Notes

Foreword

¹ Wade Davis, The Wayfinders: Why Ancient Wisdom Matters in the Modern World (Toronto: House of Anansi Press, 2009), 13.

A Note on Terminology and Sources

¹ Gregory Cajete, Native Science: Natural Laws of Interdependence (Santa Fe, NM: Clear Light Publishers, 2000); Jessica Hernandez, Fresh Banana Leaves: Healing Indigenous Landscapes through Indigenous Science (Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 2022).

² Gregory Younging, Elements of Indigenous Style: A Guide for Writing by and about Indigenous Peoples (Edmonton, Alberta: Brush Education, 2018).

³ Jinting Wu, Paul William Eaton, David W. Robinson-Morris, Maria F. G. Wallace, and Shaofei Han, “Perturbing Possibilities in the Postqualitative Turn: Lessons from Taoism (道) and Ubuntu,” International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education 31, no. 6 (2018): 504–19, 517.

⁴ G. A. Bradshaw, Carnivore Minds: Who These Fearsome Animals Really Are (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2017).

⁵ Wahinkpe Topa (Four Arrows) and Darcia Narvaez, Restoring the Kinship Worldview: Indigenous Voices Introduce 28 Precepts for Rebalancing Life on Planet Earth (Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 2022).

⁶ F. David Peat, Blackfoot Physics (Boston: Weiser Books, 2001), 5.

⁷ Cajete, Native Science, 2.

⁸ Cajete, 19.

⁹ https://globalsocialtheory.org/concepts/settler-colonialism/; www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780190221911/obo-9780190221911-0029.xml.

1. Nature’s Way

¹ G. A. Bradshaw, Carnivore Minds: Who These Fearsome Animals Really Are (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2017), 2–3; Daniela C. Rößler, Kris Kim, Massimo De Agrò, Alex Jordan, C. Giovanni Galizia, and Paul S. Shamble, “Regularly Occurring Bouts of Retinal Movements Suggest an REM Sleep-Like State in Jumping Spiders,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119, no. 33 (2022): e2204754119; Philip Low, Jaak Panksepp, Diana Reiss, David Edelman, Bruno Van Swinderen, and Christof Koch, “The Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness” (Francis Crick Memorial Conference, Cambridge, UK, July 7, 2012), https://fcmconference.org/img/CambridgeDeclarationOnConsciousness.pdf.

² Darcia Narvaez, Neurobiology and the Development of Human Morality: Evolution, Culture, and Wisdom (New York: W. W. Norton, 2014). Also see these open access papers: Darcia Narvaez, “Getting Back on Track to Being Human,” Interdisciplinary Journal of Partnership Studies 4, no. 1 (March 2, 2017), https://doi.org/10.24926/ijps.v4i1.151; M. Tarsha and Darcia Narvaez, “The Evolved Nest: A Partnership System That Fosters Child Wellbeing,” International Journal of Partnership Studies 6, no. 3 (2019), https://doi.org/10.24926/ijps.v6i3.2244; Darcia Narvaez, L. Wang, A. Cheng, T. Gleason, R. Woodbury, A. Kurth, and J. B. Lefever, “The Importance of Early Life Touch for Psychosocial and Moral Development,” Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica 32, no. 16 (2019), https://doi.org/10.1186/s41155-019-0129-0.

³ Gilbert Gottlieb, “On the Epigenetic Evolution of Species-Specific Perception: The Developmental Manifold Concept,” Cognitive Development 17 (2002): 1287–1300, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0885-2014(02)00120-X; Robert Lickliter and C. Harshaw, “Canalization and Malleability Reconsidered: The Developmental Basis of Phenotypic Stability and Variability,” in Handbook of Developmental Science, Behavior, and Genetics, ed. D. E. Hood, C. T. Halpern, G. Greenberg, and R. M. Lerner (New York: Blackwell, 2010), 491–526; Karola Stotz and Darcia Narvaez, “Niche,” in Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences, ed. V. Zeigler-Hill and T. Shackelford (New York: Springer, 2018), https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_1554-1.

⁴ Gabor Maté and Daniel Maté, The Myth of Normal: Trauma, Illness, and Healing in a Toxic Culture (Garden City, NY: Avery, 2022).

⁵ Jean Liedloff, The Continuum Concept: In Search of Happiness Lost (Cambridge, MA: Perseus Books, 1977), https://continuumconcept.org/.

⁶ Liedloff, Continuum Concept, 10.

⁷ Liedloff, 8.

⁸ Vine Deloria Jr., The World We Used to Live In: Remembering the Powers of the Medicine Men (Wheat Ridge, CO: Fulcrum Publishing, 2006).

⁹ Genevieve Vaughan, “Introduction: A Radically Different Worldview Is Possible,” in Women and the Gift Economy, ed. Genevieve Vaughan (Toronto: Ianna Publications, 2007), 1–40; Thomas Widlok, Anthropology and the Economy of Sharing (London: Routledge, 2017); Donald Worster, Nature’s Economy: A History of Ecological Ideas, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994).

¹⁰ Haunani-Kay Trask, From a Native Daughter: Colonialism and Sovereignty in Hawaii, rev. ed. (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1999), 32.

¹¹ The term “Nature-based” refers to human communities that live according to the principles and ethics of Nature, as nonhumans do.

¹² Liedloff, Continuum Concept.

¹³ Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016); Arne Naess and D. Rothenberg, Ecology, Community and Lifestyle (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1989).

¹⁴ Gregory Cajete, “Philosophy of Native Science,” in American Indian Thought: Philosophical Essays, ed. Anne Waters (London: Wiley-Blackwell, 2004), 47–55.

¹⁵ Vine Deloria Jr., Spirit & Reason: The Vine Deloria, Jr., Reader, ed. Barbara Deloria, Kristen Foehner, and Samuel Scinta (Wheat Ridge, CO: Fulcrum Publishing, 1999), 46.

¹⁶ See also Geralyn Gendreau, Jungle Jean: The Captivating Biography of Jean Liedloff (Birmingham, UK: Precision House Publishing, 2021), www.junglejean.com.

¹⁷ Narvaez, Neurobiology.

¹⁸ Riane Eisler and Douglas Fry, Nurturing Our Humanity (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019); Douglas P. Fry, Geneviève Souillac, Larry Liebovitch, Peter T. Coleman, Kane Agan, Elliot Nicholson-Cox, Dani Mason, Frank Palma Gomez, and Susie Strauss, “Societies within Peace Systems Avoid War and Build Positive Intergroup Relationships,” Humanities and Social Sciences Communication 8 (2021): 17, https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-020-00692-8; Douglas P. Fry, The Human Potential for Peace: An Anthropological Challenge to Assumptions about War and Violence (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006).

¹⁹ Wade Davis, The Wayfinders: Why Ancient Wisdom Matters in the Modern World (Toronto: House of Anansi, 2009).

²⁰ Bradshaw, Carnivore Minds; G. A. Bradshaw, Talking with Bears: Conversations with Charlie Russell (Victoria, BC: Rocky Mountain Books, 2020).

²¹ Four Arrows, “The Media Have Missed a Crucial Message of the UN’s Biodiversity Report,” The Nation, May 20, 2019, www.thenation.com/article/archive/biodiversity-un-report-indigenous-worldview.

²² Darcia Narvaez, “Ecocentrism: Resetting Baselines for Virtue Development,” Ethical Theory and Moral Practice 23 (2020): 391–406, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10677-020-10091-2.

²³ Clive Ponting, A Green History of the World: The Environment and the Collapse of Great Civilizations (London: Penguin, 1991).

²⁴ Narvaez, Neurobiology.

²⁵ Calvin L. Martin, In the Spirit (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992).

²⁶ Benjamin Madley, An American Genocide (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2016); Peter Nabokov, Native American Testimony: A Chronicle of Indian-White Relations from Prophecy to the Present, 1492–2000 (New York: Penguin, 1999); Danilo Urzedo and Pratichi Chatterjee, “The Colonial Reproduction of Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon: Violence against Indigenous Peoples for Land Development,” Journal of Genocide Research 23, no. 2 (2021): 302–24; Andres J. Azuero, Dan Arreaza-Kaufman, Jeanette Coriat, Stefano Tassinari, Annette Faria, Camilo Castañeda-Cardona, and Diego Rosselli, “Suicide in the Indigenous Population of Latin America: A Systematic Review,” Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatria 46, no. 4 (2017): 237–42.

²⁷ G. A. Bradshaw, Allan N. Schore, Janine L. Brown, Joyce H. Poole, and Cynthia J. Moss, “Elephant Breakdown,” Nature 433, no. 7028 (2005): 807; Survival International, “Guarani Suicides—How Mankind’s Divorce from Nature Impacts the Psyche,” 2022, www.survivalinternational.org/articles/3247-guarani-suicides-how-mankinds-divorce-from-nature-impacts-on-the-psyche; Madley, American Genocide; Nabokov, Native American Testimony; Urzedo and Chatterjee, “Colonial Reproduction”; Azuero et al., “Suicide.”

²⁸ “Capitalocene” is used in lieu of “Anthropocene” because not all humans have brought this about; rather, it is caused by those who promote colonialism, industrialization, capitalism, and its globalization. See Jason Moore, ed., Anthropocene or Capitalocene: Nature, History and the Crisis of Capitalism (Oakland, CA: PM Press, 2016).

²⁹ E. Richard Sorenson, “Preconquest Consciousness,” in Tribal Epistemologies, ed. Helmut Wautischer (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 1998), 79–115.

³⁰ Narvaez, Neurobiology.

³¹ Andrew Garner, Michael Yogman, and Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health, Section on Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, Council on Early Childhood, “Preventing Childhood Toxic Stress: Partnering with Families and Communities to Promote Relational Health,” Pediatrics 148, no. 2 (2021): e2021052582.

³² Narvaez, Neurobiology.

³³ Humberto Maturana and Gerda Verden-Zöller, The Origin of Humanness in the Biology of Love, ed. Pille Bunnell (Exeter, UK: Imprint Academic, 2008).

³⁴ Maté and Maté, Myth of Normal; Gabor Maté, “Addiction: Childhood Trauma, Stress and the Biology of Addiction,” Journal of Restorative Medicine 1, no. 1 (2012): 56–63; Robin Karr-Morse and Meredith S. Wiley, Ghosts from the Nursery: Tracing the Roots of Violence (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1997); Robin Karr-Morse and Meredith S. Wiley, Scared Sick: The Role of Childhood Trauma in Adult Disease (New York: Basic Books, 2012); Ruth A. Lanius, Eric Vermetten, and Clare Pain, The Impact of Early Life Trauma on Health and Disease: The Hidden Epidemic (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010).

³⁵ Maté and Maté, Myth of Normal.

³⁶ Jennifer Block, Pushed: The Painful Truth about Childbirth and Modern Maternity Care (New York: Lifelong Books/Da Capo/Perseus, 2007).

³⁷ Babies vary how long they stay in the womb by up to fifty-five days. Ashley Montagu, “Brains, Genes, Culture, Immaturity, and Gestation,” in Culture: Man’s Adaptive Dimension, ed. Ashley Montagu (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), 102–13.

³⁸ Marsden Wagner, Born in the USA: How a Broken Maternity System Must Be Fixed to Put Women and Children First (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006).

³⁹ Elysia P. Davis and Curt A. Sandman, “The Timing of Prenatal Exposure to Maternal Cortisol and Psychosocial Stress is Associated with Human Infant Cognitive Development,” Child Development 81, no. 1 (2010): 131–48.

⁴⁰ Ali B. Rodgers, Christopher P. Morgan, N. Adrian Leu, and Tracy L. Bale, “Transgenerational Epigenetic Programming via Sperm MicroRNA Recapitulates Effects of Paternal Stress,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112, no. 44 (2015): 13699–704.

⁴¹ Baby-Friendly USA, Guidelines and Evaluation Criteria for Facilities Seeking Baby-Friendly Designation (Sandwich, MA: Baby-Friendly USA, 2010).

⁴² US Department of Health and Human Services, The Surgeon General’s Call to Action to Support Breastfeeding (Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Surgeon General, 2011).

⁴³ Stephanie Coontz, The Way We Never Were: American Families and the Nostalgia Trap (New York: Basic Books, 1992).

⁴⁴ Bradshaw, Carnivore Minds.

⁴⁵ Jenara Nerenberg, “Why Are So Many Adults Today Haunted by Trauma,” Greater Good Magazine, June 8, 2017, https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/why_are_so_many_adults_today_haunted_by_trauma; Lanius et al., Impact.

⁴⁶ Edward O. Wilson, “Biodiversity, Prosperity, and Value,” in Ecology, Economics, Ethics: The Broken Circle, ed. F. Herbert Bormann and Stephen R. Kellert (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), 3–10.

⁴⁷ Narvaez, Neurobiology; Darcia Narvaez, Julia Braungart-Rieker, Laura Miller-Graff, Lee Gettler, and Paul Hastings, eds., Contexts for Young Child Flourishing: Evolution, Family and Society (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016); Darcia Narvaez, Kristin Valentino, James McKenna, Agustin Fuentes, and Peter Gray, eds., Ancestral Landscapes in Human Evolution: Culture, Childrearing and Social Wellbeing (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014); Darcia Narvaez, Jaak Panksepp, Allan Schore, and Tracy Gleason, eds., Evolution, Early Experience and Human Development: From Research to Practice and Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013).

⁴⁸ Raj Patel and Jason W. Moore, A History of the World in Seven Cheap Things: A Guide to Capitalism, Nature, and the Future of the Planet (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2017), 206.

⁴⁹ Alison Gopnik, The Gardener and the Carpenter (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2016).

⁵⁰ www.apa.org/monitor/2011/04/mind-midlife.

⁵¹ Narvaez, Neurobiology.

⁵² Liedloff, Continuum Concept, 163.

⁵³ Sherri Mitchell, Sacred Instructions (Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 2018), 158.

⁵⁴ Sarah Hrdy, Mothers and Others: The Evolutionary Origins of Mutual Understanding (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2009).

⁵⁵ Joanna Macy and Molly Brown, Coming Back to Life (Gabriola Island, BC: New Society Publishers, 2014).

2. Should I Have Children? Brown Bears

¹ Charles C. Schwartz, Sterling D. Miller, and Mark A. Haroldson, “Grizzly Bear,” in Wild Mammals of North America: Biology, Management, and Conservation, ed. George A. Feldhamer, Bruce Carlyle Thompson, and Joseph A. Chapman (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), 556.

² Charlie Russell, Grizzly Heart: Living without Fear among the Brown Bears of Kamchatka (Toronto: Vintage Canada, 2011).

³ G. A. Bradshaw, Talking with Bears: Conversations with Charlie Russell (Victoria, BC: Rocky Mountain Books, 2020), 197–98.

⁴ Bradshaw, Talking with Bears, 63.

⁵ Bradshaw, 34.

⁶ Tatsuya Sakamoto and Stephen D. McCormick, “Prolactin and Growth Hormone in Fish Osmoregulation,” General and Comparative Endocrinology 147, no. 1 (2006): 24–30; Cornelis Groot, Pacific Salmon Life Histories (Vancouver, BC: UBC Press, 1991).

⁷ E. Toolson, “Acclimation of Osmoregulatory Function in Salmon,” accessed June 1, 2022, www.unm.edu/~toolson/salmon_osmoregulation.html; Thomas P. Quinn, The Behavior and Ecology of Pacific Salmon and Trout (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2018); Stephen D. McCormick and Richard L. Saunders, “Preparatory Physiological Adaptations for Marine Life of Salmonids: Osmoregulation, Growth, and Metabolism,” American Fisheries Society Symposium 1, no. 21 (1987): 1–229.

⁸ Russell, Grizzly Heart.

⁹ Sarah Hrdy, Mothers and Others: The Evolutionary Origins of Mutual Understanding (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2009).

¹⁰ Humberto Maturana and Gerda Verden-Zöller, The Origin of Humanness in the Biology of Love, ed. Pille Bunnell (Exeter, UK: Imprint Academic, 2008).

¹¹ Wenda R. Trevathan, Human Birth: An Evolutionary Perspective, 2nd ed. (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 2011).

¹² Judith M. Burkart, Sarah B. Hrdy, and Carel P. van Schaik, “Cooperative Breeding and Human Cognitive Evolution,” Evolutionary Anthropology 18 (2009): 175–86.

¹³ Ashley Montagu, Touching: The Human Significance of the Skin (New York: Harper & Row, 1986).

¹⁴ Trevathan, Human Birth.

¹⁵ Pascal Steiner, “Brain Fuel Utilization in the Developing Brain,” Annals of Nutrition Metabolism 75, suppl. 1 (2019): 8–18, https://doi.org/10.1159/000508054.

¹⁶ Darcia Narvaez, Jaak Panksepp, Allan Schore, and Tracy Gleason, Evolution, Early Experience and Human Development: From Research to Practice and Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013).

¹⁷ Montagu, Touching.

¹⁸ Darcia Narvaez, Neurobiology and the Development of Human Morality: Evolution, Culture and Wisdom (New York: W. W. Norton, 2014).

¹⁹ Hrdy, Mothers and Others.

²⁰ Michael J. Meaney, “Maternal Care, Gene Expression, and the Transmission of Individual Differences in Stress Reactivity across Generations,” Annual Review of Neuroscience 24, no. 1 (2001): 1161–92.

²¹ Juan M. Rodríguez, Leonides Fernández, and Valerie Verhasselt, “The Gut–Breast Axis: Programming Health for Life,” Nutrients 13, no. 2 (2021): 606; Kyoung Min Kim and Jae-Won Choi, “Associations between Breastfeeding and Cognitive Function in Children from Early Childhood to School Age: A Prospective Birth Cohort Study,” International Breastfeeding Journal 15, no. 1 (2020): 83.

²² Edward Tronick, The Neurobehavioral and Social-Emotional Development of Infants and Children (New York: Norton, 2007).

²³ Colwyn Trevarthen, “Stepping Away from the Mirror: Pride and Shame in Adventures of Companionship—Reflections on the Nature and Emotional Needs of Infant Intersubjectivity,” in Attachment and Bonding: A New Synthesis, ed. C. Sue Carter, Lieselotte Ahnert, K. E. Grossmann, Sarah B. Hrdy, Michael E. Lamb, Stephen W. Porges, and Norbert Sachser (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005), 55–84.

²⁴ Daniel Stern, Forms of Vitality: Exploring Dynamic Experience in Psychology, the Arts, Psychotherapy, and Development (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).

²⁵ Lesley Le Grange, “Ubuntu, Ukama, Environment and Moral Education,” Journal of Moral Education 41, no. 3 (2012): 329–40.

²⁶ Thomas R. Verny and Pamela Weintraub, Pre-Parenting: Nurturing Your Child from Conception (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002).

