Between Heaven and Hell, 267–331. On the remarkable cultural work of Lunacharsky and his colleagues, see Fitzpatrick’s excellent study, The Commissariat of Enlightenment.
47. Bowlt, “Art,” 210; Lincoln, Between Heaven and Hell, 365; Gray, The Russian Experiment in Art, 235; Freeman, “A Year of Grace,” 108–9.
48. Lincoln, Between Heaven and Hell, 291–92, 352; Gray, The Russian Experiment in Art, 143–83; Bowlt, “Art,” 217, 218.
49. Freeman, “A Year of Grace,” 110.
50. Slonim and Reavey, eds., Soviet Literature, 23–26; Voronsky, Art as the Cognition of Life, 260–65, 401–33; see also Polonsky, “Lenin’s Views on Art and Culture,” 217–52.
51. Lincoln, Between Heaven and Hell, 327; Joseph Freeman, “The Soviet Cinema,” 217, 221.
52. Freeman, “A Year of Grace,” 108;
53. Freeman, “A Year of Grace,” 111.
54. Dewey, Impressions of Soviet Russia, 115–16.
55. Nettl, The Soviet Achievement, 111–12; L. Wilson, The New Schools of New Russia, 11–12, 61, 159. Further details are provided in Chamberlin, Soviet Russia, 275–88.
56. Tchernoff, New Horizons, 284, 285, 286.
57. Simon Liberman, Building Lenin’s Russia, 200; Fischer in Crossman, ed., The God That Failed, 180, 182, 183; Purcell et al., Russia Today, 46, 49.
58. Dewey, Impressions of Soviet Russia, 112.
59. See, for example, Pelz, A People’s History of Modern Europe, 127–56; and Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes, 85–177.
60. Freeman, “A Year of Grace,” 110, 112; Nettl, The Soviet Achievement, 111.

Chapter 9: Consolidation of the Soviet Republic

1. Interesting information on anti-bourgeois policies of the Bolsheviks can be found in Hillquit, From Marx to Lenin, 133–36, and also Brailsford, How the Soviets Work, 61–64. Does the “dictatorship of the proletariat” mean that capitalists are necessarily denied rights as citizens to vote, express themselves, and organize politically? Hillquit’s argument that (according to Marx) it doesn’t—assuming that there is no effort by these capitalists to overturn proletarian rule by force and violence—has been corroborated in Draper’s The “Dictatorship of the Proletariat” from Marx to Lenin.
2. See Hunt, The Political Ideas of Marx and Engels; Draper, ed., Karl Marx and Frederick Engels.

3. For sources consistent with this perspective, see Chamberlin, Soviet Russia; S. Chase, Dunn, and Tugwell, eds., Soviet Russia in the Second Decade; Purcell et al., Russia Today.
4. Dune, Notes of a Red Guard, 228.
5. Ibid., 228, 230.
6. Daniels, The Conscience of the Revolution, 115–16, 117–18.
7. Pirani, The Russian Revolution in Retreat, 1–2, 45, 53, 66, 69, 71.
8. Clements, Bolshevik Feminist, 179; Allen, Alexander Shlyapnikov, 160; Porter, Alexandra Kollontai, 351–52.
9. Kollontai, Selected Writings, 163–64, 168–69, 171–72, 189, 192, 199–200.
10. Ibid., 175; Avrich, Kronstadt, 1921, 33.
11. Avrich, Kronstadt, 1921, 35, 36, 51.
12. McAuley, “Party and State in Petrograd during the Civil War,” 53; Husband, Workers’ Control and Centralization in the Russian Revolution, 8.
13. Avrich, Kronstadt, 1921, 202, 211, 242, 243.
14. Serge, Memoirs of a Revolutionary, 150–51. Avrich’s scholarship lends credence to this analysis, as does that of Farber, Before Stalinism, 184, 189–95.
15. I’m offering here a slightly modified version of the analysis in W. Chase, Workers, Society, and the Soviet State, 294–97.
