1984, Orwell, 267
35W bridge collapse, Minneapolis, 88, 220
Abu Ghraib, 218–219
action potential (spike), 229n.E, 243, 244–245, 247–256
action-selection systems
decision-making, 4, 8, 21, 44–45, 58–59
Deliberative system, 49–51, 58–59, 75–86
Pavlovian system, 46–48, 65–74
Procedural system, 51–53, 58–59, 87–96
actor-critic architecture, 28
Adams, Douglas, 208n.C
addiction, 136, 159. 171–183, See also gambling
behavioral, 190–191
comparing desire, withdrawal and habit, 175, 177–180
definitions, 171–173
failure modes leading to, see vulnerabilities theory
failure of decision-making, 173–175
paths out of drug use, 180–182
relapse, 109,
treatment, and, 180–182
vulnerabilities theory, 173–175, 176f
ADHD, See attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
differences in decision-making, 131–132
risk-taking behavior, 36–37
advertisements, 17
agency, the outside perspective of consciousness, 228–231
agonists, 26
airport security as a dynamic situation, 110–111
alcoholism, 151, 172, 174, 177, 181–182, 238
self-control, and, 135–136
aliens, 131n.J
allostasis, 178
altruism and altruistic punishment, 219–225, 232–233
Alzheimer’s disease, 90, 159, 197n.A
ambiguity,
as uncertainty, 127–129
value, 79n.F,
ambiguity aversion, 128
Amnesty International, 225
amygdala (brain structure), 25, 39–40, 67n.D, 140–141, 195–196, 201, 224
anchor effect, 21
Anderson, Laurie, 94
animals
care and, rights, 39n.D, 117–118, 117n.F,
learning from others, 130
pets, 118–119
sociobiology, 116
antagonists, 26
anterior cingulate cortex (ACC, brain structure), 32, 139–141, 251
disorders, 200–201
separation, 117
aphasia, 149
aplysia, 63
Aquinas, Thomas, 234n.L
artificial intelligence, 10, 85–86
expert systems, 12
GPS navigation, 12
machine learning, 126n.B
asabiya, 223
Asimov, Isaac, 79n.E
athletes, habits, 89
attention-deficit/hyperactive disorder (ADHD), 202
auditory cortex, visual cortex taking over for, 152–155
auras, fortification, 164–165
automatic behavior, see Pavlovian learning and see Procedural learning
aversion, disappointment and, 26, 30–32, 92
Awakenings (movie), 190
Axelrod, Robert, 222
Babinski reflex, 63
barn owls, 154
basal ganglia, 39, 53, 90–93, 96, 123, 158n.J, 168, 245, 250, 252
deep-brain stimulation, and, 168, 256
Huntington’s disease, and, 90, 123
Parkinson’s disease, and, 90, 123, 158, 168
basin of attraction, 262–266
phoneme-recognition, 266f
points in dynamic system, 265f
watershed of North America, example of, 264f
battle fatigue, 193
A Beautiful Mind (book and movie), 216n.F
Beckett, Samuel, 111
behavioral addiction. 190–191, See also addiction; gambling
behavioral economics, 7–8
behavioral inhibition, 132, 140
Bernoulli, Daniel, 114
Bernoulli, Nicolaus, 114
Blade Runner (movie), Scott, 69–70, 236
blame, consciousness and, 231–233
blocking, 27
blood-brain barrier, 67n.E
borderline personality disorder, 201
bounded rationality, 21
Bowlby, John, 118
Brahe, Tycho, 234n.L
brain. See also physical mind
cerebellum, 95–96
correlation and causation, 254–257
counterfactuals, 6–7
electroencephalogram (EEG), 251
euphoria and dysphoria, 23–26, 181
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 139n.C, 252–253
genetics, 91–92, 126, 180n.B, 194, 214, 256
information processing in neurons, 243–244
journey from sensory to motor, 245–246
lesions, 48, 69, 107n.C, 140, 149–150, 159, 254–255
local field potentials (LFPs), 158n.K, 250–251, 268
manipulation, 168–170, 256–257
memory consolidation, transferring memories from one part of, to another, 155–159, 196–197
motor cortex, 93–95,
neurons, 242–244
phantom limb, 153–154
recording spikes from human patients, 251–252
representing information with spiking cells, 247–249
self-control and prefrontal cortex, 139–141
shifting representations, 152–153, 154, 168
somatosensory cortex, 153
stimulation, 256–257
temporary inactivation of parts of, 255–256
visual cortex, 161–163
brain-machine interfaces, 94, 167
break point, 19
Broca’s area, 255
Bull Durham (movie), 237–238
butterfly effect, 229n.D
C3P0 (Star Wars), 11
Calvinism, 223
candidates, voting, 17–18
candy-rejection task, 134, 136, 137
Čapek, Karel, 235
Card, Orson Scott, 207
Carpenter, John, 134
cars