²⁷ Colwyn Trevarthen, “Action and Emotion in Development of the Human Self, Its Sociability and Cultural Intelligence: Why Infants Have Feelings Like Ours,” in Emotional Development, ed. Jacqueline Nadel and Darwin Muir (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 61–91; Trevarthen, “Stepping Away.”

²⁸ Ruth Feldman, A. Weller, L. Sirota, and A. I. Eidelman, “Skin-to-Skin Contact (Kangaroo Care) Promotes Self-Regulation in Premature Infants: Sleep-Wake Cyclicity, Arousal Modulation, and Sustained Exploration,” Developmental Psychology 38, no. 2 (2002): 194–207.

²⁹ Isabella B. R. Scheiber, Brigitte M. Weiß, Sjouke A. Kingma, and Jan Komdeur, “The Importance of the Altricial–Precocial Spectrum for Social Complexity in Mammals and Birds—A Review,” Frontiers in Zoology 14, no. 1 (2017): 1–20.

³⁰ Kerstin Uvnas-Moberg, “Neuroendocrinology of the Mother-Child Interaction,” Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism 7 (1996): 126–31; Ruth Feldman, “Oxytocin and Social Affiliation in Humans,” Hormones and Behavior 61, no. 3 (2012): 380–91; C. Sue Carter, “Developmental Consequences of Oxytocin,” Physiological Behavior 79, no. 3 (2003): 383–97.

³¹ Kerstin Uvnas-Moberg, “Oxytocin-Linked Antistress Effects—The Relaxation and Growth Response,” Acta Psychologica Scandinavica 161, suppl. 640 (1997): 38–42.

³² Grazyna Kochanska, “Mutually Responsive Orientation between Mothers and Their Young Children: A Context for the Early Development of Conscience,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 11, no. 6 (2002): 191–95.

³³ Charles C. Schwartz et al., “Grizzly Bear,” 556–86.

³⁴ Bradshaw, Talking, 180.

³⁵ Bradshaw, Talking.

³⁶ Thich Nhat Hanh and Arnold Kotler, Being Peace (Berkeley, CA: Parallax, 1987).

³⁷ K. Kramer and M. Gawlick, Martin Buber’s I and Thou: Practicing Living Dialogue (Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 2003).

³⁸ G. A. Bradshaw, Carnivore Minds: Who These Fearsome Animals Really Are (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2017), 87.

³⁹ Keith Basso, Wisdom Sits in Places: Landscape and Language among the Western Apache (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1996); Enrique Salmon, “Kincentric Ecology: Indigenous Perceptions of the Human–Nature Relationship,” Ecological Applications 10, no. 5 (2000): 1327–32.

⁴⁰ Eric C. Hellgren, “Physiology of Hibernation in Bears,” Ursus 10 (1998): 467–77; Alberto García-Rodríguez, Robin Rigg, I. Elguero-Claramunt, Katarzyna Bojarska, Miha Krofel, Jamshid Parchizadeh, T. Pataky, et al., “Phenology of Brown Bear Breeding Season and Related Geographical Cues,” European Zoological Journal 87, no. 1 (2020): 552–58.

⁴¹ www.ucsfhealth.org/education/conception-how-it-works; L. Sanders, “Misconceptions Cloud Abortion Debate: Key Aspects of Pregnancy Biology Are Often Misunderstood,” Science News, July 15 and 29, 2022, 6–7, www.sciencenews.org/article/abortion-roe-v-wade-pregnancy-biology-supreme-court-ruling.

⁴² Cory T. Williams, Brian Barnes, G. J. Kenagy, and C. Loren Buck, “Phenology of Hibernation and Reproduction in Ground Squirrels: Integration of Environmental Cues with Endogenous Programming,” Journal of Zoology 292, no. 2 (2014): 112–24.

⁴³ Kathryn Wilsterman, Mallory A. Ballinger, and Caroline M. Williams, “A Unifying, Eco-Physiological Framework for Animal Dormancy,” Functional Ecology 35, no. 1 (2021): 11–31.

⁴⁴ Michael D. Thom, Dominic D. P. Johnson, and David W. Macdonald, “The Evolution and Maintenance of Delayed Implantation in the Mustelidae (Mammalia: Carnivora),” Evolution 58, no. 1 (2004): 175–83.

⁴⁵ Andrea Friebe, Alina L. Evans, Jon M. Arnemo, Stephane Blanc, Sven Brunberg, Gunther Fleissner, Jon E. Swenson, and Andreas Zedrosser, “Factors Affecting Date of Implantation, Parturition, and Den Entry Estimated from Activity and Body Temperature in Free-Ranging Brown Bears,” PLOS One 9, no. 7 (2014): e101410; Mikael Sandell, “The Evolution of Seasonal Delayed Implantation,” Quarterly Review of Biology 65, no. 1 (1990): 23–42.

⁴⁶ Charles T. Robbins, Merav Ben-David, Jennifer K. Fortin, and O. Lynne Nelson, “Maternal Condition Determines Birth Date and Growth of Newborn Bear Cubs,” Journal of Mammalogy 93, no. 2 (2012): 540–46.

⁴⁷ Friebe et al., “Factors.”

⁴⁸ Philip Ball, The Book of Minds: How to Understand Ourselves and Other Beings (London: Picador, 2022).

⁴⁹ Oren Lyons, “An Iroquois Perspective,” in Learning to Listen to the Land, ed. William B. Willers (Washington, DC: Island Press, 1991), 202–5.

⁵⁰ Bradshaw, Talking with Bears; Russell, Grizzly Heart.

⁵¹ Friebe et al., “Factors.”

⁵² Peter Kropotkin, Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution (Charleston, SC: BiblioBazaar, 2006).

⁵³ Friebe et al., “Factors”; Sandell, “Evolution.”

⁵⁴ Samuel K. Wasser, “Stress and Reproductive Failure: An Evolutionary Approach with Applications to Premature Labor,” American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 180, no. 1 (1999): S272–S274.

⁵⁵ Wasser, “Stress and Reproductive Failure.”

⁵⁶ Narvaez, Neurobiology.

⁵⁷ Maurizio Benazzo and Zaya Benazzo, The Wisdom of Trauma, film (Sebastopol, CA: Science and Nonduality, 2021), https://thewisdomoftrauma.com/; Gabor Maté and Daniel Maté, The Myth of Normal: Trauma, Illness, and Healing in a Toxic Culture (Garden City, NY: Avery, 2022).

⁵⁸ Maté and Maté, Myth of Normal, 145.

3. Mutual Accompaniment: African Elephants

¹ Peter Nabokov and Robert Easton, Native American Architecture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).

² Daphne Jenkins Sheldrick, Love, Life, and Elephants (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2013), 314.

³ G. A. Bradshaw, Talking with Bears: Conversations with Charlie Russell (Victoria, BC: Rocky Mountain Books, 2020), 49, 209.

⁴ Sylvia K. Sikes, Natural History of the African Elephant (New York: American Elsevier, 1971); https://decolonialatlas.wordpress.com/2018/03/06/comparative-latitudes.

⁵ Charles Siebert, “Zoos Call It ‘Rescue’ but Are the Elephants Really Better Off?” New York Times Magazine, July 9, 2019, www.nytimes.com/2019/07/09/magazine/elephants-zoos-swazi-17.html.

⁶ Cynthia J. Moss, Elephant Memories: Thirteen Years in the Life of an Elephant Family (New York: William Morrow, 1988); Cynthia J. Moss, “The Demography of an African Elephant (Loxodonta africana) Population in Amboseli, Kenya,” Journal of Zoology 255, no. 2 (2001): 145–56; Cynthia J. Moss and Joyce H. Poole, “Relationships and Social Structure of African Elephants,” in Primate Social Relationships: An Integrated Approach, ed. Robert A. Hinde (Oxford, UK: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1983), 315–25; G. A. Bradshaw, Elephants on the Edge: What Animals Teach Us about Humanity (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009), 261–62.

⁷ Mary Watkins, Mutual Accompaniment and the Creation of the Commons (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2019).

⁸ Garrett Barnwell, G. A. Bradshaw, and Mary Watkins, “Grounding Community Psychology in Practices of Ecopsychosocial Accompaniment,” in The Routledge International Handbook of Community Psychology, ed. Carolyn Kagan, Jacqueline Akhurst, Jaime Alfaro, Rebecca Lawthom, Michael Richards, and Alba Zambrano (New York: Routledge, 2022), 60–74.

⁹ Christian Leroy and Ginette Leroy, An Elephant Is Born, film (Nariobi, Kenya: Sheldrick Wildlife Trust, 2011), www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vb5-6-BQzlI.

¹⁰ Darcia Narvaez, Jaak Panksepp, Allan N. Schore, and Tracy R. Gleason, Evolution, Early Experience and Human Development: From Research to Practice and Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013).

¹¹ Allan N. Schore, The Development of the Unconscious Mind (New York: W. W. Norton, 2019).

¹² Iain McGilchrist, The Matter with Things: Our Brains, Our Delusions, and the Unmaking of the World, vols. I–II (London: Perspectiva Press, 2021).

¹³ Ron Tweedy, ed., The Divided Therapist: Hemispheric Differences and Contemporary Psychotherapy (London: Routledge, 2021).

¹⁴ Schore, Development.

¹⁵ National Scientific Council, “Excessive Stress Disrupts the Development of Brain Architecture,” Journal of Children’s Services 9, no. 2 (2014): 143–53.

¹⁶ Susan D. Calkins and Ashley Hill, “Caregiver Influences on Emerging Emotion Regulation: Biological and Environmental Transactions in Early Development,” in Handbook of Emotion Regulation, ed. James J. Gross (New York: Guilford Press, 2007), 229–48.

¹⁷ Daniel L. Everett, “Concentric Circles of Attachment in the Pirahã: A Brief Survey,” in Different Faces of Attachment: Cultural Variations on a Universal Human Need, ed. H. Otto and H. Keller (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 169–86.

¹⁸ Thomas Widlok, Anthropology and the Economy of Sharing (London: Routledge, 2017).

¹⁹ Donald W. Winnicott, Mother and Child: A Primer of First Relationships (New York: Basic Books, 1957); Donald W. Winnicott, Babies and Their Mothers (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1987).

²⁰ www.washington.edu/uwired/outreach/cspn/Website/Classroom%20Materials/Reading%20the%20Region/Texts%20by%20and%20about%20Natives/Commentary/9.html.

²¹ Mourning Dove, quotation in The Spirit of Indian Women, ed. Judith Fitzgerald and Michael O. Fitzgerald (Bloomington, IN: World Wisdom, 2005), 81.

²² Dennis H. McPherson and J. Douglas Rabb, Indian from the Inside: Native American Philosophy and Cultural Renewal, 2nd ed. (Jefferson, NC: MacFarland, 2011); Amy Bombay, Kimberly Matheson, and Hymie Anisman, “The Intergenerational Effects of Indian Residential Schools: Implications for the Concept of Historical Trauma,” Transcultural Psychiatry 51, no. 3 (2014): 320–38, https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461513503380.

²³ www.sheldrickwildlifetrust.org/.

²⁴ Sheldrick, Love.

²⁵ Sheldrick, 231.

²⁶ Sheldrick, 236.

²⁷ Sheldrick, 307.

²⁸ Sheldrick Wildlife Trust, “Keeper’s Diaries, January 2022,” www.sheldrickwildlifetrust.org/keepers-diaries/january-2022/nursery-unit#23796.

²⁹ Global Sanctuary for Elephants, “Pocha and Guillermina,” accessed November 1, 2022, https://globalelephants.org/pocha-and-guillermina/.

³⁰ Bradshaw, Elephants.

³¹ Global Sanctuary, “Pocha and Guillermina.”

³² Bradshaw, Elephants.

³³ Darcia Narvaez, Neurobiology and the Development of Human Morality: Evolution, Culture and Wisdom (New York: W. W. Norton, 2014).

³⁴ Heide Goettner-Abendroth, Matriarchal Societies: Studies on Indigenous Cultures across the Globe (New York: Peter Lang, 2013); Genevieve Vaughan, The Maternal Roots of the Gift Economy (Toronto: Inanna, 2019).

³⁵ Gerda Lerner, The Creation of Patriarchy (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1986); Calvin L. Martin, The Way of the Human Being (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999).

³⁶ Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz, An Indigenous People’s History of the United States (Boston: Beacon Press, 2014); Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time (Boston: Beacon Press, 2001); Darcia Narvaez, Four Arrows, Eugene Halton, Brian S. Collier, and Georges Enderle, eds., Indigenous Sustainable Wisdom: First Nation Know-How for Global Flourishing (New York: Peter Lang, 2019).

³⁷ McPherson and Rabb, Indian; Bombay et al., “Intergenerational Effects.”

³⁸ Mary Annette Pember, “Death by Civilization,” The Atlantic, March 8, 2019, www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2019/03/traumatic-legacy-indian-boarding-schools/584293/.

³⁹ Pember, “Death.”

⁴⁰ Darcia Narvaez, Angela M. Kurth, and Mary S. Tarsha, “The Centrality of Mothering for Human Flourishing,” in Matriarchal Values, Free Maternal Gift-Giving and Child-Rearing, ed. E. Shadmi and K. Kailo (Oulu, Finland: Kaarina Kailo, 2020), 161–71.

⁴¹ Narvaez et al., “Centrality.”

⁴² Angela Braden and Darcia Narvaez, Primal Parenting (New York: Oxford University Press, forthcoming).

⁴³ Angela Sheldrick, “The Work of Generations,” Sheldrick Wildlife Trust, April 28, 2022, www.sheldrickwildlifetrust.org/news/fieldnotes/work-of-generations.

⁴⁴ Sheldrick Wildlife Trust, “Olmeg,” accessed November 1, 2022, www.sheldrickwildlifetrust.org/orphans/olmeg.

⁴⁵ Sheldrick, Love, 266.

⁴⁶ Gabor Maté, In the Realm of Hungry Ghosts: Close Encounters with Addiction (New York: Random House, 2008).

⁴⁷ Darcia Narvaez, “Beyond Trauma-Informed: Returning to Indigenous, Wellness-Informed Practices,” International Journal of Existential Positive Psychology 11, no. 1 (2022), www.meaning.ca/ijepp-article/vol11-no1/beyond-trauma-informed-returning-to-indigenous-wellness-informed-practices/.

⁴⁸ Peter D. Gluckman and Mark A. Hanson, Fetal Matrix: Evolution, Development and Disease (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005); Mark Wolynn, It Didn’t Start with You (New York: Penguin, 2017); Resmaa Menakem, My Grandmother’s Hands: Racialized Trauma and the Pathway to Mending Our Hearts and Bodies (Las Vegas: Central Recovery Press, 2017).

⁴⁹ Marsden Wagner, Born in the USA: How a Broken Maternity System Must Be Fixed to Put Women and Children First (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006).

⁵⁰ Marshall H. Klaus, J. H. Kennell, S. S. Robertson, and R. Sosa, “Effects of Social Support during Parturition on Maternal and Infant Morbidity,” British Medical Journal 283 (1986): 585–87.

⁵¹ W. F. Liu, S. Laudert, B. Perkins, E. MacMillan-York, S. Martin, and S. Graven for the NIC/Q 2005 Physical Environment Exploratory Group, “The Development of Potentially Better Practices to Support the Neurodevelopment of Infants in the NICU,” Journal of Perinatology 27 (2007): S48–S74.

⁵² Ashley Montagu, “Brains, Genes, Culture, Immaturity, and Gestation,” in Culture: Man’s Adaptive Dimension, ed. Ashley Montagu (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), 102–13.

⁵³ Tiffany Field, Touch, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2014).

⁵⁴ Sarah B. Hrdy, Mothers and Others: The Evolutionary Origins of Mutual Understanding (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2009).

⁵⁵ Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, Maternal Depression Can Undermine the Development of Young Children: Working Paper No. 8 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 2009), https://developingchild.harvard.edu/resources/maternal-depression-can-undermine-the-development-of-young-children/.

⁵⁶ New York State Department of Health, “What Is Maternal Depression?” revised January 2015, www.health.ny.gov/community/pregnancy/health_care/perinatal/maternal_depression/providers/what_is_maternial_depression.htm.

⁵⁷ Center on the Developing Child, Maternal Depression.

⁵⁸ National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, Excessive Stress Disrupts the Architecture of the Developing Brain: Working Paper 3, updated edition (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 2014), developingchild.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/2005/05/Stress_Disrupts_Architecture_Developing_Brain-1.pdf.

⁵⁹ National Scientific Council, Excessive Stress.

⁶⁰ Center on the Developing Child, Maternal Depression.

⁶¹ Schore, Development.

⁶² Humberto Maturana and Gerda Verden-Zöller, The Origin of Humanness in the Biology of Love, ed. Pille Bunnell (Exeter, UK: Imprint Academic, 2008).

⁶³ Martha G. Welch, “Calming Cycle Theory: The Role of Visceral/Autonomic Learning in Early Mother and Infant/Child Behaviour and Development,” Acta Pædiatrica 105, no. 11 (2016): 1266–74.

⁶⁴ Bradshaw, Elephants.

⁶⁵ G. A. Bradshaw and Allan N. Schore, “How Elephants Are Opening Doors: Developmental Neuroethology, Attachment and Social Context,” Ethology 113, no. 5 (2007): 426–36.

⁶⁶ Bradshaw and Schore, “Elephants.”

⁶⁷ Anna M. Whitehouse, “Tusklessness in the Elephant Population of the Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa,” Journal of Zoology 257, no. 2 (2002): 249–54; Bradshaw, Elephants, 268.

⁶⁸ Allan N. Schore, “All Our Sons: The Developmental Neurobiology and Neuroendocrinology of Boys at Risk,” Infant Mental Health Journal 38, no. 1 (2017): 15–52.

4. Breastfeeding: Sperm Whales

¹ Roger Searle, “Tectonic Pattern of the Azores Spreading Centre and Triple Junction,” Earth and Planetary Science Letters 51, no. 2 (1980): 415–34.

² Studies show that an Orca cerebellum makes up approximately 14 percent of the total brain mass, while the cerebellum of a Sperm Whale accounts for 7 percent of brain mass. See Sam H. Ridgway and Alisa C. Hanson, “Sperm Whales and Killer Whales with the Largest Brains of All Toothed Whales Show Extreme Differences in Cerebellum,” Brain, Behavior and Evolution 83, no. 4 (2014): 266–74.

³ Megan F. McKenna et al., “Morphology of the Odontocete Melon and Its Implications for Acoustic Function,” Marine Mammal Science 28, no. 4 (2011): 690–713.

⁴ Linda Weilgart, Hal Whitehead, and Katharine Payne, “A Colossal Convergence,” American Scientist 84, no. 3 (1996): 278–87.

⁵ Hal Whitehead, Sperm Whales: Social Evolution in the Ocean (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), 286; Hal Whitehead, “Sperm Whale: Physeter macrocephalus,” in Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals, 3rd ed., ed. Bernd Wursig, J. G. M. Thewissen, and Kit M. Kovacs (London: Academic Press, 2019), 919–25.