16. Such terminological matters are, of course, secondary to the fluid actualities of the time—an issue admirably wrestled with in Twiss, Trotsky and the Problem of Soviet Bureaucracy, and van der Linden, Western Marxism and the Soviet Union.
17. Deutscher, The Prophet Unarmed, 54, 73.
18. Serge, Memoirs of a Revolutionary, 151.
19. Trotsky, Leon Trotsky on the Paris Commune, 56.
20. See excerpts from Lenin, “The Party Crisis” and “On the Trade Union,” in Revolution, Democracy, Socialism, 336.
21. Serge, Memoirs of a Revolutionary, 155.
22. Lenin cited and his comments discussed, along with Koenker’s critique, in Le Blanc, Lenin and the Revolutionary Party, 274, 347n31. Also see Koenker, Party, State, and Society in the Russian Civil War, 81–104; Murphy, Revolution and Counterrevolution, 73–74.
23. Pirani, The Russian Revolution in Retreat, 22–23.
24. Dune, Notes of a Red Guard, 229–30.
25. Pirani, The Russian Revolution in Retreat, 55, 91–92.
26. Ibid., 142.
27. All of these groups are discussed in Pirani’s challenging work; see also Daniels, Conscience of the Revolution.
28. See Paul Le Blanc, Leon Trotsky, from which portions of this section are reproduced. This section also draws substantially from my review essay “Bolshevism and Revolutionary Democracy,” New Politics, Winter 2009, which expresses differences I have with some of the analysis presented by Simon Pirani’s The Russian Revolution in Retreat.
29. Marik, Reinterrogating the Classical Marxist Discourses of Revolutionary Democracy, 477.
30. Writings of Leon Trotsky, 1936–37, 426.
31. Marik, Reinterrogating the Classical Marxist Discourses, 379–80.
32. Pirani, The Russian Revolution in Retreat, 195–96.
33. Berger, Shipwreck of a Generation, 70–71.
34. Murphy, Revolution and Counterrevolution, 73, 74.
35. Dune, Notes of a Red Guard, 230.
36. Strong, The First Time in History, 36–38.
37. For a rich survey of the issues, most of which cannot be dealt with here, see Fitzpatrick, Rabinowitch, and Stites, eds., Russia in the Era of NEP: Explorations in Soviet Society and Culture.
38. Nove, An Economic History of the USSR, 86; W. Chase, Workers, Society, and the Soviet State, 53–56, 295; Liberman, Building Lenin’s Russia, 95, 144; Murphy, Revolution and Counterrevolution, 83; Reswick, I Dreamt Revolution, 119, 164–65; Mazour, Soviet Economic Development, 30.
39. Chamberlin, Soviet Russia, 36.
40. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 2, 294, 295, 309–10, 312.
41. Ibid., 321–22, 323; Sorenson, The Life and Death of Soviet Trade Unionism, 179.
42. Chamberlin, Soviet Russia, 415–16.
43. Quoted in ibid., 201.
44. Duranty, I Write as I Please, 139, 140.
45. Lyons, Assignment in Utopia, 84–85.
46. Reswick, I Dreamt Revolution, 53, 54; Duranty, I Write as I Please, 138–50.
47. Serge, Memoirs of a Revolutionary, 233, 234.
48. Sorenson, The Life and Death of Soviet Trade Unionism, 179, 183–84.
49. Strong, The First Time in History, 244, 245.
50. Ibid., 236, 237, 241, 239.
51. Chamberlin, Confessions of an Individualist, 68–69; Rousset, The Legacy of the Bolshevik Revolution, 28.
52. Rousset, The Legacy of the Bolshevik Revolution, 25.
53. Stalin, “Address to the Graduates of the Red Army Academies,” 7; Trotsky, The Revolution Betrayed, 137.
54. Lewin, Russia/USSR/Russia, 171, 175, 198.
55. Trotsky, The Revolution Betrayed, 112.
56. Ibid., 90, 112–13.
57. Reiman, The Birth of Stalinism, 119; Trotsky, The Revolution Betrayed, 93, 95, 96–97; Tucker, Stalin in Power, 266.
58. Ferro, The Bolshevik Revolution, 275; Lewin, The Making of the Soviet System, 200; E. Mandel, Power and Money, 72–73; S. A. Smith, The Russian Revolution, 69.