as example of multiple systems, 4
measuring value of, 21
CarTalk, 11–12
catastrophic interference, 156
catecholamines, learning and decision-making, 92–93
categorization, memory as, 263–267
Cathy (comic strip), 38
caudate nucleus (brain structure), 53, See also striatum
cell assemblies
content-addressable memory, 260–261
neurophysiology of, 268
cells,
neurons, 242–244
ion channels, 229–230n.E
central pattern generator, 54
cerebellum (brain structure), 95–96
Chaos, Gleick, 229n.D
chaos theory, 229n.D
chasing losses, phenomenon, 109, See also gambling
chess,
expertise in, 104
search and, 78
Kasparov, Deep Blue, and, 78, 147
children, decision-making differences from adults, 8, 63, 120, 137, 155, 266
chimpanzees, 7, 19, 73, 120n.I
parable of the jellybeans, 7–8
ultimatum game and, 224
Chinese room thought experiment, Searle, 147–148
chunking
driving, 94
Clancy, Tom, 232
clockwork universe theory, 229
cocaine
failure modes, 174
orbitofrontal cortex neurons and, 82
value and, 20
cognition, See also deliberation and consciousness
as perception of percepts, 147
cognitive dissonance, self-control, 135
cognitive map, 76–77, 84–85, 249n.A
cognitive sequences, 96
color detection, photoreceptors, 267n.F
color differentiation, categorization, 266
communities, creation of, 220–226
computational psychiatry, 180n.B, 199–202
anxiety disorders, 200–201
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), 199n.A, 200
psychiatric disorders, 201–202
computer revolution, See information revolution
computers, digital 102, 145, 259
personality, and, 12
differences with brains, 152, 259–260
software/hardware analogy, 146–149
conditioning, Pavlovian, 66–67
conditioning stimulus, 47
cones, color-detecting photoreceptors, 267n.F
Confessions, Augustine, 70
Confucianism, 213
connectivity, visual cortex, 161–162
consciousness, 4–5, 50n.H, 79–80n.G, 148–149, 233–236
inside perspective (the issue of self), 233–236
legal perspective (the issue of blame), 231–233
Libet studies, 4–6,
outside perspective (the issue of agency), 228–230
content-addressable memories, 55–56, 101, 109, 152, 259–260, 260f
cell assemblies, 260–261
degraded patterns, 262f
memory as categorization, 263–267
memory as pattern completion, 261–263
neurophysiology of cell assemblies, 268
Contingency Management, 20, 38, 138
control theory, 27n.D
cooperation, 187n.B, 202, 216–217, 221–226
communities and, 58n.N, 223–225
correlation and causation, 254
counterfactuals, learning, 6–7
craving, 8, 26, 57, 71, 122, 175, 177–180
control of, 133
prospective studies of, 72n.M
motivation and, 121n.K
opiates and, 26
credit assignment problem, 108–109
crime, question of blame, 231–233
critical period, See sensitive period
The Crying Game, Jordan, 111, 228, 235
cryptography, 242n.C
Cryptonomicon, Stephenson, 98n.D, 242n.C
cybernetics, 257
Cybernetics, Wiener, 85
Cylon (Battlestar Galactica), 11, 236,
Da Costa, Jacob Mendes, 193
Daily Kos, 102n.J
Dark Star, Carpenter, 134
decision-making
action-selection, 8, 21, 44–45
addiction as failure of, 173–175, 176f
consciousness and, 233–236
emotions in relation to, 70–73
perceptual recognition, 97–98
reflexes, 61–63
search processes, 77–79
stopping a prepotent action, 39–40
thermostat as decision-maker, 9–11
cognitive map and, 76–77
deep-brain stimulation, 168–169, 200, 252, 256
defection, 221–226
value and, 18–19
Deliberative system, 44, 49–51, 58, 75–84
addiction, 173
cause-effect structure, 75–76
cognitive map and declarative memory, 76–77
evaluation, 79–83
search, 77–79
Tolman and Hull, 84–86
delusions, 56
depression, 169, 180, 200, 201, 202
Descartes, René, 68, 159, 228–229, 230, 234–235
description vs. prescription, 211–212
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), 173, 199n.A, 200, 201
differential diagnosis, 11
differential diagnosis paradigms, 147
disappointment, 30–32, 102, 129, 189–190
dopamine and, 92
discounting, See delay discounting
exponential, 37–38
hyperbolic, 38
displeasure/dysphoria, 23–26, 32f, 171, 176, 181
distributed representation, 248, 267n.F
DNA
as digital information, 146, 241, 243
genetic manipulations, 256
histones and transcription factors, 146n.B
Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, Dick, 69, 236