⁶ Hal Whitehead, personal communication, July 2, 2022.

⁷ Gilda Morelli, Paula Ivey Henry, and Steffen Foerster, “Relationships and Resource Uncertainty: Cooperative Development of Efe Hunter-Gatherer Infants and Toddlers,” in Ancestral Landscapes in Human Evolution: Culture, Childrearing and Social Wellbeing, ed. Darcia Narvaez, Kristin Valentino, Agustin Fuentes, James McKenna, and Peter Gray (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 69–103.

⁸ Barry S. Hewlett and Michael E. Lamb, Hunter-Gatherer Childhoods: Evolutionary, Developmental and Cultural Perspectives (New Brunswick, NJ: Aldine, 2005).

⁹ Whitehead, personal communication.

¹⁰ Weilgart et al., “Colossal,” 282.

¹¹ Weilgart et al.

¹² Whitehead, personal communication.

¹³ Christine M. Konrad, Timothy R. Frasier, Hal Whitehead, and Shane Gero, “Kin Selection and Allocare in Sperm Whales,” Behavioral Ecology 30, no. 1 (2019): 194–201; Whitehead, personal communication.

¹⁴ The normal length of breastfeeding for human infants before industrialization was two and a half to seven years. See Katherine A. Dettwyler, “A Time to Wean: The Hominid Blueprint for the Natural Age of Weaning in Modern Human Populations,” in Breastfeeding: Biocultural Perspectives, ed. Patricia Stuart-Macadma and Katherine A. Dettwyler (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1997), 39–74.

¹⁵ Weilgart et al., “Colossal,” 282.

¹⁶ Valeria Teloni et al., “Shallow Food for Deep Divers: Dynamic Foraging Behavior of Male Sperm Whales in a High-Latitude Habitat,” Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 354, no. 1 (2008): 119–31.

¹⁷ Hayao Kobayashi, Hal Whitehead, and Masao Amano, “Long-Term Associations among Male Sperm Whales (Physeter macrocephalus),” PLOS One 15, no. 12 (2020): e0244204.

¹⁸ www.darewin.org/page2/.

¹⁹ Robert L. Pitman et al., “Killer Whale Predation on Sperm Whales: Observations and Implications,” Marine Mammal Science 17, no. 3 (2001): 494–507.

²⁰ Pitman et al., “Killer Whale.”

²¹ Anonymous, personal communication, 2009.

²² Daphne Sheldrick, Love, Life, and Elephants (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2012), 313.

²³ D. H. Lawrence, “Whales Weep Not,” The Complete Poems of D. H. Lawrence (Stansted, UK: Wordsworth Editions, 1957).

²⁴ G. Johnson et al., “Evidence That Sperm Whale (Physeter macrocephalus) Calves Suckle through Their Mouth,” Marine Mammal Science 26, no. 4 (2010): 990–96.

²⁵ Michael L. Power and Jay Schulkin, Milk: The Biology of Lactation (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2016); Jeremiah S. Doody, Vladimir Dinets, and Gordon M. Burghardt, The Secret Social Lives of Reptiles (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2021).

²⁶ Ben Shaul, “The Composition of the Milk of Wild Animals,” International Zoo Yearbook 4 (1962): 333–42.

²⁷ R. Jenness, “The Composition of Human Milk,” Semin Perinatol 3, no. 3 (1979): 225–39, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/392766/.

²⁸ Shaul, “Composition.”

²⁹ www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/harbor-seal.

³⁰ Power and Schulkin, Milk.

³¹ Theo Tacail, Jeremy E. Martin, Florent Arnaud-Godet, J. Francis Thackeray, Thure E. Cerling, Jose Braga, and Vincent Balter, “Calcium Isotopic Patterns in Enamel Reflect Different Nursing Behaviors among South African Early Hominins,” Science Advances 5, no. 8 (2019): eaax3250, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aax3250.

³² Power and Schulkin, Milk.

³³ Lars Hanson, Immunobiology of Human Milk (New York: Raven Press, 1988).

³⁴ Katherine A. Dettwyler, “When to Wean: Biological versus Cultural Perspectives,” Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology 47, no. 3 (1997): 712–23.

³⁵ James Akre, “From Grand Design to Change on the Ground: Going to Scale with a Global Feeding Strategy,” in Infant and Young Child Feeding—Challenges to Implementing a Global Strategy, ed. Fiona Dykes and Victoria Hall Moran (Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009), 1–31.

³⁶ Power and Schulkin, Milk.

³⁷ Ashley Montagu, Touching: The Human Significance of the Skin (New York: Harper & Row, 1986).

³⁸ Armond S. Goldman, “The Immune System of Human Milk: Antimicrobial, Anti-inflammatory and Immunomodulating Properties,” Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 12, no. 8 (1993): 664–71.

³⁹ Jennifer T. Smilowitz, Carlito B. Lebrilla, David A. Mills, J. Bruce German, and Samara L. Freeman, “Breast Milk Oligosaccharides: Structure-Function Relationships in the Neonate,” Annual Review of Nutrition 34 (2014): 143–69.

⁴⁰ Akre, “Grand Design.”

⁴¹ Barry M. Lester, Elisabeth Conradt, Linda L. LaGasse, Edward Z. Tronick, James F. Padbury, and Carmen J. Marsit, “Epigenetic Programming by Maternal Behavior in the Human Infant,” Pediatrics 142, no. 8 (2018): e20171890, https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2017-1890.

⁴² Jessica G. Woo et al., “Human Milk Adiponectin Affects Infant Weight Trajectory during the Second Year of Life,” Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition 54, no. 4 (2012): 532–39; Christian Rosas-Salazar et al., “Exclusive Breast-Feeding, the Early-Life Microbiome and Immune Response, and Common Childhood Respiratory Illnesses,” Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology S0091-6749 (2022): 00292-5.

⁴³ Akre, “Grand Design.”

⁴⁴ Kathryn B. H. Clancy, Katie Hinde, and Julienne N. Rutherford, Building Babies: Primate Development in Proximate and Ultimate Perspective (New York: Springer, 2013); Smilowitz et al., “Breast Milk.”

⁴⁵ Mohammadbagher Hosseini, Einollah Valizadeh, Nafiseh Hosseini, Shirin Khatibshahidi, and Sina Raeisi, “The Role of Infant Sex on Human Milk Composition,” Breastfeeding Medicine 15, no. 5 (2020): 341–46.

⁴⁶ Merel F. Italianer, “Circadian Variation in Human Milk Composition: A Systematic Review,” Nutrients 12, no. 8 (2020): 2328.

⁴⁷ K. Iigaya et al., “An Effect of Serotonergic Stimulation on Learning Rates for Rewards Apparent after Long Intertrial Intervals,” Nature Communications 9, no. 1 (2018): 2477, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-04840-2.

⁴⁸ The microbiome in the gastrointestinal tract (“gut”) is involved in the development and function of our immune, metabolic, and nervous systems. It is closely connected with the brain through bidirectional biochemical communication, referred to as the “gut-brain axis.” See: Fei Huang and Xiaojun Wu, “Brain Neurotransmitter Modulation by Gut Microbiota in Anxiety and Depression,” Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology 9 (2021): https://doi.org/10.3389/fcell.2021.649103; Jeremy Appleton, “The Gut-Brain Axis: Influence of Microbiota on Mood and Mental Health,” Integrative Medicine 17, no. 4 (2018): 28–32.

⁴⁹ C. M. Hibberd et al., “Variation in the Composition of Breast Milk during the First 5 Weeks of Lactation: Implications for the Feeding of Preterm Infants,” Archives of Diseases in Childhood 57, no. 9 (1981): 658–62.

⁵⁰ Goldman, “Immune System.”

⁵¹ Italianer, “Circadian Variation”; Power and Schulkin, Milk.

⁵² Glenn O’Malley, Shelley and Synesthesia (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1964).

⁵³ Nils Bergman, quoted in Akre, “Grand Design,” 13.

⁵⁴ Montagu, Touching.

⁵⁵ https://developingchild.harvard.edu/science/key-concepts/brain-architecture/.

⁵⁶ https://onezero.medium.com/our-skulls-are-out-evolving-us-and-that-could-mean-a-public-health-crisis-f950faed696d.

⁵⁷ Tamer Rizk, “Breast Milk versus Formula Milk and Neuropsychological Development and Sleep,” Journal of Pediatrics and Neonatal Care 1, no. 2 (2014): 00005.

⁵⁸ Joan Stiles, The Fundamentals of Brain Development: Integrating Nature and Nurture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008).

⁵⁹ James J. McKenna, Safe Infant Sleep (Washington, DC: Platypus Media, 2020).

⁶⁰ Montagu, Touching.

⁶¹ Montagu.

⁶² McKenna, Safe.

⁶³ Lena Tschiderer, Lisa Seekircher, Setor K. Kunutsor, Sanne A. E. Peters, Linda M. O’Keeffe, and Peter Willeit, “Breastfeeding Is Associated with a Reduced Maternal Cardiovascular Risk: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Involving Data from 8 Studies and 1,192,700 Parous Women,” Journal of the American Heart Association 11, no. 2 (2022): e022746, https://doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.121.022746.

⁶⁴ Erica P. Gunderson, Cora E. Lewis, Ying Lin, Mike Sorel, Myron Gross, Stephen Sidney, David R. Jacobs, James M. Shikany, and Charles P. Quesenberry, “Lactation Duration and Progression to Diabetes in Women across the Childbearing Years,” JAMA Internal Medicine 178, no. 3 (2018): 328–37, https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2017.7978.

⁶⁵ Lisette T. Jacobson et al., “Breastfeeding History and Risk of Stroke among Parous Postmenopausal Women in the Women’s Health Initiative,” Journal of the American Heart Association 7, no. 17 (2018): e008739, https://doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.118.008739.

⁶⁶ Molly Fox, Prabha Siddarth, Hanadi Ajam Oughli, Sarah A. Nguyen, Michaela M. Milillo, Yesenia Aguilar, Linda Ercoli, and Helen Lavretsky, “Women Who Breastfeed Exhibit Cognitive Benefits after Age 50,” Evolution, Medicine, and Public Health 9, no. 1 (2021): 322–31, https://doi.org/10.1093/emph/eoab027.

⁶⁷ Wenda R. Trevathan, Human Birth: An Evolutionary Perspective, 2nd ed. (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 2011).

⁶⁸ Montagu, Touching.

⁶⁹ Jay Schulkin, The Neuroendocrine Regulation of Behavior (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999).

⁷⁰ Jennifer M. Weaver et al., “Breastfeeding Duration Predicts Greater Maternal Sensitivity over the Next Decade,” Developmental Psychology 54, no. 2 (2017): 220–27, https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000425.

⁷¹ Gianluca Malatesta et al., “The Left-Cradling Bias and Its Relationship with Empathy and Depression,” Scientific Reports 9, no. 1 (2019): 1–9.

⁷² Irena Rot-Nikcevic, Christopher N. Taylor, and Richard J. Wassersug, “The Role of Images of Conspecifics as Visual Cues in the Development and Behavior of Larval Anurans,” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 60, no. 1 (2006): 19–25.

⁷³ Karina Karenina et al., “Lateralization of Mother–Infant Interactions in a Diverse Range of Mammal Species,” Nature Ecology and Evolution 1, no. 2 (2017): 1–4.

⁷⁴ Ann M. Zoidis and Kate S. Lomac-MacNair, “A Note on Suckling Behavior and Laterality in Nursing Humpback Whale Calves from Underwater Observations,” Animals 7, no. 7 (2017): 51; Frances M. D. Gulland, Linda J. Lowenstine, and Terry R. Spraker, “Noninfectious Diseases,” in CRC Handbook of Marine Mammal Medicine, ed. Leslie A. Dierauf and Frances M. D. Gulland (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2001), 530–31.

⁷⁵ Shane Gero and Hal Whitehead, “Suckling Behavior in Sperm Whale Calves: Observations and Hypotheses,” Marine Mammal Science 23, no. 2 (2007): 398–413; Whitehead, personal communication.

⁷⁶ E. Richard Sorenson, “Preconquest Consciousness,” in Tribal Epistemologies, ed. Helmut Wautischer (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 1998), 79–115.

⁷⁷ Kerstin Uvnas-Moberg and Danielle K. Prime, “Oxytocin Effects in Mothers and Infants during Breastfeeding,” Infant 9, no. 6 (2013): 201–6.

⁷⁸ Hewlett and Lamb, Hunter-Gatherer Childhoods.

⁷⁹ American mothers in particular can struggle to breastfeed. Researchers are starting to examine the many interacting factors that may affect breastfeeding success; see www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/many-women-struggle-to-breastfeed-scientists-are-starting-to-ask-why.

⁸⁰ World Health Organization, “Infant and Young Child Feeding,” June 9, 2021, www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/infant-and-young-child-feeding.

⁸¹ Cesar G. Victora, Rajiv Bahl, Aluísio J. D. Barros, Giovanny V. A. França, Susan Horton, Julia Krasevec, Simon Murch, Mari Jeeva Sankar, Neff Walker, and Nigel C. Rollins for The Lancet Breastfeeding Series Group, “Breastfeeding in the 21st Century: Epidemiology, Mechanisms, and Lifelong Effect,” The Lancet 387, no. 10017 (2016): 475–90. For a longer list, see Akre, “Grand Design”; see also Zahara Sulaiman, Lisa H. Amir, and Pranee Liamputtong, “Infant Feeding Practices: Rates, Risks of Not Breastfeeding, and Factors Influencing Breastfeeding,” in Evolution, Early Experience and Human Development: From Research to Practice and Policy, ed. Darcia Narvaez, Jaak Panksepp, Allan N. Schore, and Tracy R. Gleason (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 277–98.

⁸² Dettwyler, “When to Wean.”

⁸³ www.babyfriendlyusa.org/about/.

⁸⁴ US Department of Health and Human Services, The Surgeon General’s Call to Action to Support Breastfeeding (Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Surgeon General, 2011).

⁸⁵ www.babyfriendlyusa.org/.

⁸⁶ The United States was the only country to vote against the Code; World Health Organization, International Code of Marketing of Breast-Milk Substitutes (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1981), www.who.int/publications/i/item/9241541601.

⁸⁷ Lori Wallach and Patrick Woodall, Whose Trade Organization? The Comprehensive Guide to the WTO (New York: The New Press, 2004).

⁸⁸ www.who.int/news/item/22-02-2022-more-than-half-of-parents-and-pregnant-women-exposed-to-aggressive-formula-milk-marketing-who-unicef; www.who.int/news/item/28-04-2022-who-reveals-shocking-extent-of-exploitative-formula-milk-marketing.

⁸⁹ Akre, “Grand Design.”

⁹⁰ Adelota Louis-Jacques and Alison Stuebe, “Long-Term Maternal Benefits of Breastfeeding,” Contemporary OB/GYN 63, no. 7 (2018): 26–29; Chinelo Ogbuanu et al., “The Effect of Maternity Leave Length and Time of Return to Work on Breastfeeding,” Pediatrics 127, no. 6 (2011): c14e014–c14e027.

⁹¹ Carla Moquin, Babies at Work: Bringing New Life to the Workplace (self-published, 2008).

⁹² https://europeanmilkbanking.com/joint-emba-and-hmbana-statement-on-milk-sharing-has-been-released/.

⁹³ Kelley L. Baumgartel, Larissa Sneeringer, and Susan M. Cohen, “From Royal Wet Nurses to Facebook: The Evolution of Breastmilk Sharing,” Breastfeeding Review 24, no. 3 (2016): 25–32.

⁹⁴ www.bellybelly.com.au/baby-sleep/babywise-dangers-warnings-parents-need-to-know/.

⁹⁵ Montagu, Touching, 129.

⁹⁶ Penelope Leach, Children First: What Our Society Must Do—and Is Not Doing—for Our Children Today (New York: Vintage, 1995).

⁹⁷ Sara A. Quandt, “Sociocultural Aspects of the Lactation Process,” in Breastfeeding: Biocultural Perspectives, ed. Patricia Stuart-Macadma and Katherine A. Dettwyler (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1997), 127–43.

⁹⁸ www.llli.org/breastfeeding-info/mastitis/.

⁹⁹ Madison S. Andrew, Roshan J. Selvaratnam, Miranda Davies-Tuck, Kim Holwand, and Mary-Ann Davey, “The Association between Intrapartum Interventions and Immediate and Ongoing Breastfeeding Outcomes: An Australian Retrospective Population-Based Cohort Study,” International Breastfeeding Journal 17, no. 48 (2022), https://doi.org/10.1186/s13006-022-00492-7.

¹⁰⁰ Christine Greenway, “Hungry Earth and Vengeful Stars: Soul Loss and Identity in the Peruvian Andes,” Social Science and Medicine 47, no. 8 (1998), 993.

5. Sharing Care: Emperor Penguins

¹ André Ancel, Michaël Beaulieu, Yvon Le Maho, and Caroline Gilbert, “Emperor Penguin Mates: Keeping Together in the Crowd,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 276, no. 1665 (2009): 2163–69.

² André Ancel, personal communication, June 23, 2022.

³ “The lowest recorded Antarctic temperature was taken at Vostok Station in July 1983: –89.2°C (–128.6°F). . . . The highest wind speeds recorded in Antarctica were at Dumont d’Urville station in July 1972: 327km/h (199 mph).” IceCube, “Antarctic Weather,” accessed November 1, 2022, https://icecube.wisc.edu/pole/weather/.

⁴ Bernard Stonehouse, The Emperor Penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri, Gray): I. Breeding Behaviour and Development (London: HMSO, 1953); Cristopher B. Sturdy and Richard Mooney, “Communication: Two Voices Are Better Than One,” Current Biology 10, no. 17 (2000): R634–R636.

⁵ Ancel, personal communication.

⁶ André Ancel, Michaël Beaulieu, and Caroline Gilbert, “The Different Breeding Strategies of Penguins: A Review,” Comptes Rendus Biologies 336, no. 1 (2013): 1–12.

⁷ Yves Cherel and Gerald L. Kooyman, “Food of Emperor Penguins (Aptenodytes forsteri) in the Western Ross Sea, Antarctica,” Marine Biology 130, no. 3 (1998): 335–44.

⁸ Barbara Wienecke, Graham Robertson, Roger Kirkwood, and Kieran Lawton, “Extreme Dives by Free-Ranging Emperor Penguins,” Polar Biology 30, no. 2 (2007): 133–42.

⁹ Kimberly T. Goetz, Birgitte I. McDonald, and Gerald L. Kooyman, “Habitat Preference and Dive Behavior of Non-Breeding Emperor Penguins in the Eastern Ross Sea, Antarctica,” Marine Ecology Progress Series 593 (2018): 155–71.

¹⁰ Ancel, personal communication.

