Notes

Preface

1. Ulysses S. Grant, Personal Memoirs, 2:489.

2. Dedication of the Monument on Boston Common Erected to the Memory of the Men of Boston Who Died in the Civil War, 126, 127, 133.

3. Ibid., 128, 135, 134, 136.

4. Gaines M. Foster, Ghosts of the Confederacy: Defeat, the Lost Cause, and the Emergence of the New South, 1865 to 1913, 39–41.

5. Richard N. Current, Lincoln’s Loyalists: Union Soldiers from the Confederacy. The book documents the organization of white Union regiments raised from Confederate states. On Georgia and South Carolina specifically, see pages 5, 217. For Confederate regiments and battalions organized by state, of which none hail from Northern states, see Claud Estes, List of Field Officers, Regiments and Battalions in the Confederate States Army, 1861–1865.

6. Mark A. Weitz, More Damning than Slaughter: Desertion in the Confederate Army.

7. Steven E. Woodworth, This Great Struggle: America’s Civil War, 312.

8. For example, in his Reminiscences, Union general and statesman Carl Schurz reflected on his encounter with droves of poor white Southern deserters during the Chattanooga campaign: “They had but a very dim conception, if any conception at all, of what all this fighting and bloodshed was about. They had been induced, or had been forced, to join the army by those whom they had been accustomed to look upon as their superiors. They had only an indistinct feeling that on the part of the South the war had not been undertaken and was not carried on for their benefit. There was a ‘winged word’ current among the poor people of the South, which strikingly portrayed the situation, as they conceived it to be, in a single sentence: ‘It is the rich man’s war and the poor man’s fight.’ This was so true that the poor whites of the South could hardly be expected to be sentimentally loyal to the ‘Southern cause.’” Carl Schurz, The Reminiscences of Carl Schurz, 3:70–71.

9. Hinton Rowan Helper, The Impending Crisis in the South, 32–33, 42, 94–95, 152–53.

10. William T. Auman, Civil War in the North Carolina Quaker Belt: The Confederate Campaign against Peace Agitators, Deserters and Draft Dodgers; Michael K. Honey, “The War within the Confederacy: White Unionists of North Carolina.”

11. George M. Frederickson, “Antislavery Racist: Hinton Rowan Helper.”

12. Henry Watterson, “The ‘Solid South’”; Hilary A. Herbert, “How We Redeemed Alabama.”

13. Catherine W. Bishir, “Landmarks of Power: Building a Southern Past, 1885–1915,” 10.

14. Colonel Alfred M. Waddell, Address at the Unveiling of the Confederate Monument at Raleigh, North Carolina, May 20th, 1895; Fred A. Bailey, “The Textbooks of the ‘Lost Cause’: Censorship and the Creation of Southern State Histories.”

15. Herbert, “How We Redeemed Alabama,” 862.

16. R. D. W. Connor, ed., North Carolina Manual, 219–20.

17. Raleigh News and Observer, February 5, 1928.

18. Gary W. Gallagher and Alan T. Nolan, eds., The Myth of the Lost Cause and Civil War History; David Blight, Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory; Caroline E. Janney, Remembering the Civil War: Reunion and the Limits of Reconciliation.

19. Goldwin Smith, “England and America,” 754.

20. Charles D. Drake, Union and Anti-slavery Speeches Delivered during the Rebellion, 137; (Senator Lot Morrill) Cong. Globe, 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1077 (1862); Amanda Foreman, A World on Fire: Britain’s Crucial Role in the American Civil War.

21. Don Harrison Doyle, Cause of All Nations: An International History of the American Civil War; Louise L. Stevenson, Lincoln in the Atlantic World, 1–2, 29, 207; Wayne H. Bowen, Spain and the American Civil War, 78–79; Howard Jones, Blue & Gray Diplomacy: A History of Union and Confederate Foreign Relations, 55, 280; Dean B. Mahin, One War at a Time: The International Dimensions of the American Civil War, 197–98; Allan Nevins, The War for the Union, 2:242.

22. William Howard Russell, My Diary North and South, 217.

23. Cong. Globe, 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1844 (1864).

Introduction

1. Aristotle, Politics, 3.6.1278b5–14, 4.11.1295a35–40. In this and all subsequent citations of the Politics, the locations of passages are identified using the standard numbering system of August Immanuel Bekker, in the following form: [book].[chapter]. [Bekker locator]. The author has relied on the translation into English by Carnes Lord.

2. Ibid., 3.1.1274b35–38, 7.4.1325b41–44.

3. Ibid., 1.1.1252a1–6, 4.11.1295a35–40, 7.1.1323a14–23, 7.8.1328b12–14.

4. Ibid., 3.9.1280a31–b40.

5. Ibid., 3.7–8.1279b1–20.

6. Ibid., 3.9.1280a7–25, 5.1.1301a27–37.

7. Carl Degler, Place over Time: The Continuity of Southern Distinctiveness; Avery O. Craven, The Growth of Southern Nationalism, 1848–1861; John McCardell, The Idea of a Southern Nation: Southern Nationalists and Southern Nationalism, 1830–1860; James M. McPherson, “Antebellum Southern Exceptionalism: A New Look at an Old Question.”

8. For many years, some scholars advanced the view that the American founding was a revival of classical republicanism. See Bernard Bailyn, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution; Gordon Wood, The Creation of the American Republic; and J. G. A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition. Another group of scholars advanced a contrary view, that the American founding established “liberalism,” or government guided and limited by the protection of liberal natural rights. See Joyce Oldham Appleby, Liberalism and Republicanism in the Historical Imagination; Jennifer Nedelsky, Private Property and the Limits of American Constitutionalism; and Isaac Kramnick, Republicanism and Bourgeois Radicalism: Political Ideology in Late Eighteenth-Century England and America. This debate has subsided, most scholars acknowledging the position best stated by Paul Rahe, that “the republicanism of the American founders was in most regards a liberal republicanism.” Paul Rahe, introduction to Machiavelli’s Liberal Republican Legacy, xx. This position, in short, was the position held by Harry Jaffa his entire career. Compare his Equality and Liberty and A New Birth of Freedom: Abraham Lincoln and the Coming of the Civil War.

9. Thomas Jefferson, The Works of Thomas Jefferson, 4:29. Jefferson cited Baron von Pufendorf’s De Officio Hominis et Civis Juxta Legem Naturalem; or, On the Duty of Man and Citizen according to the Natural Law.

10. Jefferson, Works of Jefferson, 9:106, 12:68; James Madison, The Writings of James Madison, 9:528.

11. Jefferson, Works of Jefferson, 9:195; John Adams, The Works of John Adams, Second President of the United States, with a Life of the Author, by His Grandson, Charles Francis Adams, 4:292.

12. Jefferson, Works of Jefferson, 3:319, 9:142, 143.

13. Virginia Constitutional Convention, Proceedings and Debates of the Virginia State Convention of 1829–1830, 53, 67, 321.

14. Erik Root, All Honor to Jefferson? The Virginia Slavery Debates and the Positive Good Thesis.

15. 8 Cong. Deb. 3280 (1832).

16. Aristotle, Politics, 3.9.1280a31–b40, 5.3.1303b7–17.

17. Ibid., 1.2.1252b25–27.

18. John Bailey Adger, A Review of Reports to the Legislature of SC, on the Revival of the Slave Trade, 3. Regarding the sectional division of the national church organizations before the Civil War, see Mitchell Snay, Gospel of Disunion: Religion and Separatism in the Antebellum South.

19. Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, The Federalist Papers, 271.

20. U.S. Constitution, Article IV, Section 4, Clause 1.

21. This is also verified by James Iredell in the debates of the ratification convention in North Carolina: “The meaning of the guaranty provided was this: There being thirteen governments confederated upon a republican principle, it was essential to the existence and harmony of the confederacy that each should be a republican government, and that no state should have a right to establish an aristocracy or monarchy. That clause was therefore inserted to prevent any state from establishing any government but a republican one. Every one must be convinced of the mischief that would ensue, if any state had a right to change its government to a monarchy. If a monarchy was established in any one state, it would endeavor to subvert the freedom of the others, and would, probably, by degrees succeed in it.” Jonathan Elliot, ed., The Debates in the Several State Conventions of the Adoption of the Federal Constitution, 4:195.

22. Hamilton, Madison, and Jay, The Federalist Papers, 75 (quote), 237 (quote), 72, 74, 71–72 (quote). See also Madison, Writings of Madison, 3:104, 5:126, 129, 197.

23. Thomas Jefferson reached the same conclusion: “Perhaps it will be found that to obtain a just republic . . . it must be so extensive as that local egoisms may never reach its greater part; that on every particular question, a majority may be found in its councils free from particular interests, and giving, therefore, an uniform prevalence to the principles of justice.” Jefferson, Works of Jefferson, 8:165.

24. Hamilton, Madison, and Jay, The Federalist Papers, 76, 95.

25. “Any state which is ruled by law I call a ‘republic.’ . . . All legitimate government is ‘republican.’ . . . A people, since it is subject to laws, ought to be the author of them.” Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract, 82–83. A people that submits to “laws made neither by themselves, nor by an authority derived from them, . . . are slaves.” Madison, Writings of Madison, 2:185. Jefferson assumes this rule in his criticism of British government in 1774. If the Parliament, responsible only to “160,000 electors in the island of Great Britain should give law to four millions in the states of America,” in substitution for American legislatures, the American people would discover that “instead of being a free people, as we have hitherto supposed, and mean to continue ourselves, we should suddenly be found the slaves, not of one, but of 160,000 tyrants.” Jefferson, Works of Jefferson, 2:73.

26. Madison, Writings of Madison, 9:430–31n.

27. Ibid., 430n.

28. John C. Calhoun, The Works of John C. Calhoun, 6:1–59.

29. Madison, Writings of Madison, 9:462, 521, 526.

30. James D. Richardson, ed., A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789–1897, 2:620, 621–22.

31. Ibid., 654 (emphasis in the original).

32. 9 Reg. Deb., 774 (1833), 1855–58 (1833). Blair referred to his class as a minority, but in the context it is clear that he means a constitutional minority (those who are enfranchised but lack numbers to control the administration of government). His class was a constitutional minority but a popular majority (a greater share of free persons). In oligarchic government, a popular majority is by definition a constitutional minority. See Madison, Writings of Madison, 9:527–28.

33. Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson, 3:35, 38, 41.

34. Richardson, Compilation of the Presidents, 2:631.

35. John Marshall, The Life of John Marshall, 4:556–57, 559, 576, 574. See also 569–70, 575–78.

36. Barron v. City of Baltimore, 32 U.S. 243 (1833); Brendan J. Doherty, “Interpreting the Bill of Rights and the Nature of Federalism: Barron v. City of Baltimore.” In a chapter titled “The Supreme Court’s Destruction of the Constitutional Limitations on State Authority,” William Crosskey concluded that Marshall’s opinion in Barron v. Baltimore “appears to have been a sham. And the decision of the Court, and the doctrine for which it stands, constitute, in fact, one of the most extensive and indefensible of all the various failures of the Court to enforce the Constitution against the states as the document is written.” William W. Crosskey, Politics and the Constitution in the History of the United States, 2:1081. More charitably, in sacrificing the republican liberty of Southern majorities, Marshall subordinated his jurisprudence to a high political concern, the survival of the Union upon which the survival of republican liberty for all depended.