dogs, 57, 72, 73, 116, 119, 191, 261
Pavlov and, 32, 46–47, 54, 58,
pets, 118–119
dopamine, 24–25, 29–30, 91–92, 93
addiction, 176f
behavioral addictions, 191
generalization effects, 31n.I
Parkinson’s disease, 29n.H, 190, 200
not pleasure in brain, 25, 29–30
value-prediction error, 29–30, 31n.I, 53, 91–92
vigor, 123–124
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC, brain structure), 139–141
dread, 39
dreams, 158–159
driving
chunking process, 94
learning, 88
Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, Stevenson, 182
drug dependence, See addiction
drugs
legalization, 172–173
market, 172
measuring value, 19
war on, 232
DSM (DMS-III, DSM-IV-TR, DSM-V), See Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
dual-system hypothesis, 70–71
dynorphin, 25
dyskinesias, 123
dysphoria
punishment, 32f
economics and morality, 215–217
EEG, See electroencephalogram
EKG, See electrocardiogram
EMG, See electromyogram
elections, voting, 17–18
electrical manipulations, brain, 256–257
electrocardiogram (EKG), 245
electroencephalogram (EEG), 151, 251, 268
electromyography (EMG), 245
elephant-and-rider analogy, 4, 70–71, 134
Ellsberg paradox, 128
action-selection, 65
animals, 73–74
brain structures, 67–69
drugs, and, 173, 176f, 179, 181,
epilepsy, and, 150n.H
feelings, 68
humans and robots, 11, 69–70, 236
Pavlovian action-selection system, and, 46–47n.C, 48, 65–74
relation to decision–making, 70–73
social interactions, 72–73, 120–122, 130, 218, 224, 237
endophenotypes, 180n.B endorphins, 25
endowment effect, 16
Enigma machine, 98n.D
enkephalins, 25
envy, 130
epilepsy, 150–152, 169, 244, 252, 255,
episodic future thinking, 3, 49–50, 51n.I, 79, 129
episodic memory, 49n.G, 77, 79, 152, 155–159, 196–197, 207
Alzheimer’s disease and, 197n.A
PTSD and, 193, 194–195, 196–197
error-related negativity (ERN), 251
estimation uncertainty, 127
euphoria
difference from reinforcement, 24–25
opioids, 25–26
evaluation, deliberation models, 79–83
event-related potential (ERP), 251
evil, morality, 217–220
excitatory synapses, 243–244
executive function therapy, 182
expected uncertainty, 127–129
expected value, 27–28, 81, 126, 127, 128
dopamine and, 123n.M
expert systems
artificial intelligence, 12
speed-accuracy tradeoff in, 103–105
exploration and exploitation 28n.F, 125–126
gathering information, 129
learning from others, 129–131
life cycle, 131–132
tradeoff between, 125–127
uncertainty, 127–129
exponential decay, 37n.B
exponential discounting, 37–38
The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, Darwin, 25, 73
extinction, neural mechanisms of, 32–34
extremeness aversion, 17
failure modes, 9, 26, 116, 173–175, See also vulnerabilities
Favre, Brett, 172
fear
anxiety, 201
fear-potentiated startle, 66, 72
conditioning, 39–40
controlling one’s, 33, 35, 40, 133, 140–141, 238
Pavlovian action-selection and, 48, 66
phobias, 201
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and, 195
feelings, emotions and, 68
feedback, negative, 9, 11, 27n.D, 101, 150,
feedback, positive, 229, 230, 244
Feynman, Richard, 6
fictive reward, learning from others, 6–7, 129–130, 207
fight-or-flight response, 65
financial market, risk in, 126–127
firefighter, decision-making and, 35, 39, 217
flashbulb memories, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 194–195
fMRI, See functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
food, addiction, 190–191
foot reflex, Babinski reflex, 63
foraging theory, 115
fortification hallucination, migraine and, 164–166
Fouts, Daniel, 7n.C
fovea, 5
framing, 17, 21, 81, 83, 189–190, 266–267
Freedom Riders, 217
free-rider problem, 223
free will, 227–231, 233, 234–236
quantum randomness, and, 228–231, 235
Freud, Sigmund, 3, 70, 73, 80n.G
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 139n.C, 141, 252–253
brain activity, 69, 79, 220, 252–253, 268
measuring blood flow, 139n.C, 224
mental imagery, 166
Gage, Phineas, 69, 140, 150n.G
Galapagos Islands, 63n.B
galvanic skin response (GSR), 67
Gamblers Anonymous, 20n.C
gambling
addiction, 185–186
craving and, 175,
DSM criteria, 200
generating randomness, 186–187
illusion of control, 109, 186–189
impulse disorders, 190