¹¹ Hervee Lormee, Pierre Jouventin, Olivier Chastel, and Robert Mauget, “Endocrine Correlates of Parental Care in an Antarctic Winter Breeding Seabird, the Emperor Penguin, Aptenodytes forsteri,” Hormones and Behavior 35, no. 1 (1999): 9–17.

¹² Ancel, personal communication.

¹³ André Ancel, Caroline Gilbert, Nicolas Poulin, Michael Beaulieu, and Bernard Thierry, “New Insights into the Huddling Dynamics of Emperor Penguins,” Animal Behaviour 110 (2015): 91–98.

¹⁴ Ancel, personal communication.

¹⁵ Ancel et al., “New Insights.”

¹⁶ Daniel P. Zitterbart, Barbara Wienecke, James P. Butler, and Ben Fabry, “Coordinated Movements Prevent Jamming in an Emperor Penguin Huddle,” PLOS One 6, no. 6 (2011): e20260.

¹⁷ Sasan Harifi, Madjid Khalilian, Javad Mohammadzadeh, and Sadoullah Ebrahimnejad, “Emperor Penguins Colony: A New Metaheuristic Algorithm for Optimization,” Evolutionary Intelligence 12, no. 2 (2019): 211–26.

¹⁸ Thierry Aubin and Pierre Jouventin, “How to Vocally Identify Kin in a Crowd: The Penguin Model,” Advances in the Study of Behavior 31 (2002): 243–77.

¹⁹ Aubin and Jouventin, “Vocally Identify.”

²⁰ Stephanie Pappas, “Mama Dolphins Sing Their Name to Babies in the Womb,” Live Science, August 9, 2016, www.livescience.com/55699-mother-dolphins-teach-babies-signature-whistle.html.

²¹ Ancel, personal communication.

²² Ancel et al., “Different Breeding.”

²³ William Goldfarb, “Psychological Privation in Infancy and Subsequent Adjustment,” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 15, no. 2 (1945): 247–55.

²⁴ Harry Bakwin, “Loneliness in Infants,” American Journal of Diseases in Children 63, no. 1 (1942): 30–40.

²⁵ René A. Spitz, “Hospitalism: An Inquiry into the Genesis of Psychiatric Conditions in Early Childhood,” Psychoanalytic Study of the Child 1 (1945): 53–74, https://doi.org/10.1080/00797308.1945.11823126.

²⁶ Frank C. P. van der Horst and René van der Veer, “Loneliness in Infancy: Harry Harlow, John Bowlby and Issues of Separation,” Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science 42, no. 4 (2008): 325–35.

²⁷ John Bowlby, Attachment and Loss: Volume I: Attachment (London: The Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis, 1969); John Bowlby, Attachment and Loss: Volume II: Separation, Anxiety and Anger (London: The Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psychoanalysis, 1973); John Bowlby, Attachment and Loss: Volume III: Loss, Sadness and Depression (London: The Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psychoanalysis, 1980).

²⁸ Bowlby, Volume I; Bowlby, Volume II; Bowlby, Volume III; John Bowlby, Maternal Care and Mental Health (New York: Schocken, 1951).

²⁹ Jude Cassidy and Phillip Shaver, eds., Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications, 3rd ed. (New York: Guilford Press, 2016).

³⁰ David C. Bell, “Evolution of Parental Caregiving,” Personality and Social Psychology Review 5, no. 3 (2001): 216–29.

³¹ John Bowlby, Attachment and Loss: Volume I: Attachment, 2nd ed. (London: The Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis, 1969; New York: Basic Books, 1982).

³² For a personal take on the development of attachment research by one of its leaders, see L. Alan Sroufe, A Compelling Idea: How We Become the Persons We Are (Brandon, VT: Safer Society Press, 2020).

³³ Humberto Maturana and Gerda Verden-Zöller, The Origin of Humanness in the Biology of Love, ed. Pille Bunnell (Exeter, UK: Imprint Academic, 2008).

³⁴ Colwyn Trevarthen, “Stepping Away from the Mirror: Pride and Shame in Adventures of Companionship—Reflections on the Nature and Emotional Needs of Infant Intersubjectivity,” in Attachment and Bonding: A New Synthesis, ed. C. Sue Carter, Lieselotte Ahnert, K. E. Grossmann, Sarah B. Hrdy, Michael E. Lamb, Stephen W. Porges, and Norbert Sachser (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005), 55–84.

³⁵ Bowlby, Volume I.

³⁶ Colin M. Turnbull, The Human Cycle (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1984).

³⁷ Susan W. Coates, “John Bowlby and Margaret S. Mahler: Their Lives and Theories,” Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 52, no. 2 (2004): 571–601.

³⁸ Jeremy Holmes, John Bowlby and Attachment Theory (London: Routledge, 1993), 17.

³⁹ Alex Renton, “Boarding School Syndrome Review—Education and the Pain of Separation,” The Guardian, June 8, 2015, www.theguardian.com/books/2015/jun/08/boarding-school-syndrome-joy-schaverien-review; Joy Schaverien, Boarding School Syndrome: The Psychological Trauma of the “Privileged” Child (London: Routledge, 2015). Characteristics include unresolved grief; a false masculinity; a sense of entitlement; broken family attachments; distorted emotions, emotional expression, and sexuality; loneliness and inability to form lasting intimate relationships; greed and disturbed appetites; and PTSD from abuse and neglect.

⁴⁰ Wade Davis, Schooling the World (Vancouver, BC: TEDxVancouverED, 2014), lecture, www.youtube.com/watch?v=hwk2w-9aekA&t.

⁴¹ Donald T. Jacobs and Jessica Jacobs-Spencer, Teaching Virtues: Building Character across the Curriculum (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Education, 2001).

⁴² Carol Black, Schooling the World: The White Man’s Last Burden, film, accessed December 5, 2022, http://carolblack.org/schooling-the-world.

⁴³ Dennis H. McPherson and J. Douglas Rabb, Indian from the Inside: Native American Philosophy and Cultural Renewal, 2nd ed. (Jefferson, NC: MacFarland, 2011).

⁴⁴ Iain McGilchrist, The Matter with Things: Our Brains, Our Delusions, and the Unmaking of the World, vols. I–II (London: Perspectiva Press, 2021); Darcia Narvaez, Neurobiology and the Development of Human Morality: Evolution, Culture and Wisdom (New York: W. W. Norton, 2014).

⁴⁵ Tyson Yunkaporta, Sand Talk: How Indigenous Thinking Can Save the World (New York: HarperCollins, 2020).

⁴⁶ Winona LaDuke, “Honor the Earth: Our Native American Legacy” (lecture, Ninth Annual Westheimer Peace Symposium, Wilmington College, Wilmington, OH, October 20, 1999).

⁴⁷ Emily Oster, Cribsheet: A Data-Driven Guide to Better, More Relaxed Parenting, from Birth to Preschool (New York: Penguin Press, 2019).

⁴⁸ F. David Peat, Blackfoot Physics (Boston: Weiser Books, 2001), 65.

⁴⁹ William Easterly, The White Man’s Burden: Why the West’s Efforts to Aid the Rest Have Done So Much Ill and So Little Good (London: Penguin, 2007).

⁵⁰ Bowlby, Volume I; Bowlby, Volume II; Bowlby, Volume III.

⁵¹ Konrad Lorenz, The Foundations of Ethology (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981).

⁵² Bowlby, Volume I.

⁵³ G. A. Bradshaw, Carnivore Minds: Who These Fearsome Animals Really Are (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2017).

⁵⁴ Hiltrud Otto and Heidi Keller, eds., Different Faces of Attachment: Cultural Variations on a Universal Human Need (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2014); Naomi Quinn and Jeannette Marie Mageo, eds., Attachment Reconsidered: Cultural Perspectives on a Western Theory (New York: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2013).

⁵⁵ Otto and Keller, Different Faces of Attachment.

⁵⁶ Paul Shepard, Coming Home to the Pleistocene, ed. F. R. Shepard (Washington, DC: Island Press/Shearwater Books, 1998).

⁵⁷ Suzanne Gaskins, Marjorie Beeghly, Kim A. Bard, Ariane Gernhardt, Cindy H. Liu, Douglas M. Teti, Ross A. Thompson, Thomas S. Weisner, and Relindis D. Yovsi, “Meaning and Methods in the Study and Assessment of Attachment,” in The Cultural Nature of Attachment: Contextualizing Relationships and Development, ed. Heidi Keller and Kim A. Bard (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2017), 195–230.

⁵⁸ Bruce S. McEwen and E. Stellar, “Stress and the Individual: Mechanism Leading to Disease,” Archives of Internal Medicine 153, no. 18 (1993): 2093–101.

⁵⁹ Allan N. Schore, The Development of the Unconscious Mind (New York: W. W. Norton, 2019), 10.

⁶⁰ Daniel J. Siegel, The Developing Mind: How Relationships and the Brain Interact to Shape Who We Are (New York: Guilford Press, 1999).

⁶¹ Martha G. Welch, “Calming Cycle Theory: The Role of Visceral/Autonomic Learning in Early Mother and Infant/Child Behaviour and Development,” Acta Pædiatrica 105, no. 11 (2016): 1266–74.

⁶² Thomas Lewis, Fari Amini, and Richard Lannon, A General Theory of Love (New York: Vintage, 2000).

⁶³ Schore, Development, 10.

⁶⁴ Marilia Carabotti, Annunziata Scirocco, Maria Antonietta Maselli, and Carola Severi, “The Gut-Brain Axis: Interactions between Enteric Microbiota, Central and Enteric Nervous Systems,” Annals of Gastroenterology 28, no. 2 (2015): 203; Jeremy Appleton, “The Gut-Brain Axis: Influence of Microbiota on Mood and Mental Health,” Integrative Medicine 17, no. 4 (2018): 28–32.

⁶⁵ Welch, “Calming.”

⁶⁶ Colwyn Trevarthen, “Musicality and the Intrinsic Motive Pulse: Evidence from Human Psychobiology and Infant Communication,” Musicae Scientiae special issue 3, no. 1 (1999): 157–213; Colwyn Trevarthen, “Action and Emotion in Development of the Human Self, Its Sociability and Cultural Intelligence: Why Infants Have Feelings Like Ours,” in Emotional Development, ed. Jacqueline Nadel and Darwin Muir (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2005), 61–91.

⁶⁷ Wenda R. Trevathan, Human Birth: An Evolutionary Perspective, 2nd ed. (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 2011).

⁶⁸ Stephen Malloch and Colwyn Trevarthen, eds., Communicative Musicality: Exploring the Basis of Human Companionship (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2009).

⁶⁹ Mylene M. Mariette, David F. Clayton, and Katherine L. Buchanan, “Acoustic Developmental Programming: A Mechanistic and Evolutionary Framework,” Trends in Ecology and Evolution 36, no. 8 (2021): 722–36.

⁷⁰ Mariette et al., “Acoustic.”

⁷¹ Allan N. Schore, “Attachment and the Regulation of the Right Brain,” Attachment and Human Development 2, no. 1 (2000): 23–47.

⁷² C. Sue Carter and Stephen W. Porges, “Neurobiology and the Evolution of Mammalian Social Behavior,” in Evolution, Early Experience and Human Development: From Research to Practice and Policy, ed. Darcia Narvaez, Jaak Panksepp, Allan N. Schore, and Tracy Gleason (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 132–51.

⁷³ Wendy Middlemiss, D. A. Granger, W. A. Goldberg, and L. Nathans, “Asynchrony of Mother-Infant Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Activity following Extinction of Infant Crying Responses Induced during the Transition to Sleep,” Early Human Development 88, no. 4 (2012): 227–32, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2011.08.010.

⁷⁴ Daphne Blunt Bugental, Gabriela Martorell, and Veronica Barraza, “The Hormonal Costs of Subtle Forms of Infant Maltreatment,” Hormones and Behaviour 43, no. 1 (2003): 237–44; Megan R. Gunnar and Bonny Donzella, “Social Regulation of the Cortisol Levels in Early Human Development,” Psychoneuroendocrinology 27, no. 1–2 (2002): 199–220.

⁷⁵ Naomi I. Eisenberger, Matthew D. Lieberman, and Kipling D. Williams, “Does Rejection Hurt? An FMRI Study of Social Exclusion,” Science 302, no. 5643 (2003): 290–92; Jaak Panksepp, “Feeling the Pain of Social Loss,” Science 302, no. 5643 (2003): 237–39; Jon-Kar Zubieta, Terrence A. Ketter, Joshua A. Bueller, Yanjun Xu, Michael R. Kilbourn, Elizabeth A.Young, and Robert A. Koeppe, “Regulation of Human Affective Responses by Anterior Cingulate and Limbic and Mu-opioid Neurotransmission,” General Psychiatry 60, no. 11 (2003): 1037–172.

⁷⁶ Douglas F. Watt and Jaak Panksepp, “Depression: An Evolutionarily Conserved Mechanism to Terminate Separation Distress? A Review of Aminergic, Peptidergic, and Neural Network Perspectives,” Neuropsychoanalysis 11, no. 1 (2009): 5–48.

⁷⁷ Christian Caldji, Darlene Francis, Shakti Sharma, Paul M. Plotsky, and Michael Meaney, “The Effects of Early Rearing Environment on the Development of GABA_A and Central Benzodiazepine Receptor Levels and Novelty-Induced Fearfulness in the Rat,” Neuropsychopharmacology 22 (2000): 219–29; Fu-Chun Hsu, Guo-Jun Zhang, Yogendra Sinh H. Raol, Rita J. Valentino, Douglas A. Coulter, and Amy R. Brooks-Kayal, “Repeated Neonatal Handling with Maternal Separation Permanently Alters Hippocampal GABA_A Receptors and Behavioural Stress Responses,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100, no. 21 (2003): 12213–18.

⁷⁸ Ruth A. Lanius, Eric Vermetten, and Clare Pain, The Impact of Early Life Trauma on Health and Disease: The Hidden Epidemic (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010); D. Niehoff, The Biology of Violence: How Understanding the Brain, Behavior, and Environment Can Break the Vicious Circle of Aggression (New York: Free Press, 1999).

⁷⁹ Jaak Panksepp, “How Primary-Process Emotional Systems Guide Child Development: Ancestral Regulators of Human Happiness, Thriving, and Suffering,” in Evolution, Early Experience and Human Development: From Research to Practice and Policy, ed. Darcia Narvaez, Jaak Panksepp, Allan N. Schore, and Tracy Gleason (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 74–94.

⁸⁰ Schore, Development, 10.

⁸¹ Hans Seyle, The Stress of Life (New York: McGraw Hill, 1973).

⁸² Lanius et al., Impact.

⁸³ Peter A. Levine and Maggie Kline, Trauma through a Child’s Eyes (Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 2019).

⁸⁴ Bowlby, Volume I.

⁸⁵ Stephen Porges, The Polyvagal Theory (New York: Norton, 2011).

⁸⁶ Gabor Maté and Daniel Maté, The Myth of Normal: Trauma, Illness, and Healing in a Toxic Culture (Garden City, NY: Avery, 2022).

⁸⁷ József Haller, G. Harold, Carmen Sandi, and I. D. Neumann, “Effects of Adverse Early-Life Events on Aggression and Anti-social Behaviours in Animals and Humans,” Journal of Neuroendocrinology 26, no. 10 (2014): 724–38.

⁸⁸ James P. Henry and Sheila Wang, “Effects of Early Stress on Adult Affiliative Behavior,” Psychoneuroendocrinology 23, no. 8 (1998): 863–75; Darcia Narvaez, “The Ethics of Early Life Care: The Harms of Sleep Training,” Clinical Lactation 4, no. 2 (2013): 66–70.

⁸⁹ Michael J. Meaney, “Maternal Care, Gene Expression, and the Transmission of Individual Differences in Stress Reactivity across Generations,” Annual Review of Neuroscience 24, no. 1 (2001): 1161–92.

⁹⁰ John Bowlby, Child Care and the Growth of Love (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1955).

⁹¹ Patricia M. Crittenden, “Attachment and Psychopathology,” in Attachment Theory: Social, Developmental, and Clinical Perspectives, ed. Susan Goldberg, Roy Muir, and John Kerr (Hillsdale, NJ: Analytic Press, 1995), 367–406. Note that Crittenden used the term “feeling” instead of “emoting,” but as Alan Sroufe has pointed out (personal communication, July 10, 2022), there is no infant who does not feel. Emoting refers to emotional expression.

⁹² Phillip R. Shaver and Mario Mikulincer, “Adult Attachment Strategies and the Regulation of Emotion,” in Handbook of Emotion Regulation, ed. James J. Gross (New York: Guilford Press, 2007), 446–65.

⁹³ Shaver and Mikulincer, “Adult.”

⁹⁴ Bruce D. Perry, R. A. Pollard, T. L. Blakely, W. L. Baker, and D. Vigilante, “Childhood Trauma, the Neurobiology of Adaptation, and ‘Use-Dependent’ Development of the Brain: How ‘States’ Become ‘Traits,’” Infant Mental Health Journal 16, no. 4 (1995): 271–91.

⁹⁵ Melvin Konner, The Evolution of Childhood (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2010).

6. Free Play: Beavers

¹ Gordon M. Burghardt, The Genesis of Animal Play: Testing the Limits (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005).

² Sarah Zylinski, “Fun and Play in Invertebrates,” Current Biology 25, no. 1 (2015): R10–R12.

³ Burghardt, Genesis.

⁴ Burghardt.

⁵ Jaak Panksepp, Affective Neuroscience: The Foundations of Human and Animal Emotions (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998).

⁶ Panksepp, Affective Neuroscience.

⁷ Jaak Panksepp, “Can PLAY Diminish ADHD and Facilitate the Construction of the Social Brain?” Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 16, no. 2 (2007): 57; Marek Spinka, Ruth C. Newberry, and Marc Bekoff, “Mammalian Play: Training for the Unexpected,” Quarterly Review of Biology 76, no. 2 (2001): 141–68; Marc Bekoff, “Comparative Studies of Social Play, Fairness, and Fitness: What We Know and Where We Should Be Heading,” in Ancestral Landscapes in Human Evolution: Culture, Childrearing and Social Wellbeing, ed. Darcia Narvaez, Kristin Valentino, Agustin Fuentes, James J. McKenna, and Peter Gray (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 214–17.

⁸ J. Burgdorf, R. A. Kroes, M. C. Beinfeld, J. Panksepp, and J. R. Moskal, “Uncovering the Molecular Basis of Positive Affect Using Rough-and-Tumble Play in Rats: A Role for Insulin-Like Growth Factor I,” Neuroscience 168, no. 3 (2010): 769–77.

⁹ Burghardt, Genesis.

¹⁰ Panksepp, Affective Neuroscience.

¹¹ Burgdorf et al., “Uncovering.”