59. Serge, Memoirs of a Revolutionary, xxx.
60. Rousset, The Legacy of the Bolshevik Revolution, 21. In his account, Rousset tends to see 1921—with the brutal Kronstadt suppression and the “retreat” into the NEP—as representing the decisive defeat for the October Revolution. My own view, argued in this account, is that the process was more complex and extended, but this does not erase the validity of Rousset’s more general point.
61. Murphy, Revolution and Counterrevolution, 187; Stalin, “Interview Between J. V. Stalin and Roy Howard,” and “Political Report to the 16th Congress of the CPSU(B)”; Van Ree, The Political Thought of Joseph Stalin, 3–4.
62. This and other portions of this section are taken from Le Blanc, “Reflections on the Meaning of Stalinism,” 87, 97–98.
63. Duranty, I Write as I Please, 262, 274.
64. Rousset, The Legacy of the Bolshevik Revolution, 87.
65. Trotsky’s subsequent sensitivity and insights regarding this matter are presented in Le Blanc, Feeley, and Twiss, Leon Trotsky and the Organizational Principles of the Revolutionary Party. An interesting and thoughtful discussion can also be found in Rousset, The Legacy of the Bolshevik Revolution, 81–83.
66. Hindus, Humanity Uprooted, 162–65, 167, 169–70; Hindus, The Kremlin’s Human Dilemma, 188, 193, 194.
67. Nettl, Rosa Luxemburg, vol. 1, 406; Zinoviev, “The Social Roots of Opportunism”; Bukharin, Historical Materialism, 311; Twiss, Trotsky and the Problem of Soviet Bureaucracy, 32, 239. Trotsky’s analysis dovetails with the important contributions of Rakovsky, Selected Writings on Opposition in the USSR, 1923–30, 124–36, 158–65.
68. Ciliga, The Russian Enigma, 121.
69. Ibid., 82.
70. Trotsky, The Revolution Betrayed, 120.
71. Lewin, The Soviet Century, 308.
72. The persistence of vibrant revolutionary ideals and commitments among many people in the international Communist movement, including in the USSR, during the post-1924 period comes through clearly in a number of memoirs, including Fischer, Men and Politics; Freeman, An American Testament; Haywood, Black Bolshevik; Leviné-Meyer, Inside German Communism; Poretsky, Our Own People; Regler, The Owl of Minerva; Strong, I Change Worlds; Trepper, The Great Game; and Vidali, Diary of the Twentieth Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, as well as already-cited accounts by Barmine, Berger, and Kravchenko.

73. Freeman et al., Voices of October, 50, 51.
74. Ibid., 45.
75. Rühle, Literature and Revolution, 5–6; Serge, Memoirs of a Revolutionary, 177, 178.
76. Reavey and Slonim, eds., Soviet Literature, 18.
77. Eastman, Artists in Uniform, 63; Serge, Memoirs of a Revolutionary, 310.
78. Reavey and Slonim, eds., Soviet Literature, 20–21.
79. Eastman, Artists in Uniform, 50; Voronsky, Art as the Cognition of Life, 236, 241; Zavalishin, Early Soviet Writers, 121, 123.
80. Reavey and Slonim, eds., Soviet Literature, 21–22.
81. Karlinsky, “Died and Survived”; Lincoln, Between Heaven and Hell, 274–80, 315–17; Zavalishin, Early Soviet Writers, 20, 21, 22; Serge, Memoirs of a Revolutionary, 177, 178; Rühle, Literature and Revolution, 9.