other behavioral addictions, 190–191
recognizing patterns, 187–189
self-control, 136
Situation-recognition System and, 109, 188–189
video, 189
wins and losses, 189–190
Gandhi, Mahatma, 233
General Problem Solver, Newell and Simon, 77, 80, 86, 148n.E
genes
culture, and, 121
DNA, 146
insect, 115
logic control structures, 146n.B
manipulations, 256
natural selection, 47n.C, 115, 121
polymorphisms, 91–92, 92n.E, 180n.B
role in personality, 92n.E, 126, 194, 214
genocides, Rwanda, Serbia and Darfur, 217, 219
Gestalt psychologists, 79–80n.G, 84, 117n.E
self-control and, 138
goal-tracking (vs. sign-tracking), 48
The Godfather (movie), 102n.J
Go, game of, 78n.D
goldfish, reflex, 62–63
Golding, William, 219–220
Goodall, Jane, 120n.I, 206, 208
G-protein-coupled receptors, 244
GPS unit, 12, 73, 87, 134, 148, 249n.A
Grant, Peter, 63n.B
Grant, Rosemary, 63n.B
Guisewite, Cathy, 38
Guthrie, Edwin, 50
Gwynn, Tony, 103–104
habenula (brain structure), 31n.J
habits, 4, 44, 52, 84–86, 87, See also Procedural action-selection system
basal ganglia, 90–93
cerebellum, 95–96
creatures of habit, 87
learning, 87–90
self-control, stopping a habit, 39, 135, 137,
motor cortex, 93–95
half-life, 37n.B
hallucinations
migraine and fortification illusion, 164–166
visual cortex, 163–164
visual perception, 164f
Hamlet, Shakespeare, 111
hardware/software analogy, physical mind, 146–149
hazard function, 99
Hebb, Donald, 151, 260–261, 264, 268
Hebbian learning, 260–261
hemispatial neglect, 254–255
Hildegard von Bingen, 165
hippocampus (brain structure), 39, 79, 156, 201, 245, 256
Alzheimer’s disease, 90
epilepsy and, 150n.H
local field potential of, 250–251
place cells, 78, 101, 248–249, 268
water maze, 107n.A
Hillel, Rabbi, 226
histones, DNA, 146n.B
Historical Dynamics, Turchin, 223
The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, Adams, 208n.C, 228n.B
H.M., 150–152, 155, 157, 169, 255
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 225n.N
homunculus fallacy, 70n.E
Hooke, Robert, 85
Hopfield network, 261–263
horse-and-rider analogy, 4, 70–71, 133–134, 234, 237
humans
ambiguity, 127–128
creatures of habit, 87
difference from animals, 205–209
recording spikes from, 251–252
social interactions, 116, 119–120
Huntington’s disease, 90, 123,
hypnosis, 6
hypothalamus (brain structure), 25, 67, 67n.B, 68, 118, 178
hypothetical constructs, 180n.B
IACUC (internal animal care and use committee), 39n.D
illusion
detecting movement, 100–101
free will, 227–228
illusion of control
generating randomness, 186–187
recognizing patterns, 187–189
imagination
brain manipulation, 168–170
counterfactual, 6,
decoding in animals, 50,
memory and, 152
mental imagery, 166–167
implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD), one-trial learning, 108
impulsivity, 22,
acting too quickly, 39–40
addiction and, 176f, 180n.B, 181, 182
inability to wait for rewards, 37–39
risk-seeking behavior, 35–37
incentive salience, 123
indexed memory, 55
infralimbic cortex (brain structure), 32, 40, 140,
information theory, 85–86. 241–242, 242n.D. 259–260, See also integrating information
algorithms, 86
computer revolution, 241–242
decoding, 6, 49, 50, 94, 167–168
gathering, 129
inadequacy of computer analogy for brain, 146–149
journey from sensory to motor, 245–246
memory, 244–245
neuron’s spiking patterns, 247–249
processing in neurons, 243–244
tuning curves, 247–249
in-group altruism, 223–224
inhibitory synapses, 243–244
insula (brain structure), 69, 69n.I, 72, 120, 224,
instrumental learning, 46–47n.C
integrating information
experts and speed-accuracy tradeoff, 103–105
integration-to-threshold model, 99, 100f
parallel and serial perception, 102–103
perceptual recognition, 97–98
race-to-threshold models, 98–101
integration-to-threshold model, 99, 100f
interference,
cognitive in Stroop task, 135
memories, 156
International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10), 173, 199n.A
Internet, 190n.E
intrinsic reward functions, 3, 57–58, 129, 178, 191
motivation, 113–121
introspection, 84
psychology, and, 79–80n.G
intuition, 104
The Invisible Hook, Leeson, 220, 224
ion channels, 229–230n.E, 242, 242–243n.E
Ionesco, Eugene, 111