¹² Burghardt, Genesis; Douglas P. Fry, “The Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness, Rough-and-Tumble Play, and the Selection of Restraint in Human Aggression,” in Ancestral Landscapes in Human Evolution: Culture, Childrearing and Social Wellbeing, ed. Darcia Narvaez, Kristin Valentino, Agustin Fuentes, James J. McKenna, and Peter Gray (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 167–86; Peter Gray, “The Play Theory of Hunter-Gatherer Egalitarianism,” in Ancestral Landscapes in Human Evolution: Culture, Childrearing and Social Wellbeing, ed. Darcia Narvaez, Kristin Valentino, Agustin Fuentes, James J. McKenna, and Peter Gray (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 190–213.

¹³ US Fish and Wildlife Service, “Beaver Conservation Strategy,” accessed November 2, 2022, www.fws.gov/project/beaver-conservation-strategy.

¹⁴ Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz, An Indigenous People’s History of the United States (Boston: Beacon Press, 2014).

¹⁵ B. W. Baker and E. P. Hill, “Beaver (Castor canadensis),” in Wild Mammals of North America: Biology, Management, and Conservation, 2nd ed., ed. George A. Feldhamer, Bruce C. Thompson, and Joseph A. Chapman (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), 288–310.

¹⁶ Wirgiliusz Żurowski, “Building Activity of Beavers,” Acta Theriologica 37, no. 4 (1992): 403–11.

¹⁷ Baker and Hill, “Beaver.”

¹⁸ Baker and Hill.

¹⁹ Brian G. Slough, “Beaver Food Cache Structure and Utilization,” Journal of Wildlife Management 42, no. 3 (1978): 644–46.

²⁰ Ellen Wohl, “Legacy Effects of Loss of Beavers in the Continental United States,” Environmental Research Letters 16, no. 2 (2021): 025010.

²¹ Dietland Müller-Schwarze, The Beaver: Natural History of a Wetlands Engineer (Ithaca, NY: Comstock Publishing Associates, 2011).

²² Hope Ryden, Lily Pond: Four Years with a Family of Beavers (New York: HarperCollins, 1990), 50–51.

²³ J. Matthias Starck and Robert E. Ricklefs, eds., Avian Growth and Development: Evolution within the Altricial-Precocial Spectrum (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press on Demand, 1998).

²⁴ Françoise Patenaude, “The Ontogeny of Behavior of Free-Living Beavers (Castor canadensis),” Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 66, no. 1 (1984): 33–44.

²⁵ Barbara Rogoff, Apprenticeship in Thinking: Cognitive Development in Social Context (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990); Barbara Rogoff and Jean Lave, Everyday Cognition: Its Development in Social Context (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984).

²⁶ Dorothy Richards and Hope Sawyer Buyukmihci, Beaversprite: My Years Building an Animal Sanctuary (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1977).

²⁷ Enos Mills, In Beaver World (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1913).

²⁸ Sherri Mitchell, Sacred Instructions (Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 2018), 158.

²⁹ Fry, “Environment”; Gray, “Play Theory.”

³⁰ Daniel J. Siegel, The Developing Mind: How Relationships and the Brain Interact to Shape Who We Are (New York: Guilford Press, 1999).

³¹ Allan N. Schore, The Development of the Unconscious Mind (New York: W. W. Norton, 2019).

³² Jaak Panksepp and Lucy Biven, The Archaeology of Mind: Neuroevolutionary Origins of Human Emotions (New York: Norton, 2012).

³³ Eric Scott and Jaak Panksepp, “Rough-and-Tumble Play in Human Children,” Aggressive Behavior 29, no. 6 (2003): 539–51; Stuart Brown, “Play as an Organizing Principle: Clinical Evidence and Personal Observations,” in Animal Play: Evolutionary, Comparative, and Ecological Perspectives, ed. Marc Bekoff and J. A. Beyer (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 242–51.

³⁴ Bessel A. van der Kolk and Rita E. Fisler, “Childhood Abuse and Neglect and Loss of Self-Regulation,” Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic 58, no. 2 (1994): 145–68.

³⁵ Allan Schore, “The Experience-Dependent Maturation of a Regulatory System in the Orbital Prefrontal Cortex and the Origin of Development Psychopathology,” Development and Psychopathology 8, no. 1 (1996): 59–87.

³⁶ Ruth Feldman, “Parent-Infant Synchrony and the Construction of Shared Timing: Physiological Precursors, Developmental Outcomes, and Risk Conditions,” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 48, no. 3–4 (2007): 329–54; Ruth Feldman, “Parent-Infant Synchrony: Biological Foundations and Developmental Outcomes,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 16, no. 6 (2007): 340–45.

³⁷ Joanna J. Cemore and Joan E. Herwig, “Delay of Gratification and Make-Believe Play of Preschoolers,” Journal of Research in Childhood Education 19, no. 3 (2005): 251–66.

³⁸ Peter LaFreniere, “Evolutionary Functions of Social Play: Life Histories, Sex Differences, and Emotion Regulation,” American Journal of Play 3, no. 4 (2011): 464–88; Eric W. Lindsey and Malinda J. Colwell, “Pretend and Physical Play: Links to Preschoolers’ Affective Social Competence,” Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 59, no. 3 (2013): 330–60.

³⁹ Tracy R. Gleason, Mary S. Tarsha, Darcia Narvaez, and Angela Kurth, “Opportunities for Free Play and Young Children’s Autonomic Regulation,” Developmental Psychobiology 63, no. 6 (2021): e22134.

⁴⁰ Gleason et al., “Opportunities.”

⁴¹ Michael Yogman et al., “The Power of Play: A Pediatric Role in Enhancing Development in Young Children,” Pediatrics 142, no. 3 (2018): e20182058.

⁴² Ryden, Lily Pond, 60–62.

⁴³ Darcia Narvaez, Neurobiology and the Development of Human Morality: Evolution, Culture and Wisdom (New York: W. W. Norton, 2014).

⁴⁴ Plato, The Republic, trans. D. Lee (London: Penguin Books, 1974).

⁴⁵ E. T. Seton, Lives of Game Animals, vol. 4, part 2, Rodents (New York: Doubleday, 1929); Baker and Hill, “Beaver.”

⁴⁶ Bart A. Nolet and Frank Rosell, “Comeback of the Beaver Castor fiber: An Overview of Old and New Conservation Problems,” Biological Conservation 83, no. 2 (1998): 165–73.

⁴⁷ Baker and Hill, “Beaver.”

⁴⁸ Ben Goldfarb, Eager: The Surprising, Secret Life of Beavers and Why They Matter (White River Junction, VT, and London: Chelsea Green Publishing, 2018), 18–19.

⁴⁹ Laura Wagner, “Long-Lost Parachuting Beaver Footage from 1950,” NPR, October 22, 2015, www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/10/22/450958213/watch-long-lost-parachuting-beaver-footage-from-1950.

⁵⁰ V. G. Schwab and M. Schmidbauer, “Beaver (Castor fiber L., Castoridae) Management in Bavaria,” Denisia 9, Neue Serie 2 (2003): 99–106.

⁵¹ Kent Nerburn, ed., The Wisdom of the Native Americans (Novato, CA: New World Library, 1999), 36–37.

⁵² Social anthropologist Robert Redfield identified two worldviews, one that considers the cosmos unified, sacred, and moral, and the other that considers the cosmos fragmented, disenchanted, and amoral. Robert Redfield, The Primitive World and Its Transformations (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1953).

⁵³ Gregory Cajete, Native Science: Natural Laws of Interdependence (Santa Fe, NM: Clear Light Publishers, 2000); Wahinkpe Topa (Four Arrows) and Darcia Narvaez, Restoring the Kinship Worldview: Indigenous Voices Introduce 28 Precepts for Rebalancing Life on Planet Earth (Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 2022).

⁵⁴ Eduardo S. Brondizio, Josef Settele, Sandra Díaz, and Hien T. Ngo, eds., Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (Bonn, Germany: IPBES, 2019), https://ipbes.net/global-assessment.

⁵⁵ Joni Mitchell, “Big Yellow Taxi,” track 10 on Ladies of the Canyon, Reprise Records, 1970.

⁵⁶ Derrick Jensen, “When I Dream of the Planet in Recovery,” YES!, April 6, 2016, www.yesmagazine.org/issue/life-after-oil/2016/04/06/when-i-dream-of-the-planet-in-recovery.

7. Touch: Amazon Parrots

¹ Ashley Montagu, Touching: The Human Significance of the Skin (New York: Harper & Row, 1986).

² G. A. Bradshaw, Carnivore Minds: Who These Fearsome Animals Really Are (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2017), 169.

³ Yaara Endevelt-Shapira, Emir Djalovski, Guillaume Dumas, and Ruth Feldman, “Maternal Chemosignals Enhance Infant-Adult Brain-to-Brain Synchrony,” Science Advances 7, no. 50 (2021): eabc68uf067, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abc68uf067.

⁴ Darcia Narvaez, Neurobiology and the Development of Human Morality: Evolution, Culture and Wisdom (New York: W. W. Norton, 2014).

⁵ Tiffany Field, Touch in Early Development (New York: Psychology Press, 1995); Tiffany Field and Martin Reite, The Psychobiology of Attachment and Separation (New York: Academic Press, 1985).

⁶ Gabor Maté, When the Body Says No: The Hidden Cost of Stress (New York: Wiley, 2011).

⁷ Robin D. Bjork, Delineating Pattern and Process in Tropical Lowlands: Mealy Parrot Migration Dynamics as a Guide for Regional Conservation Planning (Corvallis: Oregon State University, 2004).

⁸ Franziska Hausmann, Kathryn E. Arnold, N. Justin Marshall, and Ian P. F. Owens, “Ultraviolet Signals in Birds Are Special,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B: Biological Sciences 270, no. 1510 (2003): 61–67.

⁹ Mike Parr and Tony Juniper, Parrots: A Guide to Parrots of the World (New York: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2010); John and Pat Stoodley, Genus Amazona (Portsmouth, UK: Bezels Publications, 1990).

¹⁰ Field, Touch.

¹¹ Montagu, Touching, 7.

¹² Elisabeth Young-Bruehl and Faith Bethelard, Cherishment: A Psychology of the Heart (New York: Free Press, 2000).

¹³ Donald W. Winnicott, The Maturational Processes and the Facilitating Environment (Madison, WI: International University Press, 1960).

¹⁴ Montagu, Touching.

¹⁵ Sarah J. Buckley, “Executive Summary of Hormonal Physiology of Childbearing: Evidence and Implications for Women, Babies, and Maternity Care,” Journal of Perinatal Education 24, no. 3 (2015): 145–53.

¹⁶ Wenda R. Trevathan, Human Birth: An Evolutionary Perspective, 2nd ed. (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 2011).

¹⁷ Heng Ou, The First Forty Days: The Essential Art of Nourishing the New Mother (New York: Abrams, 2016).

¹⁸ David J. Linden, Touch: The Science of the Hand, Heart, and Mind (New York: Penguin Books, 2016).

¹⁹ George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Philosophy in the Flesh: The Embodied Mind and Its Challenge to Western Thought (New York: HarperCollins, 1999).

²⁰ Ken Nerburn, ed., The Wisdom of the Native Americans (Novato, CA: New World Library, 1999), 5.

²¹ Margaret Ribble, The Rights of Infants (New York: Columbia University Press, 1943).

²² Ribble, Rights.

²³ Margaret Ribble, “Disorganizing Factors of Infant Personality,” American Journal of Psychiatry 98 (1941): 459–63.

²⁴ Bruce Taubman, “Clinical Trial of the Treatment of Colic by Modification of Parent-Infant Interaction,” Pediatrics 74, no. 6 (1984): 998–1003.

²⁵ Barry Hewlett and Michael Lamb, Hunter-Gatherer Childhoods: Evolutionary, Developmental and Cultural Perspectives (New Brunswick, NJ: Aldine, 2005).

²⁶ Stephen Porges, The Polyvagal Theory: Neurophysiological Foundations of Emotions, Attachment, Communication, and Self-Regulation (New York: W. W. Norton, 2011).

²⁷ Jacek Kolacz, Gregory F. Lewis, and Stephen W. Porges, “The Integration of Vocal Communication and Biobehavioral State Regulation in Mammals: A Polyvagal Hypothesis,” in Handbook of Ultrasonic Vocalization: A Window into the Emotional Brain, ed. S. M. Brudzynski (Cambridge, MA: Elsevier Academic Press, 2018), 23–34, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-809600-0.00003-2.

²⁸ Montagu, Touching, 3.

²⁹ Porges, Polyvagal; Montagu, Touching.

³⁰ Hewlett and Lamb, Hunter-Gatherer Childhoods; E. Richard Sorenson, “Preconquest Consciousness,” in Tribal Epistemologies, ed. Helmut Wautischer (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 1998), 79–115; Gilda Morelli, Paula Ivey Henry, and Steffen Foerster, “Relationships and Resource Uncertainty: Cooperative Development of Efe Hunter-Gatherer Infants and Toddlers,” in Ancestral Landscapes in Human Evolution: Culture, Childrearing and Social Wellbeing, ed. Darcia Narvaez, Kristin Valentino, Agustin Fuentes, James McKenna, and Peter Gray (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 69–103.

³¹ Evan Thompson, “Life and Mind: From Autopoiesis to Neurophenomenology,” in Emergence and Embodiment, ed. Bruce Clarke and Mark B. N. Hansen (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2009), 77–93.

³² Neville Owen, Geneviève N. Healy, Charles E. Matthews, and David W. Dunstan, “Too Much Sitting: The Population-Health Science of Sedentary Behavior,” Exercise Sport Science Review 38, no. 3 (2010): 105–13.

³³ Infant brains expect to be held and carried with movement in order to grow well. See William A. Mason and Gershon Berkson, “Effects of Maternal Mobility on the Development of Rocking and Other Behaviors in Rhesus Monkeys: A Study with Artificial Mothers,” Developmental Psychobiology 8, no. 3 (1975): 197–221; John Zahovsky, “Discard of the Cradle,” Journal of Pediatrics 4 (1934): 660–67.

³⁴ F. J. Varela, E. Thompson, and E. Rosch, The Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experience (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991); Jaak Panksepp, Affective Neuroscience: The Foundations of Human and Animal Emotions (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998).

³⁵ M. Suzanne Zeedyk, What’s Life in a Baby Buggy Like? The Impact of Buggy Orientation on Parent-Infant Interaction and Infant Stress (London: National Literacy Trust, 2008), https://literacytrust.org.uk/documents/114/2008_01_01_free_research_-_whats_life_in_a_buggy_like_2008_iHvVXnx.pdf.

³⁶ Gilda A. Morelli, Barbara Rogoff, David Oppenheim, and Denise Goldsmith, “Cultural Variation in Infants’ Sleeping Arrangements: Questions of Independence,” Developmental Psychology 28, no. 4 (1992): 604–13.

³⁷ Henrik Norholt, “Revisiting the Roots of Attachment: A Review of the Biological and Psychological Effects of Maternal Skin-to-Skin Contact and Carrying of Full-Term Infants,” Infant Behavioral Development 60 (2020): 101441.

³⁸ James W. Prescott, “The Origins of Human Love and Violence,” Pre- and Perinatal Psychology Journal 10, no. 3 (1996): 143–88.

³⁹ John Bowlby, Attachment and Loss: Volume I: Attachment, 2nd ed. (London: The Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis, 1969; New York: Basic Books, 1982).

⁴⁰ Kevin N. Ochsner and James J. Gross, “The Neural Architecture of Emotion Regulation,” in Handbook of Emotion Regulation, ed. James J. Gross (New York: Guilford Press, 2007), 87–108.

⁴¹ C. Sue Carter and Stephen W. Porges, “Neurobiology and the Evolution of Mammalian Social Behavior,” in Evolution, Early Experience and Human Development: From Research to Practice and Policy, ed. Darcia Narvaez, Jaak Panksepp, Allan Schore, and Tracy R. Gleason (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 132–51; Peter Kirsch, Christine Esslinger, Qiang Chen, Daniela Mier, Stefanie Lis, Sarina Siddhanti, Harald Gruppe, Venkata S. Mattay, Bernd Gallhofer, and Andreas Meyer-Lindenberg, “Oxytocin Modulates Neural Circuitry for Social Cognition and Fear in Humans,” Journal of Neuroscience 25, no. 49 (2005): 11489–93; Predrag Petrovic, Raffael Kalisch, Tania Singer, and Raymond J. Dolan, “Oxytocin Attenuates Affective Evaluations of Conditioned Faces and Amygdala Activity,” Journal of Neuroscience 28, no. 26 (2008): 6607–15; Kerstin Uvnas-Moberg, Linda Handlin, and Maria Petersson, “Neuroendocrine Mechanisms Involved in the Physiological Effects Caused by Skin-to-Skin Contact—With a Particular Focus on the Oxytocinergic System,” Infant Behavior & Development 61 (2020): 101482.

⁴² Ruth Feldman, “Oxytocin and Social Affiliation in Humans,” Hormonal Behavior 61, no. 3 (2012): 380–91.

⁴³ C. Sue Carter, “Love as Embodied Medicine,” International Body Psychotherapy Journal 18, no. 1 (2019): 21.

⁴⁴ Carter and Porges, “Neurobiology.”

⁴⁵ Alison B. Wismer Fries, Toni E. Ziegler, Joseph R. Kurian, Steve Jacoris, and Seth D. Pollak, “Early Experience in Humans Is Associated with Changes in Neuropeptides Critical for Regulating Social Behaviour,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102, no. 47 (2005): 17237–40; Anna T. Smyke, Sebastian F. Koga, Dana E. Johnson, Nathan A. Fox, Peter J. Marshall, Charles A. Nelson, Charles H. Zeanah, and BEIP Core Group, “The Caregiving Context in Institution-Reared and Family-Reared Infants and Toddlers in Romania,” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 48, no. 2 (2007): 210–18.

⁴⁶ Myron A. Hofer, “Hidden Regulators in Attachment, Separation, and Loss,” in The Development of Emotion Regulation: Behavioral and Biological Considerations, Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, ed. Nathan A. Fox (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 192–207.

⁴⁷ Nami Ohmura, Lana Okuma, Anna Truzzi, Kazutaka Shinozuka, Atsuko Saito, Susumu Yokota, Andrea Bizzego, et al., “A Method to Soothe and Promote Sleep in Crying Infants Utilizing the Transport Response,” Current Biology 32, no. 20 (2022): 4521–29.e4, https:doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.08.041.

⁴⁸ Field, Touch.

⁴⁹ Sonia J. Lupien, Bruce S. McEwen, Megan R. Gunnar, and Christine Heim, “Effects of Stress throughout the Lifespan on the Brain, Behaviour and Cognition,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, no. 6 (2009): 434–45.

⁵⁰ Christopher L. Coe, “Psychosocial Factors and Immunity in Nonhuman Primates: A Review,” Psychosomatic Medicine 55, no. 3 (1993): 298–308, https://doi.org/10.1097/00006842-199305000-00007.

