Signaling Protection: The Use and Function of Color in Firefighter Clothing
Jessica F. Barker, Lynn M. Boorady, and Susan P. Ashdown
Chapter Summary. Firefighters wear protective clothing in the form of turnout gear in order to effectively perform their required duties. Color variations in turnout gear are used by firefighters to determine new members, rank, and/or a particular fire company; however, there is no uniform understanding of the use of color in turnout gear. In this study, firefighters preferred tan gear over other colors. Certain colors are preferred by individual firefighters based on functionality—ease in identifying soil or damage, perception of reflecting heat, and even the perception of level of experience. However, no studies have been performed that indicate that a particular color functions better than other available colors for turnout gear, and the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) does not recommend any particular color be used for turnout gear. Further studies are recommended in order to more fully understand the use of color in turnout gear.
Firefighters traditionally used their protective clothing as a last defense from fires, but as the structures and materials of buildings evolve, firefighters are increasingly fighting fires from inside rather than outside of buildings (Whitehead 2000). This shift in firefighting methods now puts firefighter gear as the first line of defense. It is critical that firefighter gear be as functional as possible, for both the firefighters wearing the gear and the public responding to the firefighter wearing the gear. Color is a key element of firefighter clothing for perceptual meaning for both the firefighter and the public and to fill functional needs of visibility and identification while fighting fires. Black and tan, as shown in Plate 16, are two common colors for turnout gear. In this example, two firefighters from different stations are performing an extrication exercise. Plate 17 shows yellow turnout gear, another common color, worn during a live fire exercise.
Each firefighting station, whether a municipal department of professional firefighters, or a volunteer station, chooses its turnout gear colors individually, so there are vast differences in gear colors chosen from department to department. The color of firefighter gear chosen by a department may reflect historical imperatives of the department and the overall firefighting occupation. Fire departments and individual firefighters spend a substantial amount of money procuring turnout gear. Economic considerations often inform choices, especially for smaller volunteer fire departments. In these circumstances, more emphasis is usually placed on cost when departments select color of firefighter gear, rather than other factors such as department traditions. In situations where economic considerations are not as critical, specific colors may be preferred based on departmental traditions and occupational culture. Yet no studies or recommendations for manufacturers and fire departments were found to aid firefighters in the selection of appropriately colored turnout gear. The aim of this study is to identify how the color of firefighter gear can affect the gear’s function, as well as possible impacts of color on the wearer’s perceptions of the gear and the viewer’s perceptions of the firefighter wearing the gear.
FUNCTIONAL ROLE OF COLOR IN FIREFIGHTING
The functional role of color in firefighting is pervasive. Color serves as a signal for a variety of information, including signage for water pressure levels of fire hydrants, flammable substances that are present at fire scenes, and even fire truck functions (Margrain, Birth, and Owen 1996). Much research has been done on the use of color to create higher visibility for fire trucks, through either base colors or contrasting reflective colored striping on the truck (Solomon and King 1995).
Fire departments use clothing color to differentiate between or create unity among firefighters. For instance, within a department, color variations in coats, pants, helmets, and/or positioning of contrasting reflective tape located on the helmet, coat, and pants can be used to signify the fire chief, firefighter rank, new recruits, or even companies of firefighters assigned to certain trucks. Distinguishing members among and within different firefighter departments can be an issue particularly if the department responds to fires regularly where other fire departments may also be responding. All firefighters within one department may wear identical turnout gear to more readily recognize each other, and may choose color to distinguish themselves from other local fire departments.
The color of firefighter gear can be constrained by material properties that limit the colors that can be achieved in the functional materials used to provide protection. The natural color of Kevlar 149, a para-aramid fiber that is the predominant fiber in many uniforms, is a deep gold color. Yarns and woven fabrics of Kevlar cannot be readily dyed, but different varieties of Kevlar are naturally colored differently (bright yellow, sage green, royal blue, midnight black). However, each Kevlar variety also has different strength and durability properties that may make them less desirable in firefighter turnout gear (Kadolph and Langford 2002; Yang 1993). This limits the range of colors available for firefighter gear and creates cost variations between colors. Similar problems exist with Nomex fabrics. Generally the highly crystalline nature of these materials makes them difficult to dye using conventional dyeing processes (Hodge and Dodgson 1991).
PERCEPTUAL ROLE OF COLOR IN FIREFIGHTING
The relationship between firefighters and the public is important, not only because firefighters are supported with public tax revenues, but also as the firefighter needs to have authority and to be able to elicit cooperation from the public in stressful situations. It is not known whether color of uniform can help or hinder this relationship, but the fact that people respond differently to different colors is well documented.