37. Madison, Writings of Madison, 9:473, 5:23.

38. Fourteenth Amendment scholars who come closest to supporting this general view are Garrett Epps, Randy E. Barnett, Daniel S. Korobkin, and Michael Kent Curtis. See Garrett Epps, “The Antebellum Political Background of the Fourteenth Amendment” and Democracy Reborn: The Fourteenth Amendment and the Fight for Equal Rights in Post–Civil War America; Randy E. Barnett, “Whence Comes Section One? The Abolitionist Origins of the Fourteenth Amendment”; Daniel S. Korobkin, “Republicanism on the Outside: A New Reading of the Reconstruction Congress,” 494; and Michael Kent Curtis, No State Shall Abridge: The Fourteenth Amendment and the Bill of Rights.

39. See Richard E. Ellis, The Union at Risk: Jacksonian Democracy, States’ Rights, and the Nullification Crisis; and Paul Finkelman, “States’ Rights North and South in Antebellum America.”

40. In President Lincoln’s message to Congress in special session, July 4, 1861. See Abraham Lincoln, Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, 4:440.

41. Ibid., 426 (emphasis in the original).

42. James F. Rhodes, History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 to the McKinley-Bryan Campaign of 1896, 1:345.

43. Walter L. Fleming, Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama, 5.

44. Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard, The Rise of American Civilization: The Industrial Era. See also W. E. B. DuBois, Black Reconstruction in America; James S. Allen, Reconstruction: The Battle for Democracy.

45. John Hope Franklin, Reconstruction after the Civil War, 101, 219; Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877.

46. Fletcher Green, Constitutional Development in the South Atlantic States, 1776–1860: A Study in the Evolution of Democracy and “Democracy in the Old South”; Frank Owsley, Plain Folk of the Old South; Ralph Wooster, The People in Power: Courthouse and Statehouse in the Lower South, 1850–1860 and Politicians, Planters, and Plain Folk: Courthouse and Statehouse in the Upper South, 1850–1860; George M. Frederickson, The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817–1914; J. Mills Thornton, Politics and Power in a Slave Society: Alabama, 1800–1860.

47. Roger W. Shugg, Origins of Class Struggle in Louisiana: A Social History of White Farmers and Laborers during Slavery and after, 1840–1875; Steven Hahn, The Roots of Southern Populism: Yeoman Farmers and the Transformation of the Georgia Upcountry, 1850–1890; Charles C. Bolton, Poor Whites of the Antebellum South: Tenants and Laborers in Central North Carolina and Northeast Mississippi; Eugene Genovese, The Political Economy of Slavery: Studies in the Economy & Society of the Slave South, The World the Slaveholders Made: Two Essays in Interpretation, and The Slaveholders’ Dilemma: Freedom and Progress in Conservative Southern Thought, 1820–1860.

48. Aristotle, Politics, 1.1.1252a1–6, 3.6.1278b5–14, 3.7.1279a22–25, 4.1.1288b10–1289a25.

49. One notable exception is Paul Rahe, Republics Ancient and Modern, vol. 3.

50. Ulrich Phillips, American Negro Slavery: A Survey of the Supply, Employment and Control of Negro Labor as Determined by the Plantation Régime; Genovese, Political Economy of Slavery; Barrington Moore, Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World.

51. Louis Hartz, The Liberal Tradition in America; Robert W. Fogel, Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slavery; Roger L. Ransom and Richard Sutch, “Capitalists without Capital: The Burden of Slavery and the Impact of Emancipation”; James Oakes, The Ruling Race: A History of American Slaveholders; Edward Pessen, “How Different from Each Other Were the Antebellum North and South?”

52. Forrest A. Nabors, “How the Antislavery Constitution Won the Civil War.”

53. David Brion Davis, The Slave Power Conspiracy and the Paranoid Style; Michael F. Holt, The Political Crisis of the 1850s; William E. Gienapp, The Origins of the Republican Party, 1852–1856.

54. Manisha Sinha, The Counterrevolution of Slavery: Politics and Ideology in Antebellum South Carolina.

55. Root, All Honor to Jefferson?

56. William W. Freehling, Road to Disunion, vols. 1–2.

57. Donald E. Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic: An Account of the United States Government’s Relations to Slavery.

58. Leonard L. Richards, The Slave Power: The Free North and Southern Domination, 1780–1860.

59. Gary W. Gallagher, The Union War.

60. Epps, Democracy Reborn; Mark W. Summers, The Ordeal of the Reunion.

61. Rahe, Republics Ancient and Modern, 3:226.

62. Harry V. Jaffa, Crisis of the House Divided: An Interpretation of the Issues in the Lincoln-Douglas Debates and New Birth of Freedom.

63. Charles O. Lerche, “The Guarantee of a Republican Form of Government and the Admission of New States,” 580, 583.

64. In Federalist 14 and 39, Madison criticizes inaccurate usages of the term republican. In Federalist 39, he defines it. Hamilton, Madison, and Jay, The Federalist Papers, 95, 236–37. In 1794, when a member of the House of Representatives said that the word was “hackneyed” and indistinct, another member “felt himself extremely surprised to hear it asserted on the floor of Congress, that the words ‘Republican form of Government’ meant anything or nothing.” He then read the guarantee clause and maintained that “the words were well enough understood from one end of the continent to the other.” Madison then entered the discussion and averred that “the word [republican] was well enough understood” and repeated his definition given in Federalist 39. 4 Annals of Cong. 1022 (1794). In his influential book on the guarantee clause, constitutional historian William Wiecek obscures the founders’ American definition of republicanism, claiming that the meaning of the word republican is unclear and was unclear to the founders. William Wiecek, The Guarantee Clause of the US Constitution, 3–4, 12, 13. His quotes of Adams used to support his thesis are misrepresented and taken out of context. Adams was quite sure he knew what republican meant; criticized others’ inaccurate use of the term, as Madison did; and wished for greater specificity within the broad genus of republican, to clarify the meaning intended. Adams, Works of Adams, 10:377–78; John Adams, “The Correspondence between John Adams and Mercy Warren Relating to the ‘History of the American Revolution,’ July–August, 1807,” 352–53. If Wiecek is correct that Adams truly did not know what the word republican meant, it is bizarre that Adams accepted the commission of the Massachusetts convention, charging him and twenty-nine others to draft a new constitution for—in the language of the convention—“a FREE REPUBLIC.” Adams, Works of Adams, 4:215 (emphasis in the original).

65. Gaillard Hunt, The Life of James Madison, 75. This was a private note found with Madison’s papers after his death. It is readily conceded that Madison appears to contradict himself in his public writings, namely, Federalist 43, in which he says that all of the preexisting state constitutions are republican in form. But his language is careful; he is talking about the forms of the written constitutions or, in terms of this quotation from his private writing, governments that are “democratic in name” and not the forms of the actual governments, which are “aristocratic in fact” and become so when a republican constitution is combined with a high density of slaves. Hamilton, Madison, and Jay, The Federalist Papers, 271–72.

66. Aristotle claimed that some specific institutions alter the character of the regime because they tend to strengthen or weaken the participation of one part of political society in the regime. Aristotle, Politics, 2.9.1271a27–37, 4.9.1294a37–39. The effect of some institutions is so powerful that they revolutionize the character of a regime. See ibid., 2.12.1273b34–1274a11. The American founders (and the Republicans) recognized that the institution of domestic slavery reached this magnitude of potency.

67. Hunt, Life of Madison, 75.

Chapter 1. What Were They Reconstructing?

1. Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 5 (1865).

2. Ibid., 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 2 (1865); S. 5, 39th Cong. (1865).

3. S. 7, 39th Cong. (1865).

4. Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 2 (1865).

5. U.S. Congress, Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, xiii, xiv, ix.

6. Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 727 (1866).

7. Ibid., 739 (1866).

8. Ibid., 1304 (1866).

9. Ibid., appendix 105 (1866).

10. Ibid., 1280 (1866).

11. Ibid., 34th Cong., 3rd Sess. appendix 66 (1856).

12. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 571 (1860).

13. Ibid., 35th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 172 (1858).

14. Henry Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America, 2:673.

15. James M. Ashley, Duplicate Copy of the Souvenir from the Afro-American League of Tennessee, 46, 167, 490.

16. Isaac Newton Arnold, The History of Abraham Lincoln, and the Overthrow of Slavery, 41.

17. James G. Blaine, Twenty Years of Congress: From Lincoln to Garfield, 1:257.

18. John Sherman, John Sherman’s Recollections of Forty Years in the House, Senate and Cabinet, 2:949.

19. George W. Julian, Speeches on Political Questions, 67, 68.

20. Ashley, Duplicate Copy, 45–47.

21. Ibid., 47 (emphasis in the original).

22. Cong. Globe, 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 197 (1862).

23. Ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 299 (1864).

24. Ibid., 35th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 172 (1858).

25. Ibid., 35th Cong., 1st Sess. 1281–82 (1858).

26. Ibid., 1283.

27. Ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1230 (1864).

28. Henry Winter Davis, Speeches and Addresses Delivered in the Congress of the United States and on Several Public Occasions, 315, 313; Cong. Globe, 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1230 (1864).

29. Thaddeus Stevens, An Address Delivered on the Fourth of July, 1835, at an Anti-Masonic Celebration, 7 (emphasis in the original).

30. Cong. Globe, 35th Cong., 1st Sess. 1093 (1858).

31. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 2594 (1860).

32. Ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 2979 (1864).

33. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 1032 (1860).

34. Ibid., 1031.

35. Ibid., 1031–32.

36. Ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 36 (1861).

37. Ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. 3269 (1862) (emphasis in the original).

38. Ibid., 36th Cong., 2nd Sess. 585 (1861).

39. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 389–90 (1860).

40. Ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1077, 1075 (1862).

41. Ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 507 (1864).

42. Ibid., 2115.

43. James Abram Garfield, The Works of James Abram Garfield, 1:129.

44. Ibid., 142.

45. Cong. Globe, 34th Cong., 3rd Sess. appendix 66 (1856).

46. Ibid., 67.

47. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 594, 595–96 (1860).

48. Arnold, History of Abraham Lincoln, 39.

49. Ibid., 41.

50. Cong. Globe, 35th Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 197 (1859).

51. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 1031 (1860).

52. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 295 (1860).

53. Ibid., 36th Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 261 (1861).

54. Ibid., 261–62.

55. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 258 (1860).

56. Ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. 80 (1861).

57. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 374 (1860).

58. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 227 (1860).

59. Ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 329 (1862).