⁵¹ António A. Freitas and Benedita B. Rocha, “Lymphocyte Lifespans: Homeostasis, Selection, and Competition,” Immunology Today 14, no. 1 (1993): 25–29; G. R. Lubach, C. L. Coe, and W. B. Ershler, “Effects of Early Rearing on Immune Responses in Infant Rhesus Monkeys,” Brain and Behavioral Immunology 9, no. 1 (1995): 31–46.

⁵² B. Crary et al., “Decrease in Mitogen Responsiveness of Mononuclear Cells from Peripheral Blood after Epinephrine Administration in Humans,” Journal of Immunology 130, no. 2 (1983): 694–97.

⁵³ B. Crary et al., “Decrease.”

⁵⁴ Frances A. Champagne, Ian C. G. Weaver, Josie Diorio, Sergiy Dymov, Moshe Szyf, and Michael J. Meaney, “Maternal Care Associated with Methylation of the Estrogen Receptor-alpha1b Promoter and Estrogen Receptor-alpha Expression in the Medial Preoptic Area of Female Offspring,” Endocrinology 147, no. 6 (2006): 2909–15; Yuliya S. Nikolova and Ahmad R. Hariri, “Can We Observe Epigenetic Effects on Human Brain Function?” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 19, no. 7 (2015): 366–73.

⁵⁵ Marija Kundakovic and Frances A. Champagne, “Early-Life Experience, Epigenetics, and the Developing Brain,” Neuropsychopharmacology 40, no. 1 (2015): 141–53, https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2014.140; C. Murgatroyd and D. Spengler, “Epigenetic Programming of the HPA Axis: Early Life Decides,” Stress 14, no. 6 (2011): 581–89, https://doi.org/10.3109/10253890.2011.602146.

⁵⁶ “Talking Glossary of Genomic and Genetic Terms,” s.v. “Epigenome,” updated May 10, 2022, www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Epigenome.

⁵⁷ “Talking Glossary,” s.v. “Epigenome.”

⁵⁸ Eva Jablonka and Marion J. Lamb, Evolution in Four Dimensions: Genetic, Epigenetic, Behavioral, and Symbolic Variation in the History of Life (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005).

⁵⁹ Humberto Maturana and Gerda Verden-Zöller, The Origin of Humanness in the Biology of Love, ed. Pille Bunnell (Exeter, UK: Imprint Academic, 2008).

⁶⁰ Isabella Lucia, Chiara Mariani Wigley, Eleonora Mascheroni, Sabrina Bonichini, and Rosario Montirosso, “Epigenetic Protection: Maternal Touch and DNA-Methylation in Early Life,” Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences 43 (2022): 111–17.

⁶¹ Kathleen M. Krol, Robert G. Moulder, Travis S. Lillard, Tobias Grossmann, and Jessica J. Connelly, “Epigenetic Dynamics in Infancy and the Impact of Maternal Engagement,” Science Advances 5, no. 10 (2019): eaay0680.

⁶² Montagu, Touching.

⁶³ Steven R. H. Beach, Gene H. Brody, Alexandre A. Todorov, Tracy D. Gunter, and Robert A. Philibert, “Methylation at SLC6A4 Is Linked to Family History of Child Abuse: An Examination of the Iowa Adoptee Sample,” American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics 153B (2010): 710–13; Hee-Ju Kang, Jae-Min Kim, Robert Stewart, Seon-Young Kim, Kyung-Yeol Bae, Sung-Wan Kim, Il-Seon Shin, Myung-Geun Shin, and Jin-Sang Yoon, “Association of SLC6A4 Methylation with Early Adversity, Characteristics and Outcomes in Depression,” Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry 44 (2013): 23–28; Monica Uddin, Allison E. Aiello, Derek E. Wildman, Karestan C. Koenen, Graham Pawelec, Regina de Los Santos, Emily Goldmann, and Sandro Galea, “Epigenetic and Immune Function Profiles Associated with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107 (2010): 9470–75.

⁶⁴ Bruce S. Cushing and Kristin M. Kramer, “Mechanisms Underlying Epigenetic Effects of Early Social Experience: The Role of Neuropeptides and Steroids,” Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 29, no. 7 (2005): 1089–105; Helena Palma-Gudiel, A. Córdova-Palomera, Elisenda Eixarch, Michael Deuschle, and Lourdes Fañanás, “Maternal Psychosocial Stress during Pregnancy Alters the Epigenetic Signature of the Glucocorticoid Receptor Gene Promoter in Their Offspring: A Meta-analysis,” Epigenetics 10 (2015): 893–902; Sarah R. Moore, Lisa M. McEwen, Jill Quirt, Alex Morin, Sarah M. Mah, Ronald G. Barr, W. Thomas Boyce, and Michael S. Kobor, “Epigenetic Correlates of Neonatal Contact in Humans,” Development and Psychopathology 29, no. 5 (2017): 1517; Ian C. G. Weaver, Nadia Cervoni, Frances A. Champagne, Ana C. D’Alessio, Shakti Sharma, Jonathan R. Seckl, Sergiy Dymov, Moshe Szyf, and Michael J. Meaney, “Epigenetic Programming by Maternal Behavior,” National Neuroscience 7, no. 8 (2004): 847–54.

⁶⁵ Moshe Szyf, “Nongenetic Inheritance and Transgenerational Epigenetics,” Trends in Molecular Medicine 21, no. 2 (2015): 134–44; Peter D. Gluckman and Mark Hanson, Fetal Matrix: Evolution, Development and Disease (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005).

⁶⁶ Matthew D. Anway, “Epigenetic Transgenerational Actions of Endocrine Disruptors and Male Fertility,” Science 308, no. 5727 (2005): 1466–69; Johannes Bohacek and Isabelle M. Mansuy, “Epigenetic Inheritance of Disease and Disease Risk,” Neuropsychopharmacology 38, no. 1 (2013): 220–36.

⁶⁷ Ali B. Rodgers, Christopher P. Morgan, N. Adrian Leu, and Tracy L. Bale, “Transgenerational Epigenetic Programming via Sperm MicroRNA Recapitulates Effects of Paternal Stress,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112, no. 44 (2015): 13699–704; Rachel Yehuda, Nikolaos P. Daskalakis, Amy Lehrner, Frank Desarnaud, Heather N. Bader, Iouri Makotkine, Janine D. Flory, Linda M. Bierer, and Michael J. Meaney, “Influences of Maternal and Paternal PTSD on Epigenetic Regulation of the Glucocorticoid Receptor Gene in Holocaust Survivor Offspring,” American Journal of Psychiatry 171 (2014): 872–80.

⁶⁸ Elysia P. Davis and Curt A. Sandman, “The Timing of Prenatal Exposure to Maternal Cortisol and Psychosocial Stress Is Associated with Human Infant Cognitive Development,” Child Development 81, no. 1 (2010): 131–48.

⁶⁹ Katherine Gudsnuk and Frances A. Champagne, “Epigenetic Influence of Stress and the Social Environment,” Institute for Laboratory Animal Research Journal 53, no. 3–4 (2012): 279–88.

⁷⁰ Sue Grand and Jill Salberg,”Trans-generational Transmission of Trauma,” in Social Trauma—An Interdisciplinary Textbook, ed. Andreas Hamburger, Camellia Hancheva, and Vamik D. Volkan (Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 2021), 209–15.

⁷¹ G. A. Bradshaw, Elephants on the Edge: What Animals Teach Us about Humanity (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009), 210.

⁷² Ryan D. Hubbard and Clayton K. Nielsen, “White-Tailed Deer Attacking Humans during the Fawning Season: A Unique Human–Wildlife Conflict on a University Campus,” Human-Wildlife Conflicts 3, no. 1 (2009): 129–35.

⁷³ Shane C. Campbell-Staton, Brian J. Arnold, Dominique Gonçalves, Petter Granli, Joyce Poole, Ryan A. Long, and Robert M. Pringle, “Ivory Poaching and the Rapid Evolution of Tusklessness in African Elephants,” Science 374, no. 6566 (2021): 483–87.

⁷⁴ Lucia et al., “Epigenetic Protection”; Darcia Narvaez, L. Wang, A. Cheng, T. Gleason, R. Woodbury, A. Kurth, and J. B. Lefever, “The Importance of Early Life Touch for Psychosocial and Moral Development,” Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica 32, no. 16 (2019), https://doi.org/10.1186/s41155-019-0129-0.

8. Emotions: Octopuses

¹ Philip Low, “Cambridge Declaration of Consciousness,” in Francis Crick Memorial Conference on Consciousness in Human and Non-human Animals, ed. Jaak Panksepp, Diana Reiss, David Edelman, Bruno Van Swinderen, Philip Low, and Christof Koch (Cambridge, UK: 2012). See also: www.egg-truth.com/egg-blog/2019/5/13/the-cambridge-declaration-on-consciousness.

² G. A. Bradshaw, Carnivore Minds: Who These Fearsome Animals Really Are (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2017).

³ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_the_Octopus.

⁴ Edward J. Steele et al., “Cause of Cambrian Explosion—Terrestrial or Cosmic?” Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology 136 (2018): 3–23.

⁵ Peter Godfrey-Smith, Other Minds: The Octopus, the Sea, and the Deep Origins of Consciousness (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2016), 47.

⁶ M. D. Norman and F. G. Hochberg, “The Current State of Octopus Taxonomy,” Phuket Marine Biological Center Research Bulletin 66 (2005): 127–54.

⁷ George E. Liu, Lakshmi K. Matukumalli, Tad S. Sonstegard, Larry L. Shade, and Curtis P. Van Tassell, “Genomic Divergences among Cattle, Dog and Human Estimated from Large-Scale Alignments of Genomic Sequences,” BMC Genomics 7, no. 1 (2006): 1–13.

⁸ Godfrey-Smith, Other Minds, 5, 6, 8. The last common ancestor between Mollusca and Chordata was identified at 570 million years ago; see Mark E. Hahn, Sibel I. Karchner, and Rebeka R. Merson, “Diversity as Opportunity: Insights from 600 Million Years of AHR Evolution,” Current Opinion in Toxicology 2 (2017): 58–71.

⁹ Anton Reiner et al., “The Avian Brain Nomenclature Forum: Terminology for a New Century in Comparative Neuroanatomy,” Journal of Comparative Neurology 473 (2004): E1; Bradshaw, Carnivore Minds.

¹⁰ Nicolas Di-Poï and Michel C. Milinkovitch, “The Anatomical Placode in Reptile Scale Morphogenesis Indicates Shared Ancestry among Skin Appendages in Amniotes,” Science Advances 2, no. 6 (2016): e1600708; Robert C. Berwick, Gabriël J. L. Beckers, Kazuo Okanoya, and Johan J. Bolhuis, “A Bird’s Eye View of Human Language Evolution,” Frontiers in Evolutionary Neuroscience 4 (2012): 5, https://doi.org/10.3389/fnevo.2012.00005.

¹¹ Susan E. Orosz and G. A. Bradshaw, “Avian Neuroanatomy Revisited: From Clinical Principles to Avian Cognition,” Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice 10, no. 3 (2007): 775–802.

¹² Jon Ablett, “How Brainy Is an Octopus?” Natural History Museum, October 8, 2018, www.youtube.com/watch?v=2x1dxoNA3k0.

¹³ Peter Godfrey-Smith, “The Mind of an Octopus,” Scientific American Mind 28, no. 1 (2017): 62–69.

¹⁴ Godfrey-Smith, Other Minds, 50–51.

¹⁵ Jennifer A. Mather and Ludovic Dickel, “Cephalopod Complex Cognition,” Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences 16 (2017): 131–37.

¹⁶ Godfrey-Smith, Other Minds, 75.

¹⁷ “To say that cognition is embodied means that it arises from bodily interactions with the world. From this point of view, cognition depends on the kinds of experiences that come from having a body with particular perceptual and motor capacities that are inseparably linked and that together form the matrix within which memory, emotion, language, and all other aspects of life are meshed.” Esther Thelen, Gregor Schoner, Christian Scheier, and Linda B. Smith, “The Dynamics of Embodiment: A Field Theory of Infant Perseverative Reaching,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 24, no. 1 (2001): 1.

¹⁸ Godfrey-Smith, Other Minds, 4; Roland C. Anderson, Jennifer A. Mather, and James B. Wood, Octopus: The Ocean’s Intelligent Invertebrate (Portland, OR: Timber Press, 2010).

¹⁹ Anna Di Cosmo, Valeria Maselli, and Gianluca Polese, “Octopus vulgaris: An Alternative in Evolution,” Marine Organisms as Model Systems in Biology and Medicine (2018): 585–98; Roland C. Anderson, Jennifer A. Mather, and James B. Wood, Octopus: The Ocean’s Intelligent Invertebrate: A Natural History (New York: Workman Publishing, 1992), 13.

²⁰ Willemijn M. Gommans, Sean P. Mullen, and Stefan Maas, “RNA Editing: A Driving Force for Adaptive Evolution?” Bioessays 31, no. 10 (2009): 1137–45.

²¹ Richard Lewontin, September 30, 2010, in response to Colin Wells’s comment on “Not So Natural Selection,” New York Review of Books, www.nybooks.com/articles/2010/09/30/what-darwin-got-wrong/.

²² Ilkka Kronholm, “Adaptive Evolution and Epigenetics,” in Handbook of Epigenetics, ed. Trygve Tollefsbol (New York: Academic Press, 2017), 427–38.

²³ Claudia L. Kleinman, Véronique Adoue, and Jacek Majewski, “RNA Editing of Protein Sequences: A Rare Event in Human Transcriptomes,” RNA 18, no. 9 (2012): 1586–96.

²⁴ Khatuna Gagnidze, Violeta Rayon-Estrada, Sheila Harroch, Karen Bulloch, and F. Nina Papavasiliou, “A New Chapter in Genetic Medicine: RNA Editing and Its Role in Disease Pathogenesis,” Trends in Molecular Medicine 24, no. 3 (2018): 294–303.

²⁵ Noa Liscovitch-Brauer, Shahar Alon, Hagit T. Porath, Boaz Elstein, Ron Unger, Tamar Ziv, Arie Admon, Erez Y. Levanon, Joshua J. C. Rosenthal, and Eli Eisenberg, “Trade-off between Transcriptome Plasticity and Genome Evolution in Cephalopods,” Cell 169, no. 2 (2017): 191–202.

²⁶ Sandra Garrett and Joshua J. C. Rosenthal, “RNA Editing Underlies Temperature Adaptation in K+ Channels from Polar Octopuses,” Science 335, no. 6070 (2012): 848–51.

²⁷ DNA mutates in two ways: by germline variants or by somatic variants. The former are inherited from parents, whereas the latter are changes that occur during a person’s lifetime as a result of exposure to toxins or other environmental insults.

²⁸ Garrett and Rosenthal, “RNA Editing.”

²⁹ Eric Kreit, “Biological versus Electronic Adaptive Coloration: How Can One Inform the Other?” Journal of The Royal Society Interface 10, no. 78 (2013): 20120601.

³⁰ Jennifer A. Mather and D. Lynn Mather, “Apparent Movement in a Visual Display: The ‘Passing Cloud’ of Octopus Cyanea (Mollusca: Cephalopoda),” Journal of Zoology 263, no. 1 (2004): 89–94.

³¹ Godfrey-Smith, Other Minds, 109–12.

³² Lydia M. Mäthger, Alexandra Barbosa, Simon Miner, and Roger T. Hanlon, “Color Blindness and Contrast Perception in Cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) Determined by a Visual Sensorimotor Assay,” Vision Research 46, no. 11 (2006): 1746–53.

³³ Alexander L. Stubbs and Christopher W. Stubbs, “Spectral Discrimination in Color Blind Animals via Chromatic Aberration and Pupil Shape,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113, no. 29 (2016): 8206–11.

³⁴ Mather and Mather, “Apparent Movement.”

³⁵ Martin Moynihan and Arcadio F. Rodaniche, “The Behavior and Natural History of the Caribbean Reef Squid Sepioteuthis sepioidea with a Consideration of Social, Signal, and Defensive Patterns for Difficult and Dangerous Environments,” Fortschritte der Verhaltensforschung 25 (1982): 9–150.

³⁶ Robyn J. Crook, “Behavioral and Neurophysiological Evidence Suggests Affective Pain Experience in Octopus,” Iscience 24, no. 3 (2021): 102229; Marc Bekoff, Minding Animals: Awareness, Emotions and Heart (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2002); Frans De Waal, Are We Smart Enough to Know How Smart Animals Are? (New York: W. W. Norton, 2017).

³⁷ Jonathan Birch, Charlotte Burn, Alexandra Schnell, Heather Browning, and Andrew Crump, “Review of the Evidence of Sentience in Cephalopod Molluscs and Decapod Crustaceans” (London: LSE Consulting, 2021), www.lse.ac.uk/News/News-Assets/PDFs/2021/Sentience-in-Cephalopod-Molluscs-and-Decapod-Crustaceans-Final-Report-November-2021.pdf; Martha Henriques, “The Mysterious Inner Life of Octopuses,” BBC Future, July 24, 2022, www.bbc.com/future/article/20220720-do-octopuses-feel-pain.

³⁸ Sezgi Goksan et al., “fMRI Reveals Neural Activity Overlap between Adult and Infant Pain,” eLife 4 (2015): e06356, https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.06356.

³⁹ Charles R. Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (London: John Murray, 1872).

⁴⁰ Joel Marks, “Emotion East and West: Introduction to a Comparative Philosophy,” Philosophy East and West 41, no. 1 (1991): 1–30.

⁴¹ Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, Objectivity (New York: Zone Books, 2007).

⁴² Melvin Konner, The Tangled Wing (New York: Owl Books, 2002), 139, 141.

⁴³ Richard E. Nisbett, The Geography of Thought: How Asians and Westerners Think Differently . . . and Why (New York: Free Press, 2003).

⁴⁴ Catherine Keller, From a Broken Web: Separation, Sexism, and Self (New York: Beacon Press, 1986).

⁴⁵ Michael Polanyi, Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958).

⁴⁶ Daston and Galison, Objectivity.

⁴⁷ Antonio Damasio, Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain (New York: Avon, 1996).

⁴⁸ Jaak Panksepp, Affective Neuroscience: The Foundations of Human and Animal Emotions (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2004).

⁴⁹ Antoine Bechara, Hanna Damasio, and Antonio R. Damasio, “Emotion, Decision Making and the Orbitofrontal Cortex,” Cerebral Cortex 10, no. 3 (2000): 295–307.

⁵⁰ Alan Fogel, Infancy (Cornwall-on-Hudson, NY: Sloan Publishing, 2011).

⁵¹ Elena Geangu, Hiroko Ichikawa, Junpeng Lao, So Kanazawa, Masam K.Yamaguchi, Roberto Caldara, and Chiara Turati, “Culture Shapes 7-Month-Olds’ Perceptual Strategies in Discriminating Facial Expressions of Emotion,” Current Biology 26, no. 14 (2016): R663–R664; Nangyeon Lim, “Cultural Differences in Emotion: Differences in Emotional Arousal Level between the East and the West,” Integrative Medicine Research 5, no. 2 (2016): 105–9.