82. Voronsky, Art as the Cognition of Life, 240.
83. Quoted in Serge, Memoirs of a Revolutionary, 229.
84. Trotsky quoted in Freeman, “Year of Grace,” 112; Mayakovsky quoted in Zavalishin, 81.
85. Rühle, Literature and Revolution, 17; Zavalishin, Early Soviet Writers, 77; Serge, Memoirs of a Revolutionary, 310.

Chapter 10: Inevitabilities and Otherwise

1. Engels, letter to Nikolai Danielson, 24 February 1893.
2. Chamberlin, The Evolution of a Conservative, 63.
3. Yalom, Staring at the Sun, 83, 84.
4. Wolfe, The Bridge and the Abyss, 33, 34, 36; Serge, Memoirs of a Revolutionary, 156
5. Fromm, “The Revolutionary Character,” in The Dogma of Christ and Other Essays, 151. The full study can be found in Fromm, The Working Class in Weimar Germany: A Psychological and Sociological Study. Theoretical perspectives related to the study can be found in Fromm, The Crisis of Psychoanalysis. Also see Braune, Erich Fromm’s Revolutionary Hope, 3–46, and Burston, The Legacy of Erich Fromm, 98–132—both of which provide scholarly examinations of the 1929 study, its context and implications, and Fromm’s explication of “social character.”
6. Fromm, “The Revolutionary Character,” 152–53.
7. Ibid., 151–52, 154.
8. Ibid., 153, 154, 155–56.
9. Ibid., 157–58, 159–60, 162, 163–64, 165–66, 168.
10. Ibid., 170, 171.
11. Marshall Berman, All That Is Solid Melts into Air, 118–20. For a characterization of capitalist civilization as having this “demonic” quality, see Tillich, Perspectives on 19th and 20th Century Protestant Theology, 59–60, 85–88, 151, 155–56, 170, 184–85; and The Socialist Decision, 131–34, 172–73.
12. Löwy, “Marxism and Religion,” On Changing the World, 27–28.
13. Deutscher, “Trotsky in Our Time,” in Marxism in Our Time, 36.
14. Summary drawn from Le Blanc, “Uneven and Combined Development and the Sweep of History.”
15. This is based on a fascinating polemic during the 1960s between Hal Draper and Max Nomad. Draper’s original contribution, a minor classic entitled The Two Souls of Socialism, has been published in a number of places as an article and pamphlet. In my opinion, his harmonization in that essay of democracy with the revolutionary Marxist tradition is fundamentally correct yet, as this entire study suggests, is tidier and more schematic than the realities. Nomad criticized it in “Is There a Socialism From Below?,” and Draper responded with a two-part rejoinder: “A Reply to Max Nomad: Is Oligarchy Inevitable?” (the important qualification cited here appearing on page 70 of the first part of the rejoinder).
16. Tilly, Democracy, 24, 74, 76, 110–20, 204, 205.
17. Luxemburg, “The Russian Revolution,” in Socialism or Barbarism, 237.

Methodological Appendix: Analytical Tools

1. Soboul, The French Revolution 1787–1799, 612; Nomad, Dreamers, Dynamiters and Demagogues, 236.
2. Soboul, Understanding the French Revolution, 271. See also Jaurès, A Socialist History of the French Revolution; Mathiez, The French Revolution; and Lefebvre, The French Revolution, 2 vols.
3. For discussion of this variant of Marxism, see Le Blanc, From Marx to Gramsci, and E. Mandel, The Place of Marxism in History. Impacts on the twentieth century are the focus of many volumes, including Mills, The Marxists, and Priestland, The Red Flag.
4. Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France and Paine’s The Rights of Man can be found in numerous editions. On 1989 controversies, see Hornblower, “Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité?” Earlier scholarly debates are reflected in Kaplow, ed., New Perspectives on the French Revolution, Greenlaw, ed., The Social Origins of the French Revolution. Assaulting the Marxist position are Furet, Interpreting the French Revolution; and Schama, Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution. Marxist perspectives are elaborated in the works of Soboul, cited above, and—from a somewhat different slant—Guerin, Class Struggle in the First French Republic; also see Rudé, The French Revolution, and Heller, The Bourgeois Revolution in France.