60. Ibid., 330.

61. Ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. 3269 (1862).

62. Ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1230 (1864).

63. Ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 329–30 (1862).

64. Ibid., 35th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 71 (1858).

65. Ibid., 40th Cong., 1st Sess. 102 (1867).

66. Ibid., 99 (1867).

67. George W. Julian, Political Recollections, 1840–1872, 296–97.

68. Julian, Speeches on Political Questions, 49, 68, 137, 152, 165, 207, 221, 224, 269, 409.

69. Ibid., 51.

70. Ibid., 51–52.

71. Ibid., 52 (emphasis in the original).

72. Ibid., 53, 54.

73. Ibid., 54–55.

74. Ibid., 55.

75. Ibid., 55–56.

76. Ibid., 56.

77. Ibid., 57.

78. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 3018 (1860).

79. Ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 506 (1864).

80. Ibid., 507.

81. Ibid., 2115.

82. Julian, Speeches on Political Questions, 221.

83. Ibid., 224–25.

84. Ibid., 152.

85. Ibid., 225.

Chapter 2. The Relationship of Slavery to Southern Oligarchy

1. Ashley, Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 1315 (1866); Higby, ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 2944 (1864); Davis, ibid., 38th Cong., 2nd Sess. 154 (1865); Drake, Union and Anti-slavery Speeches, 104.

2. 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 114–15 (1864).

3. Dred Scott v. Sandford, 60 U.S. 393 (1857).

4. George Boutwell, Speeches and Papers Relating to the Rebellion and the Overthrow of Slavery, 132.

5. Ibid., 133, 169–70.

6. Cong. Globe, 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 2104 (1864).

7. Ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. 440 (1862).

8. Ibid., 439 (emphasis in the original).

9. Ibid., 35th Cong., 1st Sess. 1349 (1858) (emphasis in the original).

10. Ibid., 1349, 1350.

11. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 2590, 2595 (1860).

12. Ibid., 2597–98.

13. James W. Patterson, 89th Anniversary of the National Independence, July 4, 1865, at Dover, N.H., 25.

14. Ibid., 24–25.

15. Cong. Globe, 35th Cong., 1st Sess. 1282–83 (1858).

16. Ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 932 (1864).

17. Ibid., 1233.

18. Ibid., 2976, 568.

19. Ibid., 31st Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 767 (1850).

20. Ibid., 34th Cong., 3rd Sess. appendix 68 (1857); ibid., 40th Cong., 2nd Sess. 2929 (1868).

21. Ibid., 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 180 (1866).

22. Ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1301 (1862).

23. Ibid., 35th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix, 172 (1858).

24. Ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 2109, 2948 (1864).

25. Ibid., 404.

26. Charles Sumner, The Works of Charles Sumner, 4:257–342.

27. Ibid., 5:8, 10, 9, 16.

28. Ibid., 8.

29. Ibid., 9, 10–11, 12, 13, 15.

30. Ibid., 15.

31. Ibid., 17, 18, 23–25, 26.

32. Ibid., 28.

33. Ibid., 28–29.

34. Ibid., 50–51.

35. Ibid., 51–52, 53, 54, 55, 56.

36. Ibid., 57, 58, 59, 61, 62.

37. Ibid., 64–65, 66.

38. Ibid., 66, 67, 68–84, 68.

39. Ibid., 84.

40. Ibid., 85–86.

41. Ibid., 97, 87.

42. Ibid., 95.

43. Ibid., 96.

44. Ibid., 87.

45. Ibid., 88–89.

46. Ibid., 89, 97–98.

47. Ibid., 90, 96, 91–92.

48. Ibid., 98, 92.

49. Ibid., 99, 100.

50. Ibid., 7, 101, 99, 101–2.

51. Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 1012 (1866).

52. Ibid.

53. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 373 (1860).

54. Ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 773 (1864).

55. Ibid., 1369.

56. Ibid., 35th Cong., 1st Sess. 752 (1858).

57. For example, see Daniel Gooch, May 3, 1864, 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 2070 (1864); Isaac N. Arnold, February 20, 1865, 38th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 68 (1865).

58. Ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. 859 (1862).

59. Ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 326 (1862); ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 422 (1860).

60. Ibid., 35th Cong., 1st Sess. 576 (1858); ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 2310 (1860).

61. Ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. 2246 (1862); ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 559, 685, 949 (1864).

62. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 593 (1860).

63. Ibid.; ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess., 858 (1862).

64. Ibid., 33rd Cong., 1st Sess. 282 (1854).

65. Ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 2014 (1864) (emphasis in the original).

66. Ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 186 (1862).

Chapter 3. The Origin of Southern Oligarchy

1. Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 1074 (1866).

2. Ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 182, 184 (1862).

3. Sumner, Works of Sumner, 10:138.

4. Blaine, Twenty Years of Congress, 2:200.

5. Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 707 (1866).

6. Ibid., 707, appendix 94.

7. Blaine, Twenty Years of Congress, 2:200; Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 705, appendix 94 (1866).

8. Sumner, Works of Sumner, 10:139 (emphasis in the original).

9. Ibid., 140, 141–42 (emphasis in the original).

10. Ibid., 143, 146.

11. Ibid., 153–54.

12. Ibid., 154–55.

13. Ibid., 172, 173.

14. Ibid., 174–75 (emphasis in the original).

15. Ibid., 176.

16. Ibid., 176–88.

17. Ibid., 188–96.

18. Ibid., 196.

19. Ibid., 196, 188.

20. Ibid., 176–77, 179, 182 (emphasis in the original).

21. Ibid., 208–11.

22. Ibid., 193, 234–35.

23. Cong. Globe, 36th Cong., 2nd Sess. 553 (1861); ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 2949 (1864); ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 557 (1860).

24. Ibid., 34th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 750 (1854).

25. Jehu Baker, Abridged Speech of Jehu Baker, Delivered at Alton, October 2, 1858, 4; Cong. Globe, 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 226 (1860).

26. Cong. Globe, 35th Cong., 1st Sess. 341, 343 (1858).

27. Ibid., 343–44.

28. Wilson, ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 569–71 (1860); Fenton, ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 822–24 (1860); Van Wyck, ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 1028 (1860); Doolittle, ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 104 (1860); Eliot, ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 257–58 (1860); C. C. Washburn, ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 267–68 (1860); Alley, ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 1886 (1860); Ashley, ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 102 (1862); Willey, ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1232–33 (1864).

30. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 733 (1860); ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1640 (1862); ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1320 (1864); ibid., 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 1012 (1866).

31. Ibid., 34th Cong., 3rd Sess. 60 (1856).

32. Shanks, ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 198 (1862); Wilson, ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 571 (1860); Fenton, ibid., 823 (1860); Wilson, ibid., 36th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1090 (1861); Lovejoy, ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1816 (1862); Willey, 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1233 (1864).

33. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 823 (1860).

34. Ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1753 (1864); ibid., 39th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 98 (1866).

35. Brown, ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1753 (1864); Rice, ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 206 (1862); Bingham, ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 436 (1860); Fenton, ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 823 (1860); Doolittle, ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 104 (1860); C. C. Washburn, ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess., appendix 267 (1860); Ashley, ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 102 (1862); Willey, ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1232–33 (1864).

36. Wilson, ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess., special sess. 569 (1860) (emphasis in the original); Collamer, ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 1055–6 (1860).

37. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 143 (1859); ibid., 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 1012 (1866).

38. Ibid., 34th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 750 (1856); Baker, Abridged Speech of Baker, 4 (emphasis in the original).

39. Cong. Globe, 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 257 (1860).

40. For example, Wilson, ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 569 (1860).

41. Quoted by Hale, ibid., 35th Cong., 1st Sess. 343 (1858); Willey, ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1233 (1864).

42. Ibid., 35th Cong., 1st Sess. 343 (1858).

43. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 823 (1860).

44. Ibid., 1028.

45. Ibid., 597, 1886, 2271; ibid., 37th Cong., 3rd Sess. 788 (1863); H. Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall, 1:22.

46. Arnold, History of Abraham Lincoln, 29; Hale, Cong. Globe, 35th Cong., 1st Sess. 344 (1858); Rollins, ibid., 37th Cong., 3rd Sess. appendix 145–46 (1863).

47. Hale, ibid., 35th Cong., 1st Sess. 344–45 (1858); Eliot, ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 257 (1860).

48. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 823 (1860).

49. Hale, ibid., 35th Cong., 1st Sess. 344 (1858); ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 732 (1860) (emphasis in the original).

50. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 1055 (1860).

51. Ibid., 2073; ibid., 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 1065 (1866).

52. Ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1753, 2978 (1864).

53. Ibid., 34th Cong., 3rd Sess. appendix 138 (1857).

54. Ibid., 38th Cong., 2nd Sess. 199 (1865); ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 2073 (1860)

55. Ibid., 34th Cong., 3rd Sess. 30 (1856); ibid., appendix 64 (1856); ibid., 36th Cong., 2nd Sess. 197 (1860).

56. Ibid., 38th Cong., 2nd Sess. 199 (1865).

57. Arnold, ibid., appendix 68; Hale, ibid., 35th Cong., 1st Sess. 343 (1858); Wilson, ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 570 (1860); Alley, ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 1886 (1860); Doolittle, ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 104 (1860); C. C. Washburn, ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 267 (1860); Farnsworth, ibid., 36th Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 119 (1861); Ashley, ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 102 (1862); Willey, ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1232 (1864).

58. Ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1640 (1862).

59. Ibid., 35th Cong., 1st Sess. 344–45 (1858); Baker, Abridged Speech of Baker, 4–5.

60. Cong. Globe, 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 100 (1860); ibid., 34th Cong., 3rd Sess. appendix 138 (1857) (emphasis in the original).

61. Bingham, ibid., 34th Cong., 3rd Sess. appendix 137 (1857); Eliot, ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 258 (1860).

62. Ibid., 36th Cong., 2nd Sess. 583 (1861).

63. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 2073 (1860).

64. Ibid., appendix 267; ibid., 38th Cong., 2nd Sess. 173 (1865); ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 2949 (1864).

65. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 570 (1860); ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 104 (1860); ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1233 (1864); ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 267 (1860); ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1232 (1864); ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 823 (1860); ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 104 (1860); ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 267 (1860).

66. Hale, ibid., 35th Cong., 1st Sess. 344 (1858); Wilson, ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 570 (1860); Fenton, ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 823 (1860); Alley, ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 1886 (1860); C. C. Washburn, ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 267 (1860); Wilson, ibid., 36th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1090 (1861); Lovejoy, ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1816 (1862); Ashley, ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 102 (1862); Willey, ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1232 (1864).

67. Ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 2978 (1864) (emphasis in the original); ibid., 38th Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 68 (1865); ibid., 38th Cong., 2nd Sess. 173, 138 (1865) (emphasis in the original); ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 2614 (1864); ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1368 (1864).

68. Ibid., 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 1230 (1866); ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1368 (1864); ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. 466 (1862).