irrationality, 3, 16, 20, 136, 215n.D, 237
jellybeans, parable of, 7–8, 38, 135
Jeopardy (TV show), 147
Kahneman and Tversky Asian Flu example, 16
Kepler, Johannes, 234
King, Martin Luther, 172, 217, 233
King Lear, Shakespeare, 111
Korsakoff’s syndrome, 151
Krapp’s Last Tape, Beckett, 111
Ku Klux Klan, 217
language
children learning, sensitive period, 155
effect of categorization, 68, 265–267
Japanese and English, 264–266
learning from others, 49n.E, 130
Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, 266–267
sensitive period,
large amplitude irregular activity (LIA), 250
lateral inhibition, 153
lateral intraparietal sulcus (LIP), 100–101
Lawrence, T. E., 46
Lawrence of Arabia, Lean, 46, 62
learning
counterfactuals, 6–7
exploration, 125–126
from others, 129–131
habits, 87–90
instrumental, 46–47n.C latent, 77
narrative and literature, 130–131 new tasks with different brain structures, 149–152, 149–153
reinforcement, 26–28
sequential serial reaction time (SSRT) task, 89–90
legal system, question of blame, 231–233
A Leg to Stand On, Sacks, 6
lesion studies, 48, 69, 107n.C, 140, 149–150, 159, 254–255
LFP, See local field potential
life cycle, exploration and exploitation, 131–132
LIP, See lateral intraparietal sulcus
literature learning from others, 130–131
narrative and, 111–112
local field potential (LFP), 158n.K, 250–251, 268
Lord of the Flies, Golding, 219–220
Lord of the Rings, Tolkien, 111
Lorenz, Edward, 229n.D
MacBeth, Shakespeare, 130n.I
machine-learning, 125–126, 126n.B, 131–132
Magliozzi, Tom and Ray, 11–12
Man and Superman, Shaw, 213
Mandelstam, Osip, 172
market
drugs, 172–173
marshmallow task, 8, 134, 136, 138
medial forebrain bundle (brain structure), 24–25, 169
stimulation, 24
melatonin, 24n.B
memory, 244–245
as categorization, 152, 263–267
as pattern completion, 261–263
content-addressable vs. indexed, 55, 239–240, 260–261
episodic, 49, 77, 196–197, 207
flashbulb, 194–195
from episodic to semantic, 196–197
interference, 156
out of context, 195–196
procedural, 150
prospective, 76n.B
transferring, 146–147, 155–159
working memory, 76n.B, 78, 83–84, 140
Men in Black (movie), 53
mental imagery
brain manipulation, 168–170
imagination, 166–167
measuring, 167–168
methamphetamine, 172
microsaccades, 5
A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Shakespeare, 111, 130n.I
migraine, fortification illusion, 164–166
Milgram obedience experiment, 218–219
mind. See physical mind
Minneapolis, 35W bridge collapse, 88, 220
Minority Report (movie), 233
mirror neurons
imagination, 166–167
learning from others, 130
The Mismeasure of Man, Gould, 214
Mississippi River, 35W bridge collapse, 88, 220
Molaison, Henry (H.M.), 150–152, 155, 157, 169, 255
money, valuation, 15–16, 114n.B
monkeys 6, 30, 37, 81–82, 115, 129, 135, 140, 155, 157,
Japanese macaque, sweet-potato washing, 206–207
learning from others, 130, 167
measuring mental imagery, 167–169, 257
observing dots on a screen, 100–101, 169, 257
prefrontal cortex, 69n.B
Vervet, lying, 208
working for tokens, 19
cooperation and defection, 221–224
creation of communities, 58n.N, 220–226
description and prescription, 116n.D, 211–217
economics, 215–217
efficiency and, 215
fairness, 220–226
identification of evil, 217–220
non-zero-sum games, 72n.N, 221–224
philosophy, 213–214
religion, 212–213
Morris Water Maze, 107–108, 109
motion, detecting, 100–101
Motivation system, 56–58, 113–
motivation
desire for sex or children, 116–117
dysfunction, 51, 173–174, 176f,
food, water and sex, 57, 117–118
homeostasis, 56
human social interactions, 116, 119–120
intrinsic reward functions, 57, 115–121
learning what’s important, 57–58, 121–122
need and opportunity costs, 123–124
maternal and parental care, 117–119
Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer, 47–48, 121–122, 177
social rank, 119–120
unconditioned stimulus, 47
vigor, 123–124
Motor action/motor control system, 54
motor cortex (brain structure), 55, 93–95, 167, 169
Moulitsas, Markos, 102n.J
MST (brain structure), 101, 169
MT (brain structure), 100–101
muscle synergies, 54
myelinated nerve fibers, reflex, 62
naltrexone, 26
Narcotics Anonymous, 20n.C
n-armed bandit, 125
narratives, 56, 111–112, 130–131, 155, 186, 205, 207