5. On the first American Revolution, there are many recent Marxist-influenced contributions, including G. B. Nash, The Urban Crucible; Countryman, The American Revolution; E. Foner, Tom Paine and Revolutionary America. Controversial interpretations by earlier Marxist historians include Aptheker, The American Revolution, and P. Foner, Labor and the American Revolution. Literature on contending interpretations includes Greene, ed., The Reinterpretation of the American Revolution; Wellenreuther, “Labor in the Era of the American Revolution”; G. B. Nash, Smith, and Hoerder, “Laboring Americans and the American Revolution.” On the “second American Revolution,” i.e., the Civil War and Reconstruction, see: Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America; Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts; Genovese, The Political Economy of Slavery; Montgomery, Beyond Equality; Stampp and Litwack, eds., Reconstruction: An Anthology of Revisionist Writings; E. Foner, Politics and Ideology in the Age of the Civil War; E. Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution; McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom and Abraham Lincoln and the Second American Revolution; B. Levine, Half Slave and Half Free and The Fall of the House of Dixie.
6. The literature on the Paris Commune contains sharply conflicting interpretations. For Marx’s interpretation, see Draper, ed., Writings on the Paris Commune, by Marx and Engels. The classic history is Lissagary, The History of the Commune of 1871. Scholarly conservative interpretations can be found in E. Mason, The Paris Commune, and Horne, The Terrible Year: The Paris Commune 1871, while scholarly left-wing accounts can be found in Jellinek, The Paris Commune of 1871; Edwards, The Paris Commune, 1871. Also see Hicks and Tucker, eds., Revolution and Reaction. An excellent account of how Wilson defined the challenge of the Russian Revolution can be found in N. Levin, Jr., Woodrow Wilson and World Politics; Churchill eloquently speaks for himself in Churchill, The Aftermath.
7. E. Mandel, “History Advances over Skepticism,” 4.
8. Valuable memoirs that give a vivid sense of the development of this intellectual current are Kazin, Starting Out in the Thirties, and New York Jew—although, contrary to this second title, it would be misleading to see this phenomenon in ethnic terms. Counterposed to Kazin’s recollections, but interesting in their own right, are the memoirs of one of the most important intellectuals who journeyed from left to right—Sidney Hook, Out of Step; Alan Wald, The New York Intellectuals; and Diggins, Up from Communism, are particularly good in tracing the complex trajectory of this current, although regarding Selig Perlman one should consult David Brody, “Selig Perlman,” in Dictionary of American Biography; A. L. Owen, ed., Selig Perlman’s Lectures on Capitalism and Socialism. Useful on the background of the post-Marxist political trajectory is Lasch, The Agony of the American Left. For a more general intellectual history, see Pells, The Liberal Mind in a Conservative Age. Some of the key issues are discussed and debated in Waxman, ed., The End of Ideology Debate. An informative and stimulating polemic focused on some of the more conservative figures can be found in Peter Steinfels, The Neoconservatives; a scholarly celebration is offered in G. H. Nash, The Conservative Intellectual Movement in America since 1945.
9. Bell, The Coming of Post-industrial Society, 40, 55.
10. Perlman, A Theory of the Labor Movement, vii, viii, 4–6.
11. Rostow, Stages of Economic Growth, 158.
12. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 162, 247, 253, 254, 346.
13. Dewey, The Living Thoughts of Thomas Jefferson, 27.
14. Joseph A. Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy, 253, 264.
15. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 236, 254, 270; Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, x.
16. Mayo, An Introduction to Democratic Theory, 270, 271, 286, 287.
17. Dahl, A Preface to Democratic Theory, 131, 132, 133.
18. See, for example, Rostow, The United States in the World Arena, 503–15; Bell, The End of Ideology, 74, 90–91, 404–5.
19. Dewey, “Democracy and Educational Administration,” in Intelligence in the Modern World, 401; Macpherson, Democratic Theory, 173.