69. C. C. Washburn, ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 267 (1860); Doolittle, ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 1629 (1860); Wilson, ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 2207 (1860); Henderson, ibid., 37th Cong., 3rd Sess. 353 (1863).

70. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 570 (1860).

71. Ibid., 1033; ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 325 (1862); ibid., 37th Cong., 3rd Sess. 1068 (1863); ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 403 (1864).

72. Ibid., 33rd Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 1014 (1854).

73. Ibid., 34th Cong., 1st Sess. 1404 (1856); ibid., 35th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 172 (1858); ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 36 (1862).

74. Garfield, Works of Garfield, 1:88–89; Cong. Globe, 38th Cong., 2nd Sess. 283 (1865).

75. Cong. Globe, 37th Cong., 3rd Sess. 353 (1863).

76. See H. Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall, 1:86–88.

77. Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 100, 1181 (1866); ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1971 (1864); ibid., 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 1225 (1866); ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 2614 (1864).

78. Ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1368 (1864).

79. Ibid., 1971.

80. Ibid., 1369; Arnold, History of Abraham Lincoln, 28.

81. Ibid., 34th Cong., 3rd Sess. appendix 51 (1856); ibid., 35th Cong., 1st Sess. 906 (1858); ibid., 34th Cong., 3rd Sess. appendix 137 (1857).

82. H. Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall, 1:35-37; Cong. Globe, 34th Cong., 3rd Sess. appendix 51 (1856).

83. Cong. Globe, 38th Cong., 2nd Sess. 284 (1865).

84. H. Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall, 1:35–37; Cong. Globe, 34th Cong., 3rd Sess. appendix 51 (1856).

85. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 302 (1860); ibid., 36th Cong., 2nd Sess. 196 (1861).

86. H. Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall, 1:36.

87. Cong. Globe, 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 2979 (1864); ibid., 38th Cong., 2nd Sess. 216–17 (1865).

88. Henry Deming, A Speech for the Useful Arts: Delivered at New Haven, January 2d, 1856, 20.

89. Cong. Globe, 38th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 117 (1864).

90. Arnold, History of Abraham Lincoln, 30.

91. Cong. Globe, 31st Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 142 (1850).

92. Arnold, History of Abraham Lincoln, 30; H. Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall, 1:118.

93. Blaine, Twenty Years of Congress, 1:20.

94. Cong. Globe, 33rd Cong., 1st Sess. 337 (1854).

95. Cong. Globe, 34th Cong., 3rd Sess. 63 (1856); Morton quoted in William Dudley Foulke, Life of Oliver P. Morton, 1:368.

96. Cong. Globe, 34th Cong., 3rd Sess. 63 (1856).

97. Ibid., 33rd Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 264–66 (1854).

98. Ibid., 264.

99. Ibid., 34th Cong., 3rd Sess. appendix 135–36 (1857).

100. Ibid., 33rd Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 264–65 (1854).

101. Ibid., 38th Cong., 2nd Sess. 217 (1865).

102. Ibid., 34th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 1162 (1856) (emphasis in the original).

103. Ibid., 38th Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 68 (1865) (emphasis in original); Arnold, History of Abraham Lincoln, 33–34.

104. George Edmunds, Addresses Delivered before the Vermont Historical Society, in the Representatives’ Hall, Montpelier, October 16, 1866, 10.

Chapter 4. The Oligarchy Rises

1. Drake, Union and Anti-slavery Speeches, 104–5.

2. Ibid., 106, 97, 106.

3. Ibid., 106, 137.

4. John Wentworth, Congressional Reminiscences, 24–25; Sumner, Works of Sumner, 5:193, 195.

5. Cong. Globe, 40th Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 223 (1868).

6. Ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 2070 (1864).

7. Ibid., 37th Cong., 3rd Sess. appendix 151 (1863).

8. Ibid., 38th Cong., 2nd Sess. 266 (1865).

9. Ibid., 37th Cong., 3rd Sess. appendix 151 (1863); ibid., 38th Cong., 2nd Sess. 266 (1865).

10. Ibid., 40th Cong., 2nd Sess. 3096 (1868); ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 949 (1864).

11. Ibid., 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 3064 (1866).

12. Ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 2002 (1864); ibid., 38th Cong., 2nd Sess. 792 (1865).

13. Ibid., 38th Cong., 2nd Sess. 266 (1865); ibid., 36th Cong., 2nd Sess. 224 (1861).

14. Ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 951 (1864).

15. Ibid., 951 (emphasis in the original), 950.

16. Ibid. (emphasis in the original).

17. Julian, Political Recollections, 1840–1872, 87; Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 3243 (1866); ibid., 40th Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 456 (1868); ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1719 (1862).

18. Wentworth, Congressional Reminiscences, 20.

19. Cong. Globe, 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 2070 (1864); Garfield, Works of Garfield, 2:557; Cong. Globe, 37th Cong., 3rd Sess. appendix 151 (1863).

20. Cong. Globe, 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 141 (1862); 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 2070 (1864).

21. Ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 36 (1862); ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1230, 2314 (1864).

22. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 366 (1860).

23. Ibid., 36th Cong., 2nd Sess. 551 (1861).

24. H. Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall, 1:chap. 14, 189, 194.

25. Ibid., 1:chap. 14, 202, 206.

26. Cong. Globe, 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 98 (1860).

27. Ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 141 (1862).

28. Ibid., 36th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1089 (1861).

29. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 300 (1860); ibid., 36th Cong., 2nd Sess. 551 (1861).

30. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 300, 822–23 (1860); ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1233, 442 (1864).

31. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 421 (1860) (emphasis in the original).

32. Ibid., 34th Cong., 3rd Sess. appendix 66 (1856); ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 143 (1859), appendix 264 (1860).

33. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 98–99 (1860).

34. Ibid., 1030.

35. Ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1633 (1862).

36. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 1048 (1860). Collamer misattributes Calhoun’s remarks to his 1837 “positive good” speech. The correct date is January 10, 1838. See Cong. Globe, 25th Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 60, 61–62.

37. Ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1483 (1864); Baker, Abridged Speech of Baker, 6 (emphasis in the original).

38. Cong. Globe, 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1459 (1864); ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 2598 (1860).

39. Ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1770 (1864); ibid., 35th Cong., 1st Sess. 1092 (1858); ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 365 (1860).

40. Ibid., 35th Cong., 1st Sess. 1350 (1858).

41. Ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1199 (1864).

42. Ibid., 2979.

43. Julian, Political Recollections, 1840–1872, 22–23.

44. Arnold, History of Abraham Lincoln, 41; Cong. Globe, 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 365 (1860).

45. Cong. Globe, 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 2003 (1864).

46. Ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 141 (1862); ibid., 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 2949 (1864).

47. Blaine, Twenty Years of Congress, 1:46–48, 53.

48. Cong. Globe, 34th Cong., 3rd Sess. appendix 53 (1856); ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 2311 (1860).

49. Blaine, Twenty Years of Congress, 1:28–29, 50.

50. Ibid., 31–33.

51. Cong. Globe, 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 2311 (1860).

52. Blaine, Twenty Years of Congress, 1:43.

53. George S. Boutwell, Why I Am a Republican, 14, 16, 18.

54. Blaine, Twenty Years of Congress, 1:73–74.

55. Cong. Globe, 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 2311 (1860).

56. Ibid., appendix 98.

57. Ibid., 35th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 170 (1858); ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 98 (1860).

58. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 100, 98 (1860); ibid., 37th Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 141 (1862); ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 153 (1860).

59. Ibid., 36th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 366, 367 (1860).

60. Ibid., 367.

61. Ibid., 368, 370, 368, 371, 374.

62. Rufus P. Spalding, Oration on American Independence, Delivered at Akron, Ohio, July 3, 1847, 12–13.

63. Cong. Globe, 29th Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 335 (1847); ibid., 31st Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 142 (1850).

64. Julian, Political Recollections, 1840–1872, 47–48.

65. Ibid., 51.

66. Ibid., 24, 43.

67. Ibid., 58, 64–66.

68. Ibid., 66, 68.

69. Blaine, Twenty Years of Congress, 1:86–89.

70. Ibid., 90–93; H. Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall, 2:252–58, 274–76.

71. Blaine, Twenty Years of Congress, 1:92ff; H. Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall, 2:242ff.

72. H. Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall, 2:288; Boutwell, Why I Am a Republican, 16–17.

73. Blaine, Twenty Years of Congress, 1:92–93, 99.

74. Boutwell, Why I Am a Republican, 18–19; Arnold, History of Abraham Lincoln, 47.

75. Josiah Bushnell Grinnell, Men and Events of Forty Years, 59; Wentworth, Congressional Reminiscences, 23–24, 50.

76. Cong. Globe, 35th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 170 (1858).

Chapter 5. American Republicanism Regroups

1. Blaine, Twenty Years of Congress, 1:110; Sherman, Sherman’s Recollections, 1:94–96; H. Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall, 2:378.

2. Blaine, Twenty Years of Congress, 1:46, 110–11.

3. H. Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall, 2:62, 240; Boutwell, Why I Am a Republican, 17; H. Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall, 2:240; Cong. Globe, 37th Cong., 3rd Sess. 1064 (1863).

4. Blaine, Twenty Years of Congress, 1:120, 121.

5. Ibid., 120, 121.

6. Ibid., 120, 119, 120.

7. Ibid., 113.

8. Ibid., 114; George W. Julian, The Life of Joshua Giddings, 311; Sherman, Sherman’s Recollections, 1:99–101.

9. H. Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall, 2:381.

10. Julian, Life of Joshua Giddings, 311.

11. Cong. Globe, 33rd Cong., 1st Sess. 281–82 (1854).

12. Ibid., 282.

13. Cong. Globe, 33rd Cong., 1st Sess. 339 (1854).

14. Ibid., 340.

15. Sumner, Works of Sumner, 3:333; Julian, Political Recollections, 1840–1872, 135; Blaine, Twenty Years of Congress, 1:114; Henry J. Raymond, History of the Administration of Abraham Lincoln, 28.

16. H. Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall, 2:378–79.

17. Ibid., 463.

18. Cong. Globe, 33rd Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 310 (1854).

19. Ibid., 311, 310.

20. Ibid., 311.

21. Ibid., 312.

22. Ibid.

23. Ibid.

24. Ibid., 319, 321, 322, 323.

25. Ibid., 462, 463.

26. Ibid., 784, 785.

27. Ibid., 785, 786.

28. Boutwell, Why I Am a Republican, 22.

29. George W. Julian, “The Death-Struggle of the Republican Party,” 266.

30. Ibid.; Julian, Political Recollections, 1840–1872, 305.

31. Cong. Globe, 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1026 (1864).

32. Blaine, Twenty Years of Congress, 1:152; Cong. Globe, 34th Cong., 3rd Sess. 98 (1856); George H. Williams, Reconstruction: Speech of Hon. Geo. H. Williams, Delivered at Portland, Oregon, September 23d, 1867, 3; Cong. Globe, 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 1027–28, 2319 (1860).