⁵² Panksepp, Affective Neuroscience.

⁵³ Mark D. Lewis, “Bridging Emotion Theory and Neurobiology through Dynamic Systems Modelling,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 28, no. 2 (2005): 169–245.

⁵⁴ Konner, Tangled.

⁵⁵ Amy G. Halberstadt and Fantasy T. Lozada, “Emotion Development in Infancy through the Lens of Culture,” Emotion Review 3, no. 2 (2011): 158–68.

⁵⁶ Allan N. Schore, Affect Dysregulation and Disorders of the Self (New York: Norton, 2003); Allan N. Schore, Affect Regulation and the Repair of the Self (New York: Norton, 2003).

⁵⁷ Schore, Dysregulation.

⁵⁸ Steven W. Anderson, Antoine Bechara, Hanna Damasio, Daniel Tranel, and Antonio R. Damasio, “Impairment of Social and Moral Behavior Related to Early Damage in Human Prefrontal Cortex,” Nature Neuroscience 2 (1999): 1032–37.

⁵⁹ Jaak Panksepp, “How Primary-Process Emotional Systems Guide Child Development: Ancestral Regulators of Human Happiness, Thriving, and Suffering,” in Evolution, Early Experience and Human Development: From Research to Practice and Policy, ed. Darcia Narvaez, Jaak Panksepp, Allan N. Schore, and Tracy Gleason (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 74–94.

⁶⁰ Elkhonon Goldberg, The Executive Brain: Frontal Lobes and the Civilized Brain (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).

⁶¹ Colwyn Trevarthen, “Intimate Contact from Birth: How We Know One Another by Touch, Voice, and Expression in Movement,” in Touch, Attachment and the Body, ed. Kate White (London: Karnak, 2004), 1–15; Colwyn Trevarthen, “The Neurobiology of Early Communication: Intersubjective Regulations in Human Brain Development,” in Handbook on Brain and Behavior in Human Development, ed. Alex Fedde Kalverboer and Albertus Arend Gramsbergen (Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer, 2001), 841–82.

⁶² Panksepp, Affective Neuroscience.

⁶³ Colwyn Trevarthen, “Action and Emotion in Development of the Human Self, Its Sociability and Cultural Intelligence: Why Infants Have Feelings Like Ours,” in Emotional Development, ed. Jacqueline Nadel and Darwin Muir (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2005), 61–91.

⁶⁴ Trevarthen, “Action and Emotion.”

⁶⁵ Allan N. Schore, “The Experience-Dependent Maturation of a Regulatory System in the Orbital Prefrontal Cortex and the Origin of Development Psychopathology,” Development and Psychopathology 8, no. 1 (1996): 59–87.

⁶⁶ Allan N. Schore, “Early Organization of the Nonlinear Right Brain and Development of a Predisposition to Psychiatric Disorders,” Development and Psychopathology 9, no. 4 (1997): 595–631.

⁶⁷ Robin M. Hogarth, Educating Intuition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001); Arthur S. Reber, Implicit Learning and Tacit Knowledge: An Essay on the Cognitive Unconscious (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).

⁶⁸ Allan N. Schore, The Development of the Unconscious Mind (New York: W. W. Norton, 2019).

⁶⁹ Allan N. Schore, The Science of the Art of Psychotherapy (New York: W. W. Norton, 2017).

⁷⁰ Maurice J. Elias, May Kranzler, Sarah J. Parker, V. Megan Kash, and Roger P. Weissberg, “The Complementary Perspectives of Social and Emotional Learning, Moral Education, and Character Education,” in Handbook of Moral and Character Education, 2nd ed., ed. Larry Nucci, Darcia Narvaez, and Tobias Krettenauer (New York: Routledge, 2014), 272–89; Pamela Qualter, Kathryn J. Gardner, and Helen E. Whiteley, “Emotional Intelligence: Review of Research and Educational Implications,” Pastoral Care in Education 25, no. 1 (2007): 11–20; Marc A. Brackett, “The Emotional Intelligence We Owe Students and Educators,” Educational Leadership 76, no. 2 (2018): 12–18.

⁷¹ Schore, Development.

⁷² Darcia Narvaez, Neurobiology and the Development of Human Morality: Evolution, Culture and Wisdom (New York: W. W. Norton, 2014).

⁷³ Daniel N. Stern, The Interpersonal World of the Infant (New York: Basic Books, 1985).

⁷⁴ Stanley Greenspan and Stuart Shanker, The First Idea (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo, 2004), 46.

⁷⁵ Bradshaw, Carnivore Minds.

⁷⁶ Ed Yong, An Immense World: How Animal Senses Reveal the Hidden Realms around Us (New York: Random House, 2022).

⁷⁷ Daniel Goleman, Emotional Intelligence (New York: Bantam Books, 2006); Bradshaw, Carnivore Minds, 292.

⁷⁸ Ronald E. Walker and Jeanne M. Foley, “Social Intelligence: Its History and Measurement,” Psychological Reports 33, no. 3 (1973): 839–64.

⁷⁹ Mylene M. Mariette, David F. Clayton, and Katherine L. Buchanan, “Acoustic Developmental Programming: A Mechanistic and Evolutionary Framework,” Trends in Ecology and Evolution 36, no. 8 (2021): 722–36.

⁸⁰ Pippa Ehrlich and James Reed, My Octopus Teacher, 2020, film, Netflix, 85 min.

⁸¹ Alexandra K. Schnell, Markus Boeckle, Micaela Rivera, Nicola S. Clayton, and Roger T. Hanlon, “Cuttlefish Exert Self-Control in a Delay of Gratification Task,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B 288, no. 1946 (2021): 20203161; Elena Tricarico, Luciana Borrelli, Francesca Gherardi, and Graziano Fiorito, “I Know My Neighbour: Individual Recognition in Octopus vulgaris,” PLOS One 6, no. 4 (2011): e18710.

⁸² Dan Bilefsky, “Inky the Octopus Escapes from a New Zealand Aquarium,” New York Times, last modified April 14, 2016, www.nytimes.com/2016/04/14/world/asia/inky-octopus-new-zealand-aquarium.html.

⁸³ Ehrlich and Reed, Octopus.

⁸⁴ Gagnidze et al., “New Chapter.”

⁸⁵ Mićo Tatalović, “The Science and Ethics of Turning Octopuses into ‘Lab Rats,’” EuroScientist, February 24, 2022, www.euroscientist.com/the-science-and-ethics-of-turning-octopuses-into-lab-rats/.

⁸⁶ Emily Greenhalgh, “Team Succeeds in Culturing the Pygmy Zebra Octopus,” Phys.org, last modified December 22, 2021, https://phys.org/news/2021-12-team-culturing-pygmy-zebra-octopus.html.

9. Moral Commitment: Gray Wolves

¹ Ann Swidler, Richard Madsen, Robert N. Bellah, Steven Tipton, and William Sullivan, Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007).

² Darcia Narvaez, Embodied Morality: Protectionism, Engagement and Imagination (New York: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2016).

³ Darcia Narvaez, Neurobiology and the Development of Human Morality: Evolution, Culture and Wisdom (New York: W. W. Norton, 2014).

⁴ Narvaez, Neurobiology.

⁵ Narvaez.

⁶ Narvaez.

⁷ Jean Liedloff, The Continuum Concept: In Search of Happiness Lost (Cambridge, MA: Perseus Books, 1977).

⁸ Darcia Narvaez, “Baselines for Virtue,” in Developing the Virtues: Integrating Perspectives, ed. Julia Annas, Darcia Narvaez, and Nancy Snow (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016), 14–33; Allan N. Schore, The Development of the Unconscious Mind (New York: W. W. Norton, 2019).

⁹ Mike Boyes, “Re-envisioning Nature from a New Zealand Māori Perspective,” in Encountering, Experiencing and Exploring Nature in Education (Rateče-Planica, Slovenia: European Institute for Outdoor Adventure Education and Experiential Learning, in partnership with the Centre for School and Outdoor Education Slovenia, 2010), 94–99.

¹⁰ Morna Finnegan, “The Politics of Eros: Ritual Dialogue and Egalitarianism in Three Central African Hunter-Gatherer Societies,” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 19, no. 4 (2013): 697–715.

¹¹ E. Richard Sorenson, “Preconquest Consciousness,” in Tribal Epistemologies, ed. Helmut Wautischer (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 1998), 79–115.

¹² Boyes, “Re-envisioning”; Finnegan, “Politics.”

¹³ Boyes, “Re-envisioning.”

¹⁴ Boyes, “Re-envisioning”; Sorenson, “Preconquest.”

¹⁵ Narvaez, “Baselines.”

¹⁶ Mona Farid, Magdi Fekri, Magdi Abd-Elaal, and Hesham Ezz-eldin Zaki, “Archeological Study of Wild Animals in the New Kingdom,” Journal of the Faculty of Tourism and Hotels-University of Sadat City 2, no. 2 (2018): 58–77.

¹⁷ John Linnell et al., The Fear of Wolves: A Review of Wolf Attacks on Humans (Trondheim, Norway: NINA NIKU Stiftelsen for naturforskning og kulturminneforskning, 2002), www.researchgate.net/publication/236330045_The_fear_of_wolves_A_review_of_wolf_attacks_on_humans.

¹⁸ Gordon Haber and Marybeth Holleman, Among Wolves: Gordon Haber’s Insights into Alaska’s Most Misunderstood Animal (Fairbanks: University of Alaska Press, 2013), 35.

¹⁹ Haber and Holleman, Among Wolves, 110.

²⁰ Valerie M. Fogleman, “American Attitudes towards Wolves: A History of Misperception,” Environmental Review 13, no. 1 (1989): 63–94.

²¹ But see the remarkable story of Takaya, the lone male Wolf surviving on unnamed islands off the coast of British Columbia: Cheryl Alexander, Takaya: Lone Wolf (Victoria, BC: Rocky Mountain Books, 2020).

²² Haber and Holleman, Among Wolves, 133.

²³ Rick McIntyre, The Rise of Wolf 8: Witnessing the Triumph of Yellowstone’s Underdog (Vancouver, BC: Greystone Books, 2019), 22.

²⁴ McIntyre, Rise, 83.

²⁵ Enos A. Mills, Watched by Wild Animals (New York: Doubleday, 1923).

²⁶ Haber and Holleman, Among Wolves, 92.

²⁷ G. A. Bradshaw, Talking with Bears: Conversations with Charlie Russell (Victoria, BC: Rocky Mountain Books, 2020).

²⁸ Matthew Margolin, The Ohlone Way: Indian Life in the San Francisco-Monterey Bay Area (Berkeley, CA: Heyday, 1978).

²⁹ Haber and Holleman, Among Wolves, 37.

³⁰ Haber and Holleman, 92.

³¹ www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Mammals/Gray-Wolf.

³² Haber and Holleman, Among Wolves, 232.

³³ Nick Mott, “A Record Number of Yellowstone Wolves Have Been Killed. Conservationists Are Worried,” NPR, April 13, 2022, www.npr.org/2022/04/13/1092366933/a-record-number-of-yellowstone-wolves-have-been-killed-conservationists-are-worr.

³⁴ Haber and Holleman, Among Wolves, 63.

³⁵ Haber and Holleman, 49–51.

³⁶ Haber and Holleman, 52.

³⁷ Haber and Holleman, 25.

³⁸ Haber and Holleman, 36, 59.

³⁹ Rick McIntyre, personal communication over several conversations, May and June 2022.

⁴⁰ Jaak Panksepp, Affective Neuroscience: The Foundations of Human and Animal Emotions (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998).

⁴¹ www.zerotothree.org/early-development/brain-development.

⁴² Zdravko Petanjek, Milos Judaš, Goran Šimic, Mladen R. Rasin, Harry B. M. Uylings, Pasko Rakic, and Ivica Kostovic, “Extraordinary Neoteny of Synaptic Spines in the Human Prefrontal Cortex,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108, no. 32 (2011): 13281–86, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1105108108.

⁴³ Narvaez, Neurobiology.

⁴⁴ Narvaez, “Baselines.”

⁴⁵ Kathryn L. Geurts, Culture and the Senses: Bodily Ways of Knowing in an African Community (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002).

⁴⁶ Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1977).

⁴⁷ Richard A. Shweder, Jackie Goodnow, G. Hatano, Robert LeVine, Helen Markus, and Patricia Miller, “The Cultural Psychology of Development: One Mind, Many Mentalities,” in Handbook of Child Psychology, vol. 1, Theoretical Models of Human Development, ed. William Damon and Richard M. Lerner (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2006), 716–92.

⁴⁸ Vincent J. Felitti and Robert F. Anda, The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study (Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Kaiser Permanente, 2005); Vincent J. Felitti, “Adverse Childhood Experiences and Their Relation to Adult Health and Well-Being: Turning Gold into Lead” (symposium lecture, Human Nature and Early Experience: Addressing the Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, October 2010).

⁴⁹ Gordon Neufeld and Gabor Maté, Hold On to Your Kids: Why Parents Need to Matter More Than Peers (New York: Ballantine, 2006), 109.

⁵⁰ Narvaez, Neurobiology.

⁵¹ Narvaez, Neurobiology.

⁵² Gabor Maté and Daniel Maté, The Myth of Normal: Trauma, Illness, and Healing in a Toxic Culture (Garden City, NY: Avery, 2022).

⁵³ Haber and Holleman, Among Wolves, 25.

⁵⁴ Haber and Holleman, 26.

⁵⁵ Thomas R. Verny and Pamela Weintraub, Pre-Parenting: Nurturing Your Child from Conception (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002).

⁵⁶ Narvaez, Neurobiology.

⁵⁷ Donald W. Winnicott, The Maturational Processes and the Facilitating Environment (New York: International Universities Press; London: Hogarth Press, 1965).

⁵⁸ Antonio Damasio, Self Comes to Mind (New York: Vintage Press, 2010).

⁵⁹ Ulrich Neisser, “Five Kinds of Self-Knowledge,” Philosophical Psychology 1, no. 1 (1988): 35–39; William W. Seeley and Bruce L. Miller, “Disorders of the Self in Dementia,” in The Lost Self: Pathologies of Brain and Identity, ed. Todd E. Feinberg and Julian Paul Keenan (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 147–65.

⁶⁰ Endel Tulving, Shitu Kapur, Fergus I. M. Craik, Morris Moscovitch, and Sylvain Houle, “Hemispheric Encoding/Retrieval Asymmetry in Episodic Memory: Positron Emission Tomography Findings,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 91, no. 6 (1994): 2016–20; Mark A. Wheeler, T. Donald Stuss, and Endel Tulving, “Toward a Theory of Episodic Memory: The Frontal Lobes and Autonoetic Consciousness,” Psychological Bulletin 121, no. 3 (1997): 331–54.

⁶¹ Rodolfo R. Llinas, I of the Vortex: From Neurons to Self (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002).

⁶² Jaak Panksepp, “Affective Consciousness: Core Emotional Feelings in Animals and Humans,” Consciousness and Cognition 14 (2005): 19–69; Jaak Panksepp, “On the Embodied Neural Nature of Core Emotional Affects,” Journal of Consciousness Studies 12, no. 8–10 (2005): 161–87.

⁶³ Leath Tonino, “The Egret Lifting from the River: David Hinton on the Wisdom of Ancient Chinese Poets,” The Sun, January 2015, 4–13.

⁶⁴ Bradshaw, Talking.

⁶⁵ Narvaez, Neurobiology.

⁶⁶ Marshall Sahlins, The Western Illusion of Human Nature with Reflections on the Long History of Hierarchy, Equality and the Sublimation of Anarchy in the West, and Comparative Notes on Other Conceptions of the Human Condition (Chicago: Prickly Paradigm Press, 2008).

⁶⁷ Rick McIntyre, personal communication, May 29, 2022.

⁶⁸ Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela, Autopoiesis and Cognition: The Realization of the Living (Boston: Reidel, 1980).

⁶⁹ Priscilla Kelly, Gemma Alderton, Seth Thomas Scanlon, and Caroline Ash, “A Multiplicity of Microbiomes,” Science 376, no. 6596 (2022): 932.

⁷⁰ Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela, The Tree of Knowledge (Boston: Shambhala, 1998), 248.

⁷¹ Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man (London: Penguin Classics, 2004); Howard E. Gruber and Paul H. Barrett, Darwin on Man: A Psychological Study of Scientific Creativity Together with Darwin’s Early and Unpublished Notebooks (London: Wildwood House, 1974); David Loye, Darwin’s Lost Theory (Carmel, CA: Benjamin Franklin Press, 2000); David Loye, “The Moral Brain,” Brain and Mind 3 (2002): 133–50.

⁷² Abraham Maslow, Motivation and Personality, 2nd ed. (New York: Harper & Row, 1970).

⁷³ Darcia Narvaez, “Beyond Trauma-Informed: Returning to Indigenous, Wellness-Informed Practices,” International Journal of Existential Positive Psychology 11, no. 1 (2022), www.meaning.ca/ijepp-article/vol11-no1/beyond-trauma-informed-returning-to-indigenous-wellness-informed-practices/.

⁷⁴ Mary S. Tarsha and Darcia Narvaez, “The Developmental Neurobiology of Moral Mindsets: Basic Needs and Childhood Experience,” in Motivation and Morality: A Biopsychosocial Approach, ed. Martha Berg and Edward Chang (Washington, DC: APA Books, forthcoming).

⁷⁵ Peter Fonagy, Gyorgy Gergely, Elliot Jurist, and Mary Target, Affect Regulation, Mentalization, and the Development of the Self (New York: Other Press, 2004).

⁷⁶ Dante Cicchetti and Sheree Toth, “Child Maltreatment,” Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 1 (2005): 409–38.

⁷⁷ Grazyna Kochanska, Nazan Aksan, and Amy L. Koenig, “A Longitudinal Study of the Roots of Preschoolers’ Conscience: Committed Compliance and Emerging Internalization,” Child Development 66, no. 6 (1995): 1752–69.

⁷⁸ Bernadette Grosjean and Guochuan E. Tsai, “NMDA Neurotransmission as a Critical Mediator of Borderline Personality Disorder,” Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience 32, no. 2 (2007): 103–15.

⁷⁹ G. A. Bradshaw, Elephants on the Edge: What Animals Teach us about Humanity (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009).

⁸⁰ Berne Krause, The Great Animal Orchestra: Finding the Origins of Music in the World’s Wild Places (New York: Little & Brown, 2012).

⁸¹ Krause, Orchestra.

⁸² Haber and Holleman, Among Wolves, 73.

⁸³ Donna J. Haraway, Staying with the Trouble: Making Kin in the Chthulucene (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2016). The term “sympoietic” comes from: Beth Dempster, “Sympoietic and Autopoietic Systems: A New Distinction for Self-Organizing Systems,” in Proceedings of the World Congress of the Systems Sciences and ISSS 2000, ed. J. K. Allen and J. Wilby (Toronto: International Society for Systems Studies Annual Conference, 2000).