Nash, John, 216n.F
Nash equilibrium, 216
natural selection theory, Darwin, 115
Nazis, 217
negative feedback, 9–10
neocortex 150n.H
replay in, 157
waves across, 161–162
neural stimulation, 169, 256–257
cortical, and memories, 169
disruption by, 158
collicular, 154
medial forebrain bundle stimulation, 24,
neuroeconomics, 202
neurons
information processing, 243–244
ion channels, 242–244
local field potentials (LFPs), 250–251
spiking patterns, 247–249
neurotransmitters, 93n.G
dopamine, 24–25, 29–30, 91–92, 93
noradrenaline / norepinephrine, 31n.J, 92–93
oxytocin, 118
serotonin, 92–93
Newell, Allen, 77, 80, 85, 86, 147, 148n.E
Newton, Isaac, 118n.G, 228, 229, 234
nicotine, addiction, 122, 178–179, 181
No Exit, Sartre, 111
non-overlapping magisteria (NOMA), 212
noradrenalin / norepinephrine, 31n.J, 92–93
novelty, 129,
nucleus accumbens, See ventral striatum
obesity, 191
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), 201
octopamine, 92
Odyssey, Homer, 205
one-trial learning, 108
operations research, 27, 27n.D
opportunity cost, 123–124
optimization functions, economics, 215–217
optogenetics, 256
orbitofrontal cortex (brain structure), 51, 79, 81, 82–83, 130
cocaine and, 82
Orwell, George, 267
out-group xenophobia, 223
override, decisions, 133
oxytocin, 118
chest, as heart attack vs. indigestion, 200–201, 200n.B
phantom limbs and, 153
parable of jellybeans, 7–8, 38, 135
Paradise Lost, Milton, 213
Parallel vs. serial processing, 102–103
Parkinson’s disease, 29–30, 90, 123, 159, 168, 190, 200, 256
passive altruism, 219–220
pattern completion, memory as, 261–263
pattern recognition, and gambling, 187–189
Patterson, Penny, 7n.C
Pavlov, Ivan, 26, 32, 46–47n.C
Pavlovian action-selection system, 4, 44, 46–48, 54, 58, 65–74
addiction, 173
animals and emotion, 73–74
perceptions and illusions, 71–72
Pavlovian learning and conditioning, 66–67
Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer (PIT), 47–48, 121–124, 177
specific, 122
general, 123–124
relation to motivation, 122–124
false positive vs. false negatives, 72
integrating over time, 97–98
language, and, 266–267
neural stimulation, and, 162, 169, 257
parallel and serial, of information, 102–103
signal detection and, 72–73
thermostat’s perception of temperature, 10
periaqueductal gray (brain structure), 67, 67n.C, 201
personality, ix, 12, 36, 69, 228, 230
phantom limb, 153–154
philosophy, morality, 213–214
physical action system, 53–54
physical mind, ix, 26, 145–146, 159, 170
craving, 179
consciousness, 234–235
hallucinations, and, 161–162
imagination, and, 162–163, 248
learning new tasks with different brain structures, 149–152
removing brain structures, 151, 254
software/hardware analogy, 146–149
transferring memories from one part of brain to another, 155–159
PIT, See Pavlovian-to-Instrumental transfer
pineal gland (brain structure), 68
Descartes, René, and, 68, 230, 249
pituitary gland (brain structure), 67
place cells, 50, 101, 157, 248–249, 268
pleasure/euphoria, 23
vs. sensation, 23–24
politics, 207, 212, 212n.B, 223,
primate behavior, 120n.I,
tribalism, 207n.A
polymorphisms, genetic, 92, 92n.E
positron emission tomography (PET), 252, 253
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 159, 193–197
fear associations, 195
flashbulb memories, 194–195
episodic and semantic memory, 196–197
memories out of context, 195–196
symptoms of, 193–194
treatment, 197
precommitment, 38–39, 136, 182
precursors, pharmacology, 24n.A
preference reversal, 38–39
prefrontal cortex (brain structure), 139–141, 201, 231
prescription vs. description, 211–212
Principia Mathematica, Russell, 147
prism experiment,
cerebellum and, 95–96
owls, 154–155
prisoner’s dilemma, 216–217, 221
negative version, 221f
positive version, 222f
Procedural system, 87–96
action-selection, 3, 4, 44, 51–53, 58, 71, 77, 152, 237–239
basal ganglia, 90–93
cerebellum, 95–96
gambling, 189
intuition and, 104
motor cortex, 93–95
sleep and consolidaiton, 158n.J
Tolman and Hull, 84–85
progressive ratio, measuring value, 19
prosopagnosia, 102n.J
psychiatry
computational, 180n.B, 199–202
mechanisms and causes, 200–201
psychopathy, 201
PTSD, See post-traumatic stress disorder