20. Bachrach, The Theory of Democratic Elitism, 93–94, 7, 8. These and related issues are discussed and debated in greater detail in the various contributions to Green, ed., Democracy, as well as Etzioni-Halevy, ed., Classes and Elites in Democracy and Democratization.
21. Dewey, “Democracy and Educational Administration,” 401–3. Also relevant is discussion of Dewey’s perspectives in Westbrook, John Dewey and American Democracy, 429–62.
22. Laski, Introduction to Politics, 14, 16, 31, 33, 72.
23. For documentation on the democratic nature of Marx’s political thought, see Hunt, The Political Ideas of Marx and Engels. On Lenin’s, see N. Harding, Lenin’s Political Thought, and my own Lenin and the Revolutionary Party, as well as Lenin, Revolution, Democracy, Socialism.
24. Novack, Democracy and Revolution, 238, 239, 240.
25. Ibid., 237.
26. Rueschemeyer, E. Stephens, and J. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy, 43, 47; Roper, The History of Democracy, 2; Ishay, The History of Human Rights, 9.
27. Regarding the debate on the extent to which democracy is possible in such economically underdeveloped areas as late twentieth-century Latin America, see Wiarda, “Can Democracy Be Exported?”; O’Donnell, “The United States, Latin America, Democracy”; Braun, “The Human Rights Question in U.S.-Latin American Relations”; Crahan, “Human Rights and U.S. Foreign Policy”; Di Palma, “Comment: Democracy, Human Rights, and the U.S. Role in Latin America”; Torres-Rivas, “Comment: Constraints on Policies regarding Human Rights and Democracy”—all in Middlebrook and Rico, eds., The United States and Latin America in the 1980s, 325–480. Also see Malloy and Seligson, eds. Authoritarians and Democrats, particularly two essays by Seligson: “Democratization in Latin America” and “Development, Democratization and Decay.”
28. Laski, Introduction to Politics, 28.
29. Novack, Democracy and Revolution, 242.
30. This section draws from Le Blanc, Leon Trotsky, 78–83.
31. Trotsky, History of the Russian Revolution, vol. 1, 5–6.
32. T. Harding, “Dependency, Nationalism and the State in Latin America,” 4; Trotsky, Permanent Revolution and Results and Prospects, 131. Also relevant are Chilcote and Johnson, eds., Theories of Development: Mode of Production or Dependency?; Chilcote and Edelstein, Latin America: Capitalist and Socialist Perspectives of Development and Underdevelopment.
33. Löwy, The Politics of Combined and Uneven Development, 40, 43; Deutscher, “Trotsky in Our Time,” Marxism in Our Time, 36. An essential source is Day and Gaido, eds., Witnesses to Permanent Revolution. Also see Nadezhda Krupskaya’s discussion of the evolution of Lenin’s thinking in 1915–16 regarding the linkage of democratic and socialist revolutions in Krupskaya, Reminiscences of Lenin, 328–30. Shanin, ed., Late Marx and the Russian Road, documents Marx himself inclining toward a “permanentist” approach in analyzing revolutionary possibilities in late nineteenth-century Russia. In their March 1850 “Address of the Central Committee to the Communist League” (which concludes with the declaration that the workers’ “battle cry must be: The Permanent Revolution”), Marx and Engels lay out the basic perspective, but key elements can also be traced in their Communist Manifesto—see Marx, Political Writings, vol. 1, 86–87, 98, 319–30. In Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Bolshevik archivist and historian David Riazanov notes the 1850 circulars happened to be “precisely” what “Lenin, who knew them by heart, used to delight in quoting” (100).
34. Trotsky, 1905, 49; Trotsky, Permanent Revolution, 132.
35. Trotsky, On the Paris Commune, 24; Trotsky, Permanent Revolution, 69, 70, 72.
36. Trotsky, On the Paris Commune, 13.
37. Ibid., 25, 26. The same points can be found in Trotsky’s more widely read Results and Prospects, published in Permanent Revolution and Results and Prospects.
38. Trotsky, Permanent Revolution, 133, 278–79.