Research shows that colors invoke specific and consistent emotions in people and that these emotions can change as people age. A study of color-emotion linkages in adults found that bright colors (e.g., white, pink, red, yellow, blue, purple, green) produced more positive responses than dark colors (e.g., brown, black, gray) (Hemphill 1996). Clarke and Costall’s (2008) investigation of emotional connotations of color also found that black and brown were viewed negatively. Of adult participants, 69 percent associated black with evil, malice, and death, while light, bright colors invoked positive emotions, such as happiness and pleasure. Terwogt and Hoeksma (2001) evaluated color preferences and emotions associated with colors for children aged seven and eleven years and adults. For adults and eleven-year-old children, black was most often associated with fear and was the least preferred color for all ages. In seven-year-old children, black was associated with anger and white was most commonly associated with fear. For all ages, blue was the most preferred color. Adults and eleven-year-olds also indicated a strong preference for red, as well, while seven-year-olds had a stronger preference for yellow. Other studies have documented that younger children are most attracted to yellow (Khambata 1967) and relate light colors with positive emotions and dark colors with negative emotions (Boyatzis and Varghese 1994).
These findings related to studies of color as an abstract concept may not apply specifically in real-world uses of color in clothing. However, others have studied how people respond to color and color perceptions of uniforms in a variety of situations, such as policing and athletics, that show some similar findings. In a study of police uniform color (Johnson 2005), black police uniforms were rated the most negatively when viewers were presented with four variations in uniform color (light blue shirt/navy pants, white shirt/navy pants, black shirt/black pants, and tan shirt/tan pants). A study of athletic uniform colors shows that athletes in black uniforms are perceived by viewers as meaner than those in other colors, while red-uniformed athletes are perceived as stronger (LeMaire et al. 2007). Similarly, Frank and Gilovich (1988) found that professional sports teams in black uniforms were penalized more frequently and harshly by referees than sports teams in white uniforms. Further, athletes wearing black uniforms behaved more aggressively than those in nonblack uniforms.
METHODS
Focus group interviews of firefighters were conducted to determine firefighter gear color selections and how such color selections affect perception and function of the gear. Participants included eighty-nine career and volunteer firefighters from fourteen different fire departments, both urban and rural. Information was also collected on purchasing decisions. Focus group data were analyzed using content analysis and thematic analysis methods.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Manufacturers commonly provide turnout gear in the following colors: yellow, gold, tan, red, blue, navy, and black (Globe n.d.; Lion n.d.; Veridian Limited n.d.). Among the fourteen fire departments represented, the firefighters reported wearing turnout gear colors of tan, black, and yellow, with tan as the most commonly worn color. Ten departments used tan turnout gear, two wore yellow gear, and one wore black gear. Sales data from manufacturers indicates a recent shift from tan gear to gold gear as the most popular color choice among fire departments, with black being the second most popular color choice (J. Mason, Product Manager of Uniforms, Lion Apparel, personal communication, December 6, 2010; B. Van Lent, President and Owner, Veridian Limited, personal communication, December 2, 2010). Among the departments participating in our study, gear color choices represented past color trends, most likely because the departments had not made recent purchases of new gear.
Color Function in Firefighter Clothing
Although this study reflects a small sample of firefighters, participants perceive functional impacts on turnout gear based on color, citing issues around visibility of dirt allowing for easier and less damaging cleaning of the gear, thermal effect of color, and enhancement of their visibility at night. Other functional purposes of gear color can be to relay information among firefighters, including rank, experience, and/or designation of members of specific truck companies or fire departments.
Of the gear colors represented in our study, the tan color was viewed most positively by the firefighters. Participants wearing tan gear indicated that the color was one of the better features of the gear. One functional property of this color that firefighters commented on was that lighter colors made it easier to see dirt and blood, thus allowing them to spot clean the gear as necessary rather than laundering the entire gear set. Firefighters wearing black gear reported having to wash their gear more frequently to keep it clean, since they couldn’t see spots and therefore couldn’t remove dirt from specific areas. Cleaning the whole gear more frequently resulted in more rapid deterioration of the gear.
Firefighters viewed the black gear as more problematic than the tan or yellow from a functional perspective. One functional issue cited relates to the thermal properties of color, in this case the fact that darker colors absorb heat, and lighter colors reflect heat. Those firefighters who hadn’t worn black gear expressed concern it would be too hot, and those wearing black gear confirmed that they felt hotter in black gear over lighter colors. Testing of the functional properties of firefighter gear related to color is limited. Given the fact that the uniform has many layers of thermal protection, it is not clear whether the small differences in thermal load due to the use of different colors would be significant. It is possible that the perception of black uniforms as being hotter to wear could be only a perceptual issue. Testing of the thermal properties of sets of gear that differ only in color could resolve whether this is the case.
Firefighters wearing black gear felt there were visibility issues with black gear, particularly at night. Even though all gear must have a certain amount of reflective tape, regulated by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA),1 reflective properties are often diminished by repeated washing or residual dirt and soot from fighting fires that builds up on the tape. Participants expressed concern that the darker color in combination with the reduction in reflection of the tape would greatly reduce their visibility as compared to lighter, brighter gear colors.
Wearer Perception of Firefighter Clothing Color
Although two departments currently wore yellow gear, responses of firefighters from other departments indicated that they felt that yellow gear was too bright to be acceptable. They cited a cultural stigma in firefighting against having bright, clean gear, which signals to other firefighters a lack of experience in live fires. Firefighters who received both tan and yellow gear believed that wearing new tan gear was more socially acceptable than wearing new yellow gear because the tan color appeared to be soiled even when new as compared to the yellow gear, which was more apparently clean and unused.