punishment
altruistic, 72–73n.N, 224–225, 232–233
aversion, 30–32
gambling, and, 189–190
Purkinje cells (in cerebellum), 95
putamen (brain structure), 53
quantum randomness, relation to free will, 148, 229–231, 235
R2D2 (Star Wars), 11
race-to-threshold models, integrating information, 98–101
randomness, gambling, 186–187
rank, social interactions, 119–120
Rapoport, Anatol, 222
rationalization, decision-making, 4–6, 7
rats, 6, 7, 20, 25, 30, 39, 107–108, 135, 137, 149–150, 201, 205, 206, 249
can represent counterfactuals, 6
emotion, 73
episodic future thinking, 49–51, 82–84, 207
fear conditioning, 39–40
latent learning, 81
replay, 157–159
reward, 81–82
uncertainty, 127
sign-trackers and goal-trackers, 48
Rawls, John, 214
recording cells from human patients, 251–252
recognition
parallel and serial perception, 102–103
pattern, for gambling, 187–189
situation, 54, 55–56, 107–109, 110–111
decision-making system (Reflex System), 46, 61–63
self-control of, 140–141
aversion and disappointment, 30–32
euphoria vs., 24–25
learning, 108–109
reinforcement learning algorithms, 27, 30
relapse, addiction, 71, 109, 138, 175, 179–181
relief (lack of expected punishment), 30, 32–34, 129
religion, morality, 212–213
replay, hippocampal and cortical, 157, 158, 158n.J
replicants (Blade Runner), 11, 69, 70, 236
Rescorla–Wagner model, 27–28
response set, 65–66
retina, 5, 5n.B, 97, 102, 162–163, 168, 245, 248, 267
implants and stimulators, 168, 257
revealed preferences, 7, 15–16, 81
reversal learning, uncertainty, 127
reward
euphoria, 32f
intrinsic reward functions, 3, 57–58, 129, 178, 191
preference reversal, 38
waiting for a, 37–39
Rhinoceros, Ionesco, 111
rhythmic slow activity (RSA), See theta rhythm
balancing with reward, 35–27
emotional effects on, 73
over the lifespan, 128–129
losses and gains, 16–17
risk-seeking behavior, 35–37
Ritalin, ADHD and, 202
robotics, 58, 114, 125–126, 235
subsumption architecture, 54n.J, 140
Rodin’s The Thinker, 262, 262f
Rolling Stones, 175
Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare, 130n.I
RSA, See theta rhythm Rumsfeld, Donald, 127
St. Hildegard von Bingen, 165
St. Petersburg paradox, 114n.B
Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, 266–267
Sartre, Jean-Paul, 111
Saving Private Ryan (movie), 102n.J
schadenfreude, 130
schema, 76, See also script
Schindler’s List (movie), 131n.I
schizophrenia, 56, 75n.A, 180, 201, 244
Scoville, William, 150–151
script, 110–111, See also schema
search,
animals and, 32, 33, 78–79, 83, 86, 206–207
artificial intelligence and, 77–79, 80, 86, 104, 147
computational complexity and, 50
computers, 50
foraging, 115
perceptual, 102–103
deliberation, 51–52, 58, 75–77
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), 202
as a conflict between modules, 134
attention and distraction, 136
glucose theory, 138–139
neurophysiology of willpower, 138–139
prefrontal cortex, 139–141
religion and, 213n.C
studying, in laboratory, 134–137
semantic knowledge, 56
semantic memory, 77, 152, 155–156, 196–197
sensitive period, 155
sensory perception, 54–55
as interpretation, 72
as signal-detection, 72
color, 267
neural signals as, 162, 169, 257
of thermostats, 10
sequential serial reaction time (SSRT) task, 89–90
serial vs. parallel processing, 102–103
set-point, thermostat, 10
sex addiction, 190–191
Shakespeare, William, 111
Shannon, Claude, 85, 241–242, 243
Shaw, George Bernard, 213
shell shock, 193
Sid and Nancy (movie), 181
signal detection, 72
sign-tracking (vs. goal-tracking), 48
Simon, Herb, 21, 77, 80, 85, 86, 147, 148n.E
situation (vs. stimulus), 28n.E
situation-action (S–A), 28n.E, 88–89, 96
situation recognition, 33, 55–56, 109–111
changes change decisions, 182, 238
errors of, 173, 176f, 186, 188
one-trial learning, 108
reinforcement learning, 108–109
Situation-recognition System, 45, 55–56
skin-conductance response (SCR), 67
Skinner, B. F., 26, 76, 85, 188
sleep,
consolidation, memory, 157
dreams, 158–159
replay of memory during, 157–158
Smith, Adam, 113
smokers and smoking, 6, 10, 19, 89, 122, 172, 175, 178–179, 181,
somatosensory cortex (brain structure), 153
social interactions, humans, 65, 72, 116, 119–120, 212, 225