33. H. Davis, Speeches and Addresses, 220.

34. Blaine, Twenty Years of Congress, 1:117; H. Davis, Speeches and Addresses, 220 (emphasis in the original).

35. Sherman, Sherman’s Recollections, 1:101; Cong. Globe, 33rd Cong., 2nd Sess. appendix 248 (1855).

36. Wentworth, Congressional Reminiscences, 52n (corroborated by Wilson); H. Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall, 2:410–11.

37. William Stocking, ed., Under the Oaks: Commemorating the Fiftieth Anniversary of the Founding of the Republican Party, 40.

38. Ibid., 45.

39. Ibid., 46–49 (emphasis in the original).

40. Ibid., 44–45.

41. H. Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall, 3:436; Blaine, Twenty Years of Congress, 2:127n.

42. U.S. Congress, Report of the Joint Committee, xiii.

43. Joseph Patterson Smith, ed., History of the Republican Party in Ohio, 2:11; William Lawrence, introduction to Reminiscences of the War, by Abraham R. Howbert, 25–26; J. P. Smith, History of the Republican Party in Ohio, 1:13, 18.

44. Ibid., 19.

45. Ibid., 2:11.

46. Ibid., 1:10, 12, 16, 17, 20–22, 24–25, 41, 2:11, 430–31.

47. Alexander McDonald Thomson, A Political History of Wisconsin, 112.

48. Ibid., 114.

49. Ibid., 132; David Atwood, “Sketch of the Life and Character of Cadwallader C. Washburn,” 10.

50. William H. Russell, “Timothy O. Howe, Stalwart Republican,” 92–93.

51. William F. Doolittle, comp., The Doolittle Family in America, 659–60.

52. Stephen Merrill Allen, Origin and Early Progress of the Republican Party in the United States, Together with the History of Its Formation in Massachusetts, 16, 18.

53. Ibid., 17–18, 19–20.

54. Sumner, Works of Sumner, 3:354 (emphasis in the original), 455, 458, 462, 358, 463 (emphasis in the original), 5:227.

55. Julian, Political Recollections, 1840–1872, 144; J. M. H. Frederick, comp., National Party Platforms of the United States, 28.

56. Julian, “Death-Struggle of the Republican Party,” 265.

57. Nathaniel Banks, The Great Questions of National and State Politics: Speech of Hon. Nathaniel Banks of Waltham, Delivered at Worcester, before the Young Men’s Ratification Convention, September 8th, 3.

58. Julian, “Death-Struggle of the Republican Party,” 265.

59. Blaine, Twenty Years of Congress, 1:140; H. Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall, 2:566–67.

60. Blaine, Twenty Years of Congress, 1:171; Julian, “Death-Struggle of the Republican Party,” 265.

61. John A. Logan, The Great Conspiracy: Its Origin and History, 264.

62. Benjamin Franklin Butler, Autobiography and Personal Reminiscences, 86, 138, 134–48, 136.

63. Logan, Great Conspiracy, 244, 241–42.

64. Cong. Globe, 37th Cong., 3rd Sess. 659 (1864).

65. Logan, Great Conspiracy, 240.

66. Blaine, Twenty Years of Congress, 1:45.

67. Boutwell, Why I Am a Republican, 14–15, 17; Blaine, Twenty Years of Congress, 1:44–45.

68. Boutwell, Why I Am a Republican, 15, 19.

69. Cong. Globe, 33rd Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 462 (1854).

70. Ibid., 35th Cong., 1st Sess. 1349 (1858).

71. Sherman, Sherman’s Recollections, 1:110.

72. Blaine, Twenty Years of Congress, 1:121; Sherman, Sherman’s Recollections, 1:142; Wentworth, Congressional Reminiscences, 24.

73. Wentworth, Congressional Reminiscences, 24–25.

74. H. Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall, 2:464.

75. Boutwell, Why I Am a Republican, 20.

76. H. Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall, 2:464–69.

77. Sherman, Sherman’s Recollections, 1:113.

78. Ibid., 114, 118–24.

79. H. Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall, 2:470–71, 473.

80. Sherman, Sherman’s Recollections, 1:133, 138.

81. H. Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall, 2:482.

82. Sumner, Works of Sumner, 4:257, 265–66, 269–70.

83. Cong. Globe, 34th Cong., 1st Sess. 1279 (1854).

84. Sumner, Works of Sumner, 4:137–256.

85. Ibid., 139, 140, 145, 155, 145, 146 (emphases in the original).

86. Ibid., 241, 245.

87. Ibid., 261, 269; H. Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall, 2:483–84.

88. Blaine, Twenty Years of Congress, 1:125, 128–30; Sherman, Sherman’s Recollections, 1:137–38, 140, 142.

Part II. The Test and Implications

1. Aristotle, Politics, 4.3.1289b26–30.

2. Ibid., 5.3.1302b34–1303a13, 5.4.1304a39–1304b4.

3. Ibid., 8.1.1337a10–21.

4. Ibid., 3.9.1280a7–25, 5.1.1301a27–37.

5. Ibid., 4.1290a37–1290b27.

Chapter 6. The Evidence

1. Ellwood P. Cubberley, Public Education in the United States, 77, 102, 250–51; Edgar Wallace Knight, Public Education in the South, v–vi, 195–96; Charles W. Dabney, Universal Education in the South, 1:viii, 29–31; Frederick M. Binder, The Age of the Common School, 1830–1865, 140–41; David Tyack and Elisabeth Hansot, Managers of Virtue: Public School Leadership in America, 83–85; Carl F. Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic: Common Schools and American Society, xi, 4, 24, 62, chap. 8; William Reese, America’s Public Schools: From the Common School to “No Child Left Behind,” 43.

2. Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic, 195.

3. Cong. Globe, 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 1031 (1860).

4. James H. Madison, Hoosiers: A New History of Indiana, 61–63.

5. Cong. Globe, 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 1031 (1860).

6. Adams, Works of Adams, 6:198, 417; Jefferson, Works of Jefferson, 2:414–15; Adams, Works of Adams, 5:457; Jefferson, Works of Jefferson, 4:64.

7. Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic, 13; Knight, Public Education, 76.

8. Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic, 4; Knight, Public Education, 43; Kenneth A. Lockridge, Literacy in Colonial New England: An Enquiry into the Social Context of Literacy in the Early Modern West, 4–5.

9. Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic, 27.

10. Knight, Public Education, 119.

11. Ibid., 124–26; Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic, 8–9; Dabney, Universal Education, 1:3–19.

12. Charles L. Coon, ed., The Beginnings of Public Education in North Carolina: A Documentary History, 1790–1840, 1:43, 80.

13. Knight, Public Education, 130.

14. Jefferson, Works of Jefferson, 1:76.

15. Knight, Public Education, 127.

16. Jefferson, Works of Jefferson, 1:76.

17. Knight, Public Education, 131–32.

18. Archie V. Huff, Greenville: The History of the City and County in the South Carolina Piedmont, 94.

19. Knight, Public Education, 128–29.

20. Jefferson, Works of Jefferson, 12:170–71; Tyler quoted in Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic, 199.

21. Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic, 199–201; Knight, Public Education, 200–201, 206.

22. Knight, Public Education, 145–54, 136; “Copy of a late Address on Manual Labor Schools,” Southern Banner, September 14, 1833, 3.

23. Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic, 24, 62.

24. Ibid., 10–12.

25. Ibid., 30–61.

26. Ibid., 36.

27. Bernard C. Steiner, Life of Henry Barnard, 7–8; Burke Aaron Hinsdale, Horace Mann and the Common School Revival in the United States, 75–78; Henry Barnard, ed., Educational Biography: Memoirs of Teachers, Educators, and Promoters and Benefactors of Education, 344; Charles O. Hoyt and Richard C. Ford, John D. Pierce, Founder of the Michigan School System: A Study of Education in the Northwest, 56–60.

28. Calvin Stowe, Report on Elementary Instruction in Europe Made to the Thirty-Sixth General Assembly of the State of Ohio, December 19, 1837, 9; John Pierce, “Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, December 31, 1838,” 191; U.S. Bureau of Education, Special Report of the Commissioner of Education on the Condition and Improvement of Public Schools in the District of Columbia, Submitted to the Senate June 1868, and to the House with Additions June 13, 1870, 142; Horace Mann, Annual Reports on Education, 531.

29. Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic, 103–35; Knight, Public Education, 197, 266.

30. Colyer Meriwether, History of Higher Education in South Carolina: With a Sketch of the Free School System, 153n3; Thomas Cooper, “Agrarian and Education Systems,” 8, 10–11, 13, 20, 17, 22.

31. Ibid., 25.

32. Dabney, Universal Education, 1:35–36.

33. Knight, Public Education, 200–201, 206; Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic, 199–201.

34. Knight, Public Education, 210, 211.

35. Ibid., 145–54, 233–38; Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic, 210–12.

36. Joseph Grégoire de Roulhac Hamilton, Party Politics in North Carolina, 1835–1860, 9–13.

37. Knight, Public Education, 94–96, 242–43.

38. Judith Kelleher Schafer, “The Political Development of Antebellum Louisiana,” 138–39.

39. Robert J. Kerr, ed., Proceedings and Debates of the Convention of Louisiana: Which Assembled at New Orleans, January 14, 1844, 316–19.

40. Knight, Public Education, 243–45; Schafer, “Political Development of Antebellum Louisiana,” 141.

41. See Articles VIII and XV in Francis Newton Thorpe, ed., The Federal and State Constitutions, Colonial Charters, and Other Organic Laws of the States and Territories Now or Heretofore Forming the United States of America, 3:1412, 1413.

42. Raleigh A. Suarez, “Chronicle of a Failure: Public Education in Antebellum Louisiana,” 117–18.

43. Knight, Public Education, 245.

44. Ibid., 217–24, 129–30, 224.

45. Charles S. Sydnor, The Development of Southern Sectionalism, 1819–1848, 62.

46. South Carolina Legislature, The South Carolina Legislative Times: Being the Debates and Proceedings in the Carolina Legislature, 23.

47. Ibid., 178 (quote), 35.

48. Joseph W. Newman, “Antebellum School Reforms in the Port Cities of the Deep South”; Edgar Wallace Knight, A Documentary History of Education in the South before 1860, 5:336–37, 317–81, 374–75.

49. Knight, Documentary History, 5:344, 373–74; Edward Ingle, Southern Sidelights: A Picture of Social and Economic Life in the South a Generation before the War, 174; Henry D. Capers, The Life and Times of C. G. Memminger, 110–13.

50. Frederick Adolphus Porcher, “Instruction in Schools and Colleges,” 466, 467, 468.

51. Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic, 212.

52. Harry L. Watson, “The Man with the Dirty Black Beard: Race, Class, and Schools in the Antebellum South,” 14, 22.

53. Knight, Documentary History, 5:334.

54. Mann, Annual Reports on Education, 531.

55. Mann, Slavery: Letters and Speeches, 238; Cong. Globe, 30th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 836 (1848).