Despite the negative functional issues firefighters experienced with black gear, participants from three departments reported an aesthetic preference for black gear. The reason given for this preference was an aspiration to resemble New York’s Fire Department (NYFD). A recent increase in the use of black turnout gear by some volunteer firefighter participants was attributed to a desire to show support for this fire department, in particular to honor the hundreds of NYFD firefighters who lost their lives on 9/11. One career department in our study switched to black gear shortly after 9/11, but stated the change was made due to more economical pricing of the black gear.
Previous research shows that black uniforms are viewed more negatively by people than light-colored uniforms, in a variety of situations, thus implying that the public may respond better to firefighters in lighter turnout gear. Further, our findings show that many firefighters had concerns specific to black gear. Given these factors, the popularity of black turnout gear by some firefighters is somewhat puzzling. The reason may lie in the psychological profile of the men and women who become firefighters. U.S. firefighters tend to be conservative, and reluctant to change traditional gear. For example, recent developments in European firefighter uniforms and helmets that are more form fitted and have functional advantages are generally rejected by U.S. firefighters. This can be due to two different factors: the desire to maintain their traditional image, and the fact that they feel comfortable in the uniform they currently wear—they know and trust its functions and limitations. Changing to a new uniform, that must protect you from life-threatening conditions, is as not as simple as deciding on a new dress fashion.
Viewer Perception of Firefighter Clothing Color
Although firefighters in this study preferred tan gear, yellow gear may create a more positive public perception of firefighters than either tan or black gear. Adults may respond more positively to firefighters in lighter, brighter gear than those in darker gear. Research indicates that people of all ages associate dark colors with negative emotions (Boyatzis and Varghese 1994). Fear and anger are common emotions connected with the color black (Terwogt and Hoeksma 2001), and shades of brown (such as tan) also create negative responses (Palmer and Schloss 2010). Lighter, brighter colors in clothing invoke more positive emotions (Clarke and Costall 2008; Hemphill 1996) and perceptions of the wearer, particularly in uniforms (Johnson 2005; LeMaire et al. 2007), than dark-colored clothing.
Research also shows that children are highly attracted to yellow and even prefer this color (Boyatzis and Varghese 1994; Khambata 1967). A study of the response of young children to firefighters in yellow gear would be of interest given these results. Children may be more attracted to firefighters in lighter-colored gear than firefighters in darker-colored gear. Children are often frightened of firefighters when they are dressed in turnout gear (Saunders 2004). They may be less likely to hide from firefighters in light gear trying to help them escape a fire than those firefighters wearing dark gear.
CONCLUSIONS
The results of this study indicate that many firefighters prefer the tan-colored gear over the yellow or black gear. The black gear is perceived by these firefighters as hot and difficult to clean, and the yellow gear carries a negative stigma associated with gear that looks too new, indicating an inexperienced firefighter.
The NFPA currently regulates reflective materials on firefighter gear to ensure that a firefighter who is in trouble can be found by other firefighters, and so that firefighters working together in different conditions can be aware of each other’s locations. It is possible that color could also play a role in these situations, yet no consideration has been made to the impact of color on firefighter gear performance. Further, there is no common understanding of the use of color of turnout gear or standard use of color to signify rank or experience, which could create confusion and identification challenges when multiple fire departments are brought in to deal with one situation. The development of performance specifications instead of specific regulations in this case may foster more creative and effective solutions to these problems.
Given these factors, the lack of color recommendations, and the desire of different firefighter departments to distinguish themselves from others (or to associate themselves with others, such as is shown by firefighters emulating the NYFD), the color variations exhibited by different firefighting units will probably continue. However, testing of the perception and functional properties of different colors of uniforms would give firefighters useful information for making decisions about the color of their gear. It is especially recommended that children’s perceptions of and response to firefighters in different gear color be evaluated, to determine if children are less likely to hide from firefighters wearing certain colors. By determining if one color of firefighter gear will create more positive responses than another, guidelines for future selection of gear color can be developed for fire departments.
NOTE
1. The firefighter gear is required to have fluorescent and retroreflective tape that meets certain visibility requirements. The minimum fluorescent surface allowed is 50 mm2/linear mm (2 in.2/linear in.) for all required trim. The reflective trim must be a minimum of 2 inches wide and be circumferential around each sleeve within 2 inches of the sleeve hem and another band within 1 inch of the coat hem. A horizontal band must be on the coat front at chest level within 3 inches of the sleeve at the underarm seam. The back of the coat may have either a horizontal band at the upper back or two vertical bands on the right and left sides, perpendicular to the coat hem. The trousers must have circumferential bands on both legs between the hem and knee area. Regulations also state the minimum gap in reflective tape due to elements that interfere with the application of the tape (i.e., zippers). National Fire Protection Association, Standard on Protective Ensembles for Structural Fire Fighting and Proximity Fire Fighting, 2007 ed. (Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 2006), 24–25.
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