social phobia, 201
sociobiology, 116
software/hardware analogy, physical mind, 146–149
soldiers, 217
Pavlovian conditioning and, 195
Procedural learning and, 52, 235
PTSD, and, 193–194, See also post-traumatic stress disorder
somatic marker hypothesis, 74
somatosensory cortex, 152, 153
Song of Myself, Whitman, 4
Speaker for the Dead, Card, 207
speed-accuracy tradeoff, experts and, 103–105
Spielberg, Steven, 130n.I
spike, See action potential
sports/athletics, 52, 89, 119, 187, 235, 237–238
Star Trek: The Next Generation, 11, 236
Star Wars, 11
Stephenson, Neal, 98n.D, 235, 242n.C
Stevenson, Robert Louis, 182
stimulation, brain, 24, 154, 168–170, 256–257
stimulus-response theory, action-selection, 51–53, 58–59
stimulus set, 28n.E
stop-signal task, 134–135, 140–141
stories
narrative and literature, 111–112
situation recognition, 108–109, 110–111
striatum (brain structure), 91f, 140
caudate, 53
dorsal, 53
putamen, 53
ventral, 51, 81–83, 120, 224–225
stretch-attend posture, 201
stroke, 254–255, 254n.F, Stroop task, 134–135, 137
substantia nigra (brain structure), 24, 24n.B, 190
subsumption architecture, 54n.J, 140
subthalamic nucleus (brain structure), 135, 140, 256
sugar and sweetness, 20, 25, 26, 38, 136, 138, 191
suicide
depression and, 202
hotlines, 20n.C
support systems, 53–58
motivation, 56–58
perception, 54–55
recognizing the situation, 55–56
taking a physical action, 54
Surely You’re Joking, Mr. Feynman, Feynman, 6
synapse, 156, 230n.E, 243, 244, 245, 260–263
synesthesia, 153–154
Taoism, 213
taxes,
cooperation and, 219, 222–223, 225n.N
elasticity, sin taxes, and, 19, 172
teenager, exploration and exploitation changes over the lifecycle, 36, 131–132, 182
temporal difference reinforcement learning, 27
Tetris (videogame), 159
thermostat, as a decision maker, 9–11
The Thinker, Rodin, 262
Thorndike, Edward, 26
TMS, See transcranial magnetic stimulation
tic-tac-toe, 216f
Tolkien, J. R. R., 111
Tolman, Edward, 50, 51, 76, 77, 81, 84–86
tone-fear conditioning, 40
Trainspotting (movie), 181
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), 255, 256n.H
transcription factors, DNA, 146n.B
trans-disease processes, 180n.B
trichotillomania, 202
Truth and Reconciliation Commission, South Africa, 225
tuning curves, 152–153, 247–249
Turing, Alan, 85, 86, 98, 98n.D, 147, 148, 242
Turing Test thought experiment, 147–148
Tutu, Desmond, 225
Twenty Questions (game), 242
ultimatum game, 72n.N, 224–225
uncertainty, 36, 92, 126, 127–129
ambiguous or estimation, 127–128
expected, 127
unexpected, 127
unconditioned responses, 46–48, 58
unconditioned stimulus, 47–48
unexpected uncertainty, 127–129
unsupervised learning algorithms, 109, See also content-addressable memory
Utilitarianism, 213
value
complexity of calculating, 18, 20–22, 34, 49,
definition of, 15,
difference relative to pleasure, 23–24
revealed preferences, 15–16
value-prediction error, 28–30, 31n.I, 92–93
ventral striatum (brain structure, also known as nucleus accumbens), 51, 81–83, 120, 224–225
ventral tegmental area (brain structure), 24, 24n.B, 31n.I,
ventromedial prefrontal cortex (brain structure), 69
vicarious trial and error (VTE), 50–51, 83, 85, 201
Vico, Giambatista, 188
video games
addiction, 190–191
expertise, 104
Turing test and, 148n.D
vigor, role in motivation, 123–124
Parkinson’s disease and, 29n.H
visceral sensory system, 68
vision, 5, 102, 153, 162–166, 257, 266
visions, migraine auras, 165
visual aura, 164
visual cortex (brain structure)
hallucinations, 163–164
imagination, 166–167
neural activity, 161–163
patterns in, 164f
“visual noise” paradigm, 99–100
voting, elections, 17–18
VTE, See vicarious trial-and-error
vulnerability, 26
addiction, 173–175
treatment and, 180–182
Walking and Falling (song), 94–95
water maze, see Morris Water Maze
waves of activity through cortex, 162–166
Wernicke’s area, 255
Whitman, Walt, 4
Whorf, Benjamin, 266–267
Williams, Ted, 103–104
willpower. See self-control
wings, airflow, 11
winner-take-all network, 101, 153
wins and losses, gambling, 189–190
withdrawal, addiction, 92, 177–179
working memory, 75–76, 76n.B, 83–84
World War I, 193
World War II, 85, 98, 193, 212, 242
Zimbardo prison experiment, 218–219