56. Ibid., 837.

57. Ibid., 838; Cong. Globe, 35th Cong., 2nd Sess. 718 (1859).

58. Charles Dabney, The Problem in the South, 4–5.

59. Gustavus J. Orr, “The Needs of Education in the South,” 46, 48.

60. Ibid., 49, 50 (emphasis in the original).

61. Ibid., 50, 53.

62. John W. Abercrombie, “Education in the Old and New South,” 267–68, 269, 270, 271.

63. Joseph W. Folk, “Education in a Democracy,” 20; Isaac W. Hill, “Report from Alabama,” 47.

64. Celestia S. Parrish, “Problems and Progress of Universal Education in the South,” 49, 50, 48.

65. Adams, Works of Adams, 6:458, 469, 3:456, 6:8–9, 4:225.

66. Aristotle, Politics, 3.9.1280a7–24, 5.1.1301a27–37; Adams, Works of Adams, 6:285–86, 4:397.

67. Madison, Writings of Madison, 6:101, 102 (emphasis in the original), 5:29.

68. Adams, Works of Adams, 9:376, 5:458–59.

69. Ibid., 6:530, 4:397, 2:296–97, 9:376–77.

70. Ibid., 9:377, 3:455, 4:392.

71. William B. Scott, Pursuit of Happiness: American Conceptions of Property from the Seventeenth to the Twentieth Century, 9–13, 16.

72. Margaret Ellen Newell, From Dependency to Independence: Economic Revolution in Colonial New England, 36–39; Beverley W. Bond Jr., “The Quit-Rent System in the American Colonies,” 498.

73. Newell, From Dependency to Independence, 39–44, 46–47, 55–71, 244; Margaret Ellen Newell, “The Birth of New England in the Atlantic Economy,” 55.

74. Stephen Innes, Labor in a New Land: Economy and Society in Seventeenth-Century Springfield.

75. Jefferson, Works of Jefferson, 1:62, 66–67, 8:196, 12:447, 1:58–59, 68–69.

76. Holly Brewer, “Entailing Aristocracy in Colonial Virginia: ‘Ancient Feudal Restraints’ and Revolutionary Reform,” 341.

77. Jefferson, Works of Jefferson, 2:178.

78. Roger L. Ransom and Richard Sutch, “Conflicting Visions: The American Civil War as a Revolutionary Event,” 270–71; James L. Huston, The British Gentry, the Southern Planter, and the Northern Family Farmer, 129–59.

79. Information from U.S. Census Office, “Recapitulation—1860: Farms Containing Three Acres or More,” in Agriculture of the United States in 1860, Compiled from the Original Returns of the Eighth Census, 221; and U.S. Census Office, “Population of the States and Territories by Color and Condition,” in Population of the United States in 1860, Compiled from the Original Returns of the Eighth Census, 598–99.

80. Jackson Turner Main, “The Distribution of Property in Post-revolutionary Virginia,” 243, 244, 249, 255.

81. Allan Kulikoff, From British Peasants to Colonial American Farmers, 132.

82. Richard Waterhouse, A New World Gentry: The Making of a Merchant and Planter Class in South Carolina, 1670–1770, 65.

83. Peter A. Coclanis, The Shadow of a Dream: Economic Life and Death in the South Carolina Low Country, 1670–1920, 68, 98, 69–70, 7.

84. Tim Lockley, “Rural Poor Relief in Colonial South Carolina,” 958, 960, 963.

85. Waterhouse, New World Gentry, 65–66; Lacy Ford, Origins of Southern Radicalism: The South Carolina Upcountry, 1800–1860, 44–51.

86. Steven Sarson, “Yeoman Farmers in a Planter’s Republic,” 64, 70–71, 75, 81–84.

87. James Oakes, “Slavery as an American Problem,” 86–87.

88. Gary B. Nash and Jean R. Soderlund, Freedom by Degrees: Emancipation in Pennsylvania and Its Aftermath, 36, 32.

89. Betty Wood, Slavery in Colonial Georgia, 1730–1775, 126.

90. Information from U.S. Census Office, “Farms Containing Three Acres or More,” in Agriculture of the United States in 1860, 196, 213; and U.S. Census Office, “Population of the States and Territories,” in Population of the United States in 1860, 598–99.

91. Gavin Wright, The Political Economy of the Cotton South: Households, Markets, and Wealth in the Nineteenth Century, 34; James L. Huston, Calculating the Value of the Union: Slavery, Property Rights, and the Economic Origins of the Civil War, 36.

92. Wright, The Political Economy of the Cotton South, 139–41, 35.

93. “Address of Hon C. C. Clay Jr.,” Debow’s Review 19 (December 1855): 727.

94. Wright, Political Economy of the Cotton South, 44–55, 114–17.

95. Robert A. Margo, Wages and Labor Markets in the United States, 1820–1860 and “The North-South Wage Gap, before and after the Civil War”; Carville Earle and Ronald Hoffman, “The Foundation of the Modern Economy: Agriculture and the Costs of Labor in the United States and England, 1800–60,” 1066–67; Fogel, Without Consent or Contract, 88.

96. William N. Parker, “The Finance of Capital Formation in Midwestern Development, 1800–1910,” 171; Wright, Political Economy of the Cotton South, 42, 141.

97. Stephen V. Ash, Middle Tennessee Society Transformed, 1860–1870: War and Peace in the Upper South, 45.

98. Donald F. Schaefer, “Locational Choice in the Antebellum South.”

99. Jacqueline Jones, A Social History of the Labouring Classes: From Colonial Times to the Present, 64.

100. Hahn, Roots of Southern Populism.

101. Ford, Origins of Southern Radicalism, 85.

102. Bolton, Poor Whites of the Antebellum South, 5.

103. Fogel, Without Consent or Contract, 83–84.

104. Aristotle, Politics, 4.8.1294a8–14, 5.1.1301a31–34.

105. 13 Annals of Cong. 1009–10 (1804).

106. Ibid., 1009–10.

107. 33 Annals of Cong. 1176, 1177 (1819).

108. 35 Annals of Cong. 343–44 (1820).

109. Jonathan Roberts, “Memoirs of a Senator from Pennsylvania: Jonathan Roberts, 1771–1854”; 33 Annals of Cong. 1177 (1819).

110. Eric Foner, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men; Huston, The British Gentry, 3–28, 185–207.

111. Thomas Jefferson, Writings, 827.

112. Manumission Society of North Carolina, An Address to the People of North Carolina, on the Evils of Slavery: By the Friends of Liberty and Equality, 49–50.

113. Laura F. Edwards, The People and Their Peace: Legal Culture and the Transformation of Inequality in the Post-revolutionary South.

114. Calhoun, Works of Calhoun, 3:180, 4:507.

115. Timothy Lockley, Lines in the Sand: Race and Class in Lowcountry Georgia, 1750–1860, 28.

116. Victoria E. Bynum, Unruly Women: The Politics of Social and Sexual Control in the Old South.

117. Cong. Globe, 35th Cong., 1st Sess. appendix 79–80 (1858).

118. Ibid., 399.

119. Stephanie McCurry, Masters of Small Worlds: Yeoman Households, Gender Relations, and the Political Culture of the Antebellum South Carolina Low Country, 94–95, 116–17.

120. Elizabeth Fox-Genovese and Eugene D. Genovese, The Mind of the Master Class: History and Faith in the Southern Slaveholders, 356–57.

121. Dickson D. Bruce Jr., Violence and Culture in the Antebellum South.

122. Bertram Wyatt-Brown, Southern Honor: Ethics and Behavior in the Old South.

123. Randolph Roth, American Homicide, 210 (quote), 215 (quote), 18, 180–83, 202.

124. Eric Walther, William Lowndes Yancey and the Coming of the Civil War, 30.

125. John W. Dubose, The Life and Times of William Lowndes Yancey, 67.

126. Walther, William Lowndes Yancey, 30–31 (emphasis in the original).

127. Ibid., 32, 38.

128. Ibid., 87, 123–24.

129. “Alabama,” 1:10; Dubose, Life and Times, 556–57.

130. Quoted in Malcolm C. McMillan, Constitutional Development in Alabama, 1798–1901: A Study in Politics, the Negro, and Sectionalism, 80n18.

131. Oliver Joseph Thatcher, ed., The Library of Original Sources, 9:83–94 (quotes on 90).

132. Madison, Writings of Madison, 6:101; Thatcher, Library of Original Sources, 9:87 (quote), 86.

133. Thatcher, Library of Original Sources, 9:85, 93.

134. Ibid., 9:88, 89, 90–91.

135. Ibid., 9:94.

136. Owsley, Plain Folk of the Old South; Ford, Origins of Southern Radicalism; Hahn, Roots of Southern Populism; Charles C. Bolton, “Planters, Plain Folk, and Poor Whites in the Old South.”

137. Cong. Globe, 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 404 (1864).

138. Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins, The Scalawag in Alabama Politics, 1865–1881, 5. See also Bolton, Poor Whites of the Antebellum South, 19.

139. Huntsville (AL) Advocate, July 12, 1865.

140. Anthony G. Carey, Parties, Slavery, and the Union in Antebellum Georgia, 135–37.

141. Calhoun, Works of Calhoun, 6:4–30.

142. “The Irrepressible Conflict at the South,” New York Times, August 20, 1860, 4.

143. Edmund S. Morgan, “Slavery and Freedom: The American Paradox,” 22–25.

144. Genovese, Political Economy of Slavery, 25.

145. Francis Lieber, Slavery, Plantations and the Yeomanry, 3, 5 (emphasis in the original), 6.

146. Information from U.S. Census Office, “Recapitulation—1860: Slaveholders and Slaves,” in Agriculture of the United States in 1860, 247; and U.S. Census Office, “Population of the States and Territories,” in Population of the United States in 1860, 598–99.

147. McMillan, Constitutional Development in Alabama, 44–46.

148. U.S. Congress, Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, pt. 3, 59, 61.

149. Helper, Impending Crisis in the South, 42.

150. Edward E. Baptist, Creating an Old South: Middle Florida’s Plantation Frontier before the Civil War, 161; Bolton, Poor Whites of the Antebellum South, 117–18; Donald A. DeBats, Elites and Masses: Political Structure, Communication, and Behavior in Ante-bellum Georgia, 425; Christopher J. Olsen, Political Culture and Secession in Mississippi: Masculinity, Honor, and the Antiparty Tradition, 1830–1860, 133.

151. Thorpe, Federal and State Constitutions, 6:3264.

152. Ibid., Article I, Sections 6, 8; Article II, Section 2.

153. Thorpe, Federal and State Constitutions, 6:3259, 3262.

154. Ibid., 3266.

155. Sinha, Counterrevolution of Slavery, 13.

156. Donald E. Fehrenbacher, Constitutions and Constitutionalism in the Slaveholding South, 11.

157. Ibid., 12.

158. Lewy Dorman, Party Politics in Alabama from 1850 through 1860, 97.

159. Jefferson, Works of Jefferson, 1:54–55.

160. Thorpe, Federal and State Constitutions, 2:676; U.S. Census Office, “State of Florida: Table No. 2—Population by Color and Condition,” in Population of the United States in 1860, 54.