⁸⁴ Haber and Holleman, Among Wolves, 59–61.

⁸⁵ Haber and Holleman, 59.

⁸⁶ Bradshaw, Elephants.

⁸⁷ Karen Jones, “From Big Bad Wolf to Ecological Hero: Canis lupus and the Culture(s) of Nature in the American–Canadian West,” American Review of Canadian Studies 40, no. 3 (2010): 338–50.

⁸⁸ Tori Peglar, “1995 Reintroduction of Wolves in Yellowstone,” Yellowstone National Park Trips, May 13, 2022, www.yellowstonepark.com/park/conservation/yellowstone-wolves-reintroduction/.

⁸⁹ Rick McIntyre, personal communication, June 20, 2022; Rick McIntyre, The Reign of Wolf 21: The Saga of Yellowstone’s Legendary Druid Pack (Vancouver, BC: Greystone Books, 2020); McIntyre, Rise.

⁹⁰ Haber and Holleman, Among Wolves.

⁹¹ Haber and Holleman, 24.

⁹² Mark S. Boyce, “Wolves for Yellowstone: Dynamics in Time and Space,” Journal of Mammalogy 99, no. 5 (2018): 1021–31.

⁹³ Bradshaw, Elephants; G. A. Bradshaw, Allan N. Schore, Janine L. Brown, Joyce H. Poole, and Cynthia J. Moss, “Elephant Breakdown,” Nature 433, no. 7028 (2005): 807.

⁹⁴ Douglas H. Chadwick, The Fate of the Elephant (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books for Children, 1994), 431–32.

⁹⁵ Haber and Holleman, Among Wolves, 210.

⁹⁶ G. A. Bradshaw, “Our Common Blood,” Ecology 99, no. 2 (2018): 505–7.

⁹⁷ Barbara Brease quoted in Haber and Holleman, Among Wolves, 248.

10. The Peace of Wild Things

¹ Wendell Berry, The Peace of Wild Things (New York: Penguin, 2018).

² Jakob von Uexküll, “A Stroll through the Worlds of Animals and Men: A Picture Book of Invisible Worlds,” in Instinctive Behavior: The Development of a Modern Concept, ed. Claire H. Schiller (New York: International Universities Press, 1957), 5–80.

³ Kent Nerburn, ed., The Wisdom of the Native Americans (Novato, CA: New World Library, 1999).

⁴ G. A. Bradshaw, Carnivore Minds: Who These Fearsome Animals Really Are (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2017).

⁵ Jack D. Forbes, Columbus and Other Cannibals: The Wétiko Disease of Exploitation, Imperialism, and Terrorism, rev. ed. (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2008), 185.

⁶ Philip Low, “Cambridge Declaration of Consciousness,” in Francis Crick Memorial Conference on Consciousness in Human and Non-Human Animals, ed. Jaak Panksepp, Diana Reiss, David Edelman, Bruno Van Swinderen, Philip Low, and Christof Koch (Cambridge, UK: 2012); Jonathan Birch, Charlotte Burn, Alexandra Schnell, Heather Browning, and Andrew Crump, “Review of the Evidence of Sentience in Cephalopod Molluscs and Decapod Crustaceans” (London: LSE Consulting, 2021), www.lse.ac.uk/News/News-Assets/PDFs/2021/Sentience-in-Cephalopod-Molluscs-and-Decapod-Crustaceans-Final-Report-November-2021.pdf. See also: www.egg-truth.com/egg-blog/2019/5/13/the-cambridge-declaration-on-consciousness.

⁷ Low, “Cambridge.”

⁸ Judith L. Bronstein, ed., Mutualism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015).

⁹ Surindar Paracer and Vernon Ahmadjian, Symbiosis, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000).

¹⁰ Darcia Narvaez, Lee Gettler, Julia Braungart-Rieker, Laura Miller-Graff, and Paul Hastings, “The Flourishing of Young Children: Evolutionary Baselines,” in Contexts for Young Child Flourishing: Evolution, Family and Society, ed. Darcia Narvaez, Julia Braungart-Rieker, Laura Miller-Graff, Lee Gettler, and Paul Hastings (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016), 3–27.

¹¹ Darcia Narvaez, “Beyond Trauma-Informed: Returning to Indigenous, Wellness-Informed Practices,” International Journal of Existential Positive Psychology 11, no. 1 (2022), www.meaning.ca/ijepp-article/vol11-no1/beyond-trauma-informed-returning-to-indigenous-wellness-informed-practices/.

¹² Daniel Stern, Forms of Vitality: Exploring Dynamic Experience in Psychology, the Arts, Psychotherapy, and Development (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).

¹³ Gordon Neufeld, “The Keys to Well-Being in Children and Youth: The Significant Role of Families” (keynote address, European Parliament, Brussels, Belgium, November 13, 2012), quoted in Gabor Maté and Daniel Maté, The Myth of Normal: Trauma, Illness, and Healing in a Toxic Culture (Garden City, NY: Avery, 2022), 127.

¹⁴ Thomas Widlok, Anthropology and the Economy of Sharing (London: Routledge, 2017); Genevieve Vaughan, “Introduction: A Radically Different Worldview Is Possible,” in Women and the Gift Economy, ed. Genevieve Vaughan (Toronto: Inanna Publications, 2007), 1–40.

¹⁵ Sarah Hrdy, Mothers and Others: The Evolutionary Origins of Mutual Understanding (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2009).

¹⁶ Genevieve Vaughan, The Gift in the Heart of Language: The Maternal Source of Meaning (Milan: Mimesis International, 2015).

¹⁷ Ashley Montagu, Touching: The Human Significance of the Skin (New York: Harper & Row, 1986).

¹⁸ Eric E. Nelson and Jaak Panksepp, “Brain Substrates of Infant–Mother Attachment: Contributions of Opioids, Oxytocin, and Norepinephrine,” Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 22, no. 3 (1998): 437–52.

¹⁹ Montagu, Touching.

²⁰ E. Richard Sorenson, “Preconquest Consciousness,” in Tribal Epistemologies, ed. Helmut Wautischer (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 1998), 79–115.

²¹ Judith M. Burkart, Sarah B. Hrdy, and Carel P. van Schaik, “Cooperative Breeding and Human Cognitive Evolution,” Evolutionary Anthropology 18 (2009): 175–86.

²² Darcia Narvaez, Jaak Panksepp, Allan Schore, and Tracy Gleason, eds., Evolution, Early Experience, and Human Development: From Research to Practice and Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013); Thomas R. Verny and Pamela Weintraub, Pre-Parenting: Nurturing Your Child from Conception (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002).

²³ Nakia Gordon, Sharon Burke, Huda Akil, Stanley J. Watson, and Jaak Panksepp, “Socially-Induced Brain ‘Fertilization’: Play Promotes Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor Transcription in the Amygdala and Dorsolateral Frontal Cortex in Juvenile Rats,” Neuroscience Letters 341, no. 1–24 (2003): 17–20.

²⁴ O. Fred Donaldson, Playing by Heart: The Vision and Practice of Belonging (Deer Beach, FL: Health Communications, 1993), xv. See also: https://originalplay.eu/.

²⁵ Leath Tonino, “The Egret Lifting from the River: David Hinton on the Wisdom of Ancient Chinese Poets,” The Sun, January 2015, 4–13.

²⁶ Thich Nhat Hanh, Fragrant Palm Leaves: Journals 1962–1966 (Berkeley, CA: Parallax Press, 2020).

²⁷ Michael Mendizza and Joseph Chilton Pearce, Magical Parent, Magical Child: The Art of Joyful Parenting (Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 2004); Lawrence J. Cohen, Playful Parenting: An Exciting New Approach to Raising Children That Will Help You Nurture Close Connections, Solve Behavior Problems, and Encourage Confidence (New York: Ballantine Books, 2002); Anthony T. DeBenedet and Lawrence J. Cohen, The Art of Roughhousing: Good Old-Fashioned Horseplay and Why Every Kid Needs It (Philadelphia: Quirk Books, 2010).

²⁸ Barbara Nicholson and Lysa Parker, Attached at the Heart: Eight Proven Parenting Principles for Raising Connected and Compassionate Children (Deerfield Beach, FL: Health Communications, 2013).

²⁹ Vine Deloria, God Is Red: A Native View of Religion (Wheat Ridge, CO: Fulcrum Publishing, 2003), 1.

³⁰ Graham Harvey, Animism: Respecting the Living World (London: C. Hurst, 2017).

³¹ Gordon Haber and Marybeth Holleman, Among Wolves: Gordon Haber’s Insights into Alaska’s Most Misunderstood Animal (Fairbanks: University of Alaska Press, 2013), 92.

³² Wahinkpe Topa (Four Arrows) and Darcia Narvaez, Restoring the Kinship Worldview: Indigenous Voices Introduce 28 Precepts for Rebalancing Life on Planet Earth (Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 2022).

³³ Genevieve Vaughan, The Maternal Roots of the Gift Economy (Toronto: Inanna, 2019); Vaughan, “Introduction.”

³⁴ Forbes, Columbus.

³⁵ Andrea Wulf, Magnificent Rebels: The First Romantics and the Invention of the Self (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2022), 195.

³⁶ Wulf, Magnificent Rebels, 195.

³⁷ G. A. Bradshaw, Talking with Bears: Conversations with Charlie Russell (Victoria, BC: Rocky Mountain Books, 2020), 121.

³⁸ Tiffany Field and Martin Reite, The Psychobiology of Attachment and Separation (New York: Academic Press, 1985); Tiffany Field, Touch in Early Development (New York: Psychology Press, 1995).

³⁹ Richard Louv, Last Child in the Woods: Saving Our Children from Nature Deficit Disorder (New York: Workman, 2005); Scott D. Sampson, How to Raise a Wild Child: The Art and Science of Falling in Love with Nature (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2015); Angela J. Hanscom, Balanced and Barefoot (Oakland, CA: New Harbinger, 2016); Rebecca P. Cohen, 15 Minutes Outside: 365 Ways to Get Out of the House and Connect with Your Kids (Naperville, IL: Sourcebooks, 2011); Katy Bowman, Grow Wild: The Whole-Child, Whole-Family Nature-Rich Guide to Moving More (Carlsborg, WA: Propriometrics Press, 2021).

⁴⁰ Abraham H. Maslow, The Psychology of the Northern Blackfoot Indians (Brooklyn, NY: Department of Psychology, Brooklyn College, 1938; unpublished draft held at the Center for the History of Psychology, University of Akron, Akron, OH), reprinted in Sidney Stone Brown, Transformation beyond Greed: Native Self-Actualization (Scottsdale, AZ: Book Patch, 2014), 35.

⁴¹ Abraham H. Maslow and John J. Honigmann, Northern Blackfoot Culture and Personality (Brooklyn, NY: Department of Psychology, Brooklyn College, 1938; unpublished draft held at the Center for the History of Psychology, University of Akron, Akron, OH), reprinted in Sidney Stone Brown, Transformation beyond Greed: Native Self-Actualization (Scottsdale, AZ: Book Patch, 2014), 6.

⁴² Brown, Transformation, 44–45.

⁴³ Brown, Transformation; Mary S. Tarsha and Darcia Narvaez, “The Developmental Neurobiology of Moral Mindsets: Basic Needs and Childhood Experience,” in Motivation and Morality: A Biopsychosocial Approach, ed. Martha Berg and Edward Chang (Washington, DC: APA Books, 2023), 187–204.

⁴⁴ Neufeld, “Keys.”

⁴⁵ Barbara Rogoff and Jean Lave, Everyday Cognition: Its Development in Social Context (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984); Barbara Rogoff, The Cultural Nature of Human Development (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).

⁴⁶ Aidan J. MacFarlane, “Olfaction in the Development of Social Preferences in the Human Neonate,” CIBA Foundation Symposium 33 (1975): 103–17; Robert Coopersmith and Michael Leon, “Enhanced Neural Response by Adult Rats to Odors Experienced Early in Life,” Brain Research 371 (1986): 400–403.

⁴⁷ Darcia Narvaez, Neurobiology and the Development of Human Morality: Evolution, Culture and Wisdom (New York: W. W. Norton, 2014).

⁴⁸ Tyson Yunkaporta, Sand Talk: How Indigenous Thinking Can Save the World (New York: HarperCollins, 2020).

⁴⁹ Allan N. Schore, The Development of the Unconscious Mind (New York: W. W. Norton, 2019).

⁵⁰ Maria Montessori, The Secret of Childhood (New York: Ballantine Books, 1966).

⁵¹ Topa and Narvaez, Kinship.

⁵² Darcia Narvaez, “Original Practices for Becoming and Being Human,” in Indigenous Sustainable Wisdom: First Nation Know-How for Global Flourishing, ed. Darcia Narvaez, Four Arrows, Eugene Halton, Brian Collier, and Georges Enderle (New York: Peter Lang, 2019), 90–110.

⁵³ Barry S. Hewlett and Michael E. Lamb, Hunter-Gatherer Childhoods: Evolutionary, Developmental and Cultural Perspectives (New Brunswick, NJ: Aldine, 2005).

⁵⁴ Jon Young, Ellen Haas, and Evan McGown, Coyote’s Guide to Connecting with Nature, 2nd ed. (Santa Cruz, CA: Owlink Media, 2010).

⁵⁵ F. David Peat, Blackfoot Physics (Boston: Weiser Books, 2001), 8.

⁵⁶ Topa and Narvaez, Kinship.

⁵⁷ Deloria, God, 1–2.

⁵⁸ Mourning Dove, Mourning Dove: A Salishan Autobiography, American Indian Lives, ed. Jay Miller (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2014).

⁵⁹ Paul Shepard, Coming Home to the Pleistocene, ed. F. R. Shepard (Washington, DC: Island Press/Shearwater Books, 1998).

⁶⁰ Keri Blakinger, Corrections in Ink: A Memoir (New York: Macmillan, 2022).

⁶¹ Donald W. Winnicott, Babies and Their Mothers (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1987).

⁶² Masashi Soga and Kevin J. Gaston, “Extinction of Experience: The Loss of Human–Nature Interactions,” Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 14, no. 2 (2016): 94–101.

⁶³ Narvaez, Neurobiology.

⁶⁴ Widlok, Anthropology.

⁶⁵ Marvin Bram, A History of Humanity (Delhi: Primus Books, 2018); Philippe Descola, Beyond Nature and Culture, trans. J. Lloyd (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013); Darcia Narvaez and Mary S. Tarsha, “The Missing Mind: Contrasting Civilization with Non-civilization Development and Functioning,” in Psychology and Cognitive Archaeology: An Interdisciplinary Approach to the Study of the Human Mind, ed. T. Henley and M. Rossano (London: Routledge, 2021), 55–69.

⁶⁶ Yunkaporta, Sand.

⁶⁷ Narvaez, Neurobiology.

⁶⁸ Cindy Engel, Wild Health: Lessons in Natural Wellness from the Animal Kingdom (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2003); Animal Doctors: How Do They Heal Themselves? Wocomo WILDLIFE, documentary, 2014, www.youtube.com/watch?v=zbvENEzZzcA.

⁶⁹ Eric T. Frank, Marten Wehrhahn, and K. Eduard Linsenmair, “Wound Treatment and Selective Help in a Termite-Hunting Ant,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B 285 (2018): 2457, http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2017.2457.

⁷⁰ G. A. Bradshaw, “Leopard Seal Compassion,” Omere, August 31, 2021, https://omere.ca/essays/leopard-seal-compassion/.

⁷¹ Narvaez, “Trauma-Informed.”

⁷² Bradshaw, Talking.

⁷³ Gabor Maté, In the Realm of Hungry Ghosts (Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 2010).

⁷⁴ Carmen Sandi and Jozsef Haller, “Stress and the Social Brain: Behavioural Effects and Neurobiological Mechanisms,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 16, no. 5 (2015): 290–304.

⁷⁵ Richard Katz, Indigenous Healing Psychology: Honoring the Wisdom of the First Peoples (Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press, 2017); Rupert Ross, Indigenous Healing: Exploring Traditional Paths (Toronto: Penguin Canada, 2014).

⁷⁶ Katz, Indigenous.

⁷⁷ Joanna Macy and Molly Brown, Coming Back to Life (Gabriola Island, BC: New Society Publishers, 2014).

⁷⁸ Richard Katz, “Synergy and Empowerment: Renewing and Expanding the Community’s Healing Resources,” in Synergy, Healing, and Empowerment: Insights from Cultural Diversity, ed. Richard Katz and Stephen Murphy-Shigematsu (Calgary: Brush Education, 2012), 21–48.

⁷⁹ Richard Katz, Megan Biesele, and Verna St. Denis, Healing Makes Our Hearts Happy: Spirituality and Cultural Transformation among the Kalahari Ju/’huansi (Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions, 1997).

⁸⁰ Katz, “Synergy,” 31.

⁸¹ G. A. Bradshaw, “Living Out of Our Minds,” in The Rediscovery of the Wild, ed. Peter H. Kahn Jr. and Patricia H. Hasbach (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2013), 119–38.

⁸² Maté, Hungry Ghosts, 371.

⁸³ Katz, Indigenous.

⁸⁴ Edith Turner, Communitas: The Anthropology of Collective Joy (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012).

⁸⁵ Émile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life (New York: The Free Press, 1965).

⁸⁶ Young et al., Coyote’s Guide.

⁸⁷ Camilla Power, Morna Finnegan, and Hilary Callan, eds., Human Origins: Contributions from Social Anthropology (New York: Berghahn, 2017). For practical advice on how to do this, see Tom Brown’s extensive work: www.trackerschool.com/.

⁸⁸ Riane Eisler and Douglas P. Fry, Nurturing Our Humanity (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019).

⁸⁹ Katz, Indigenous.

⁹⁰ Darcia Narvaez, “The 99%—Development and Socialization within an Evolutionary Context: Growing Up to Become ‘A Good and Useful Human Being,’” in War, Peace and Human Nature: The Convergence of Evolutionary and Cultural Views, ed. Douglas Fry (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018), 643–72; Tim Ingold, “On the Social Relations of the Hunter-Gatherer Band,” in The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers, ed. Richard B. Lee and Richard Daly (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 399–410.

⁹¹ Bill Plotkin, Wild Mind: A Field Guide to the Human Psyche (Novato, CA: New World Library, 2013).

⁹² F. David Peat, Gentle Action: Bringing Creative Change to a Turbulent World (Siena, Italy: Pari Publishing, 2008).

⁹³ David Abram, Becoming Animal: An Earthly Cosmology (New York: Pantheon, 2010), 3.

⁹⁴ Macy and Brown, Life; Peter Wohlleben, The Secret Wisdom of Nature (Vancouver, BC: Greystone Books, 2017).