161. Thorpe, Federal and State Constitutions, 2:808; U.S. Census Office, “State of Georgia: Table No. 2—Population by Color and Condition,” in Population of the United States in 1860, 72–73.

162. Thorpe, Federal and State Constitutions, 5:2794–95.

163. Ibid., 3:1412, 1413; U.S. Census Office, “State of Louisiana: Table No. 2—Population by Color and Condition,” in Population of the United States in 1860, 194.

164. Green, Constitutional Development, 292, 294; Thorpe, Federal and State Constitutions, 7:3833–35.

165. Green, Constitutional Development, 292.

166. Thorpe, Federal and State Constitutions, 1:272, 800, 5:2797, 7:3833.

167. John S. Wise, The End of an Era, 55–56.

168. Max Farrand, ed., The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, 2:204, 203.

169. Thorpe, Federal and State Constitutions, 5:2630.

170. Franklin Benjamin Hough, American Constitutions, 2:64.

171. Thorpe, Federal and State Constitutions, 5:2643.

172. U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Statistics of Slaves, Table 60,” in A Century of Population Growth, from the First Census of the United States to the Twelfth, 1790–1900, 133; Reeve Huston, Land and Freedom: Rural Society, Popular Protest, and Party Politics in Antebellum New York, 3, 11, 13–14.

173. Ibid., 32.

174. Information from U.S. Census Office, “Farms Containing Three Acres or More,” in Agriculture of the United States in 1860, 196, 209.

175. Aurora (PA) General Advertiser, September 11, 1797; Phillip B. Scott, “The Right of Revolution: The Development of the People’s Right to Reform Government,” 290.

176. Gazette of the United States, November 27, 1790, 655; Thorpe, Federal and State Constitutions, 5:3002.

177. Mark Neely, Lincoln and the Triumph of the Nation: Constitutional Conflict in the American Civil War, 238; Degler, Place over Time, 99; James A. Gardner, “Southern Character, Confederate Nationalism, and the Interpretation of State Constitutions: A Case Study in Constitutional Argument,” 1261; Emory M. Thomas, The American War and Peace, 1860–1877, 59.

178. Clement Eaton, History of the Southern Confederacy, 51; Henry Cleveland, Alexander H. Stephens, in Public and Private: With Letters and Speeches, 718, 721.

179. Farrand, Records of the Federal Convention, 2:417.

180. James D. Richardson, ed., A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Confederacy, 1:37–54.

181. Ibid., 50. viz., “The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all the privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States; and shall have the right of transit and sojourn in any State of this Confederacy, with their slaves and other property; and the right of property in said slaves shall not be thereby impaired.” (Conf. Const. of 1861, Article IV, Section 2, Clause 1).

182. U.S. Census Office, “Population of the States and Territories,” in Population of the United States in 1860, 598–99.

183. The findings that are presented here in part differ moderately from those presented by Martis. Kenneth C. Martis, The Historical Atlas of the Congresses of the Confederate States of America, 1861–1865, 23. For the establishment and boundaries of congressional districts in the Confederate House of Representatives within each of the states, see Alabama Convention, Ordinances and Constitution of the State of Alabama: With the Constitution of the Provisional Government and the Confederate States of America, 45–46; Arkansas Convention, Journal of Both Sessions of the Convention of the State of Arkansas, 454; Florida Convention, Constitution or Form of Government for the People of Florida, 43–44; Georgia Convention of the People, Journal of the Public and Secret Proceedings of the Convention of the People of Georgia, 392–93; Louisiana Constitutional Convention, Official Journal of the Proceedings of the Convention of the State of Louisiana, 283, 285; Mississippi Legislature, Laws of the State of Mississippi: Passed at a Called Session of the Mississippi Legislature Held in the City of Jackson, July 1861, 57–58; North Carolina General Assembly, Public Laws of the State of North Carolina, Passed by the General Assembly, at Its Second Extra Session of 1861, 4–5; Tennessee General Assembly, Public Acts of the State of Tennessee, Passed at the First Session of the Thirty-Fourth General Assembly, for the Years 1861–62, 8–9; Texas, General Laws of the Eighth Legislature of the State of Texas, Extra Session, 35–36, 44; Virginia Convention, Ordinances Adopted by the Virginia Convention in Secret Session in April and May, 1861, 44, Ordinances Adopted by the Virginia Convention at the Adjourned Session in November and December, 1861, 59. South Carolina used the same six congressional districts that were allotted to them by the U.S. government. See “Proclamation, State of South Carolina, Executive Department,” Yorkville (SC) Enquirer, December 12, 1861. For the populations of the respective districts, encompassing county or parish populations, see U.S. Census Office, “Table No. 2—Population by Color and Condition,” in Population of the United States in 1860: 8 (Alabama), 18 (Arkansas), 54 (Florida), 72–73 (Georgia), 270 (Mississippi), 358–59 (North Carolina), 452 (South Carolina), 466–67 (Tennessee), 484–86 (Texas), and 516–18 (Virginia). Louisiana divided the municipal districts of New Orleans into separate congressional districts; therefore, the population of the New Orleans wards must be consulted to account for the free and slave populations of all congressional districts in Louisiana. See ibid. and “Table No. 3—Population of Cities and Towns,” in ibid., 194–95.

184. Marshall DeRosa, The Confederate Constitution of 1861: An Inquiry into American Constitutionalism.

185. Richard F. Bensel, Yankee Leviathan: The Origins of Central State Authority in America, 1859–1877, 188 (quote), 13 (quote), 94–237, 366–415.

186. George C. Rable, The Confederate Republic: A Revolution against Politics, 200.

187. Ibid., 5 (quote), 7, 68, 70.

188. George Washington, The Writings of George Washington, 13:303; Hamilton, Madison, and Jay, The Federalist Papers, 73.

189. Madison, Writings of Madison, 9:136.

190. Rable, Confederate Republic, 41, 77, 149, 187; Adams, Works of Adams, 4:197.

191. Rable, Confederate Republic, 29.

192. Aristotle, Politics, 5.6.1306a20–32, 5.10.1311a8–14.

193. Rable, Confederate Republic, 125.

194. Robert Luce, The Science of Legislation, 1:330–31, 333–34.

195. Elizabeth G. McPherson, “The Southern States and the Reporting of Senate Debates, 1789–1802,” 228–29, 232.

196. Donald H. Stewart, The Opposition Press of the Federalist Period, 459.

197. Elaine K. Swift, The Making of an American Senate: Reconstitutive Change in Congress, 1787–1841, 58.

198. 4 Annals of Cong. 45 (1794).

199. Stewart, Opposition Press, 193.

200. E. McPherson, “Southern States,” 239.

201. Bensel, Yankee Leviathan, 115 (quote), 117–18.

202. Cong. Globe, 32nd Cong., 3rd Sess. appendix 319, 321 (1853).

203. Rable, Confederate Republic, 124.

204. Aristotle, Politics, 5.6.1305b21–27.

205. Rable, Confederate Republic, 209–10, 242–43.

206. Victoria E. Bynum, The Free State of Jones: Mississippi’s Longest Civil War; Margaret M. Story, Loyalty and Loss: Alabama’s Unionists in the Civil War and Reconstruction; Barton Myers, Rebels against the Confederacy: North Carolina’s Unionists.

207. Current, Lincoln’s Loyalists; William W. Freehling, The South vs. the South, xiii.

208. David Williams, Bitterly Divided: The South’s Inner Civil War.

Chapter 7. The Burial of the New Birth of Freedom

1. “The Rebel Government–Legislation in Secret Session,” New York Times, March 12, 1865, 4.

2. Albion W. Tourgee, A Fool’s Errand: By One of the Fools, 149.

3. William Cullen Bryant and Sidney Howard Gay, A Popular History of the United States, 4:435.

4. Helper, Impending Crisis; J. Jacobus Flournoy, An Essay on the Origin, Habits, etc. of the African Race Incidental to the Propriety of Having Nothing to Do with Negroes.

5. “Critical Notices: Partridge’s Making of the American Nation,” 247.

6. Georgios Varouxakis, “‘Negrophilist’ Crusader: John Stuart Mill on the American Civil War and Reconstruction.”

7. Sherman, Sherman’s Recollections, 2:951–53; George F. Edmunds, “Ex-Senator Edmunds on Reconstruction and Impeachment,” 863.

8. Zachariah Chandler, Last and Greatest Speech of Zachariah Chandler, Late U.S. Senator from Michigan, Delivered at McCormick Hall, Chicago, Oct. 31, 1879, 21, 22; Nathaniel P. Banks, “Eulogy,” 55.

9. George Boutwell, “The Future of the Republican Party,” 479, 480, 481; George F. Edmunds, “The State and the Nation,” 344 (emphasis in the original).

10. Emory Speer, The Solid South: Speech by Emory Speer of Georgia, December 19, 1902, 5; “A Bitter Pill to Swallow,” New York Times, July 10, 1890, 1.

11. Rossiter Johnson, “Factitious History,” 314, 308, 309, 303, 311, 304.

12. John David Smith and J. Vincent Lowery, eds., The Dunning School: Historians, Race, and the Meaning of Reconstruction.

13. Charles W. Ramsdell, “The Changing Interpretation of the Civil War,” 7, 12.

14. John Lynch, The Facts of Reconstruction, 292–93, 101–2.

15. DuBois, Black Reconstruction in America, 30; Woodrow Wilson, “The Reconstruction of the Southern States,” 6.

16. Eric Foner, “The Supreme Court and the History of Reconstruction—and Vice-Versa,” 1594–96.

17. Michael Fitzgerald, “Reconstruction Politics and the Politics of Reconstruction.”

18. Joyce E. Salisbury, The Blood of Martyrs: Unintended Consequences of Ancient Violence, 17–18.

19. Michael Les Benedict, A Compromise of Principle, 13.

20. Frank Owsley, “The Irrepressible Conflict,” 62.

21. Desmond King and Stephen Tuck, “De-centring the South: America’s Nationwide White Supremacist Order after Reconstruction,” 216, 241.

22. Thomas J. DiLorenzo, “The Consolidation of State Power via Reconstruction, 1865–1890,” 140, 141n7.

23. J. Michael Martinez, A Long Dark Night: Race in America from Jim Crow to World War II, 121.

24. Foner, Reconstruction, xix–xxviii.

25. Ramsdell, “Changing Interpretation of the Civil War.”

26. James W. Garner, Reconstruction in Mississippi, 28, 135; Fleming, Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama, 211, 271.

27. Foner, “Supreme Court and Reconstruction,” 1585, 1605; Howard K. Beale, “On Rewriting Reconstruction History,” 807, 810.

28. Eugene H. Berwanger, The Frontier against Slavery.

29. Herman Belz, Emancipation and Equal Rights: Politics and Constitutionalism in the Civil War Era, xii.

30. Massachusetts General Court, Debates and Proceedings in the Massachusetts Legislature at the Regular Session Which Was Begun at the State House in Boston on Wednesday, the Seventh Day of January [1857], 155, 171, 190, 192, 184 (quote), 196 (quote), 276, 373 (quote); Massachusetts General Court, Acts and Resolves Passed by the General Court of Massachusetts in the Year 1858, 170.

31. Garfield, Works of Garfield, 1:87–89.

32. Ibid., 87–88, 89 (quote), 86 (quote); Alexander Keyssar, The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States, 339 (North Carolina), 340 (Tennessee).

33. Cong. Globe, 40th Cong., 2nd Sess. 726, 727 (1868).

34. Frederick, National Party Platforms, 35.

35. Ibid., 40.

36. Douglas R. Egerton, The Wars of Reconstruction; Nicholas Lemann, Redemption: The Last Battle of the Civil War; Michael Perman, The Road to Redemption: Southern Politics, 1869–1879; George C. Rable, But There Was No Peace: The Role of Violence in the Politics of Reconstruction.

37. U.S. Congress, Report of the Joint Select Committee to Inquire into the Condition of Affairs in the Late Insurrectionary States.

38. For a summary of the work of the committee, see ibid., 1:1-2. The journal of the select committee commences at ibid., 1:589. Although the summary lists Tennessee among the states assigned to one subcommittee of five, and North Carolina among the states assigned to the other, no record exists of a hearing devoted to affairs in Tennessee. Testimony regarding affairs in North Carolina is only taken in Washington, D.C. See ibid., vol. 2. Also, there is no proof that some congressmen appointed to the subcommittees charged with visiting their assigned states and receiving testimony there were always present when hearings were convened. Representative James Robinson of Illinois was appointed to one subcommittee but there is no record of a single interrogatory posed by him to a witness in any of the states that his subcommittee investigated. For his appointment, see ibid., 1:613. Representative James Beck of Kentucky appears in the Alabama hearings but was not appointed to an investigating subcommittee. See ibid. A subcommittee of three (Senator John Scott of Pennsylvania, Republican, chairman; Representatives Job Stevenson of Ohio, Republican; Philadelphia Van Trump of Ohio, Democrat) were present in Columbia, Spartanburg, Union, and York, South Carolina and received testimony for a total of 19 days. See ibid., 1:600, 3:i-iii. A subcommittee of five (Representatives Horace Maynard of Tennessee, Republican, chairman; Glenni Scofield of Pennsylvania, Republican; William Lansing of New York, Republican; Daniel Voorhees of Indiana, Democrat; Senator Thomas Bayard of Delaware, Democrat) were present in Atlanta, Georgia and received testimony for 14 days. See ibid., 6:350ff and vol. 7. A subcommittee of five (Senators Daniel Pratt of Indiana, Republican, chairman; Francis Blair of Missouri, Democrat; Benjamin Rice of Arkansas, Republican; Representatives James Beck of Kentucky, Democrat; Charles Buckley of Alabama, Republican) were present in Huntsville, Montgomery, Demopolis and Livingston, Alabama and in Columbus, Mississippi and received testimony concerning Alabama for a total of 26 days. See ibid., 8:527ff, vols. 9 and 10. A subcommittee of four (Senators Daniel Pratt of Indiana, Republican, chairman; Francis Blair of Missouri, Democrat; Benjamin Rice of Arkansas, Republican; Representative Charles Buckley of Alabama, Republican) were present in Macon and Columbus, Mississippi and received testimony for a total of 17 days. See ibid., 11:469ff and vol. 12. A subcommittee of four (Representatives Horace Maynard of Tennessee, Republican, chairman; Glenni Scofield of Pennsylvania, Republican; William Lansing of New York, Republican; Senator Thomas Bayard of Delaware, Democrat) were present in Jacksonville, Florida and received testimony for four days. See ibid., 13:54-310.

39. U.S. Congress. Message of the President of the United States and Accompanying Documents to the Two Houses of Congress at the Commencement of the Third Session of the Fortieth Congress, Report of the Secretary of War, pt. 1, 705, 1052, 1051.

40. U.S. Census Office, “Population of the States and Territories,” in Population of the United States in 1860, 598–99.

41. U.S. Congress, Message of the President of the United States and Accompanying Documents to the Two Houses of Congress at the Commencement of the Third Session of the Fortieth Congress, Report of the Secretary of War, pt. 1, 1056; U.S. Census Office, The Statistics of the Population of the United States, Embracing the Tables of Race, Nationality, Sex, Selected Ages, and Occupations, Compiled from the Original Returns of the Ninth Census, 4–5.

42. U.S. Congress, Report of the Joint Select Committee to Inquire into the Condition of Affairs in the Late Insurrectionary States, 3:386–92, 388 (quote).

43. Ibid., 2:99; Lincoln, Collected Works, 4:438.

44. Susan Lawrence Davis, Authentic History, Ku Klux Klan, 1865–1877, iii.

45. Everette Swinney, “Enforcing the Fifteenth Amendment, 1870–1877,” 202.

46. Martinez, Carpetbaggers, Cavalry, and the Ku Klux Klan.

47. Grant quoted in Charles Lane, The Day Freedom Died: The Colfax Massacre, the Supreme Court, and the Betrayal of Reconstruction, 7; “What Stephens Thinks of the Compliment to General Gordon,” New York Times, April 5, 1873, 2.

48. Lane, Day Freedom Died, 266.

49. Leo Strauss, Thoughts on Machiavelli, 13; Niccolò Machiavelli, The Prince, 29–30.

50. C. Vann Woodward, The Future of the Past, 195.

51. Leo Strauss, Natural Right and History, 2.

52. Herbert Shapiro, White Violence and Black Response: From Reconstruction to Montgomery, 13–14.

53. Melvin Urofsky and Paul Finkelman, A March of Liberty: A Constitutional History of the United States, 1:480.

54. Herbert Shapiro, “War Darkens Our Future,” Cincinnati Post, May 24, 2006, A13; Herbert Shapiro, “It’s Time for U.S. to Pull Out of Iraq,” Cincinnati Post, July 17, 2007, A9l; Paul Finkelman, “Is Bush the Worst President Ever?”

55. John Lynch, Some Historical Errors of James Ford Rhodes, 4.

56. Jonathan M. Wiener, Social Origins of the New South: Alabama, 1860–1885.

57. Rable, But There Was No Peace, 94.

58. Hyman Rubin III, South Carolina Scalawags; James Alex Baggett, The Scalawags: Southern Dissenters in the Civil War and Reconstruction; Frank J. Wetta, The Louisiana Scalawags: Politics, Race, and Terrorism during the Civil War and Reconstruction(54-51), cially pages 311, 329-3 2003),.

59. C. Vann Woodward, Tom Watson, Agrarian Rebel.

60. “Temper of the South: Letter from Hon. Charles Hays of Alabama,” New York Times, September 16, 1874.

61. Ibid.

62. Jack Hurst, Nathan Bedford Forrest: A Biography, 284; Eddy W. Davison and Daniel Foxx, Nathan Bedford Forrest: In Search of the Enigma, 432.

63. Davison and Foxx, Nathan Bedford Forrest, 440.

64. Hurst, Nathan Bedford Forrest, 307.

65. Ibid., 327; Davison and Foxx, Nathan Bedford Forrest, 457.

66. Davison and Foxx, Nathan Bedford Forrest, 458.

67. Hurst, Nathan Bedford Forrest, 340, 343.

68. Davison and Foxx, Nathan Bedford Forrest, 474–75.

69. Hurst, Nathan Bedford Forrest, 385; Brian S. Wills, “Review of Nathan Bedford Forrest: A Biography, by Jack Hurst,” 1321; Court Carney, “Review of Nathan Bedford Forrest: In Search of the Enigma, by Eddy W. Davison and Daniel Foxx,” 764.

70. Ely Aaronson, From Slave Abuse to Hate Crime: The Criminalization of Racial Violence in American History, 38–39.

71. For a broad survey of homicides during Reconstruction, see Roth, American Homicide, chap. 7, esp. 311, 329–30.

72. C. Vann Woodward, Origins of the New South, 1877–1913, 218, 254–55.

73. William Julius Wilson, The Declining Significance of Race, 54–55.

74. St. George Tucker, A Dissertation on Slavery with a Proposal for the Gradual Abolition of It in the State of Virginia, frontispiece, 77 (emphasis in the original).

75. Winthrop Jordan, The White Man’s Burden: Historical Origins of Racism in the United States, 117.

76. Benjamin Franklin, The Works of Benjamin Franklin, 12:158.

77. Tucker, Dissertation on Slavery, 74–76.

78. Madison, Writings of Madison, 9:37.

79. Betty Wood, Slavery in Colonial America, 1619–1776, 8–9.

80. Edmund S. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia, 155.

81. 4 Annals of Cong. 1021–23, 1023 (quote), 1026–57 (1794).

82. Clarence Edwin Carter and John Porter Bloom, eds., The Territorial Papers of the United States, 9:264.

83. Tucker, Dissertation on Slavery, 75.

84. 35 Annals of Cong. 1211 (1820).

85. 37 ibid. 623.

86. Ibid., 617.

87. Ibid., 621.

88. Jefferson, Works of Jefferson, 4:58.

89. Theodore Roosevelt, “National Life and Character,” 366.

90. John Adams, “Queries Relating to Slavery in Massachusetts,” 401–2.

91. South Carolina General Assembly, House of Representatives, Special Committee on Slavery and the Slave Trade, Report of the Minority of the Special Committee of Seven: To Whom Was Referred So Much of Gov. Adams’ Message, No. 1, as Relates to Slavery and the Slave Trade, 25.

92. Cong. Globe, 35th Cong., 1st Sess. 1281–84 (1858).

93. Charles Nordhoff, America for Free Working Men!, 10, 8.

94. Cong. Globe, 35th Cong., 1st Sess. 2268 (1858).

95. Andrew Johnson, The Papers of Andrew Johnson, 10:43-44.

96. Helper, Impending Crisis, 33, 42, 95, 152–53; Frederickson, “Antislavery Racist,” 33, 36–38.

97. Stephen Middleton, The Black Laws in the Old Northwest: A Documentary History.

98. Paul Goodman, Of One Blood: Abolitionism and the Origins of Racial Equality, 14.

99. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, 3–5.

100. Madison, Writings of Madison, 9:514; Aristotle, Politics, 3.16.1287a28–32, 3.16.1287b15–22, 3.18.1288a33–b2.

101. James Wilson, Collected Works of James Wilson, 1:289–90, 445–46, 712, 716.

102. Garfield, Works of Garfield, 1:322–23.

103. Carl Schurz, Speeches, Correspondence and Political Papers of Carl Schurz, 1:187–90.