1. Nehru letter to John Foster Dulles, 31 Oct. 1956, cited in Sarvepalli Gopal, ‘India, the crisis, and the non-aligned nations’, in Wm. Roger Louis and Roger Owen, eds, Suez 1956: The Crisis and its Consequences (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), 185.
2. Avi Shlaim, ‘The protocol of Sèvres, 1956: Anatomy of a war plot’, International Affairs, 73:3 (1997), 509–29.
3. Colonel Mordechai Bar-On, ‘Three days in Sèvres: Oct. 1956’, History Workshop Journal, 62:1 (2006), 172–4.
4. Bar-On, ‘Three days’, 180–6.
5. Interactions between the Hungarian uprising, which began on 23 Oct. 1956, and the Suez operation, which started a week later, are explored in Peter G. Boyle, ‘The Hungarian revolution and the Suez Crisis’, History 90:300 (2005), 550–65. Boyle concludes that events in Budapest damaged the USSR far more than the Suez humiliation did the Western powers.
6. Sir Pierson Dixon, UK Ambassador at the United Nations, rued this comparison on 5 Nov. 1956. ‘I do not see how we can carry much conviction in our protests against the Russian bombing of Budapest, if we are ourselves bombing Cairo.’ Cited in Wm. Roger Louis, ‘Public enemy number one’, in Lynn, The British Empire, 191.
7. David Reynolds, ‘Eden the diplomatist, 1931–1956: Suezide of a statesman?’ History, 74:1 (1989), 64–84. The fullest account of the crisis is Keith Kyle, Suez (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1992). Ronald Hyam argues that Eden misjudged almost everything and was not up to the job of PM, but acted out of character in demonizing Nasser, see Britain’s Declining Empire, 221–40.
8. Notable early critics were David Carlton, Anthony Eden: A Biography (London: Viking, 1981); Britain and the Suez Crisis (Oxford: Blackwell, 1981); and, from a pro-Nasserite, Mohamed H. Heikal, Cutting the Lion’s Tail: Suez through Egyptian Eyes (London: André Deutsch, 1986). Peter Beck’s articles reveal the efforts made by Eden and his wife, Lady Avon, to rebuff historians’ criticism, plus successive governments’ rejection of a public inquiry into collusion: ‘Politicians versus historians: Lord Avon’s appeasement battle against “lamentably, appeasement-minded” historians’, Twentieth Century British History, 9:3 (1998), 396–419; ‘“The less said about Suez the better”: British governments and the politics of Suez’s history, 1956–67’, EHR, CXXIV:508 (2009), 605–40.
9. Peter L. Hahn, The United States, Great Britain, and Egypt, 1945–1956 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), 224–39.
10. Eden wrote in a Jan. 1957 letter to one of his Cabinet supporters, the Colonial Secretary Alan Lennox-Boyd, that ‘I am sure,—more than I ever have been in my life—that we have only to uphold the decision we took in Egypt to be proved a hundred times right.’ Quoted in Philip Murphy, Alan Lennox-Boyd, 159.
11. Talbot Imlay, ‘A success story? The foreign policies of France’s Fourth Republic’, Contemporary European History, 18:4 (2009), 516–17.
12. BLO, Harold Macmillan papers, 1st series diaries, D26, entry for 28 June 1956.
13. BLO, Viscount (Walter) Monckton papers, box 7, 1956 correspondence, notes of Suez committee proceedings, Sept. 1956.
14. A point strongly made by Ronald Hyam in Britain’s Declining Empire, 227–8.
15. Sue Onslow, ‘“Battlelines for Suez”: The Abadan Crisis of 1951 and the Formation of the Suez Group’, Contemporary British History, 17:2 (2003), 1–28.
16. Tony Shaw, Eden, Suez and the Mass Media: Propaganda and Persuasion during the Suez Crisis (London, I.B. Tauris, 1996), chs 4–7.
17. BLO, Macmillan papers, D27, fo. 55, entry for 23 Aug. 1956; W. Scott Lucas, Divided We Stand: Britain, the US and the Suez Crisis (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1991) 175–8.
18. Macmillan’s spine was stiffened by his son-in-law, Conservative MP (Member of Parliament) and Suez group dynamo Julian Amery: Sue Onslow, ‘Unreconstructed nationalists and a minor gunboat operation: Julian Amery, Neil McLean and the Suez Crisis’, Contemporary British History, 20:1 (2006), 75, 82.
19. A. J. Stockwell, ‘Suez 1956 and the moral disarmament of the British Empire’, in Simon C. Smith, ed., Reassessing Suez 1956: New Perspectives on the Crisis and its Aftermath (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008), 227–31; Saul Kelly and Anthony Gorst, eds, Whitehall and the Suez Crisis; Sue Onslow, Backbench Debate within the Conservative Party and Its Influence on British Foreign Policy 1948–1957 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997), chs 9–10; ‘Unreconstructed nationalists’, 73–99.
20. For clashes between Eden’s government and the BBC, see Shaw, Eden, Suez and the Mass Media, part 2; ‘Eden and the BBC during the 1956 Suez Crisis: A myth re-examined’, Twentieth Century British History, 6:3 (1995), 320–43; Gary D. Rawnsley, ‘Overt and covert: The voice of Britain and black radio broadcasting in the Suez Crisis, 1956’, INS, 11 (1996), 497–522; James R. Vaughan, ‘The BBC’s external services and the Middle East before the Suez Crisis’, Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, 28:4 (2008), 499–514. The daily Arabic broadcasting declined in influence following Nasser’s launch of Radio Cairo’s ‘Voice of the Arabs’ service in 1953.
21. Scott Lucas, ‘Conclusion’ in Smith, Reassessing Suez, 239.
22. Nigel John Ashton, Eisenhower, Macmillan and the Problem of Nasser (Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, 1996); Glen Balfour-Paul, The End of Empire in the Middle East: Britain’s Relinquishment of Power in Her Last Three Arab Dependencies (Cambridge University Press, 1991).
23. Wm. Roger Louis, ‘The tragedy of the Anglo-Egyptian settlement of 1954’, in Louis and Owen, Suez 1956, 48–71. Eden was also instrumental in sealing alliances with Middle Eastern partners, although this fed his misapprehension that Britain could remain a regional arbiter without the USA: Kevin Ruane, ‘SEATO, MEDO, and the Baghdad Pact: Anthony Eden, British foreign policy and the collective defence of Southeast Asia and the Middle East, 1952–1955’, DS, 16:1 (2005), 171–3, 180–93.
24. John Kent, British Imperial Strategy, 133–4; BDEEP, series B, vol. 4: John Kent, ed., Egypt and the Defence of the Middle East, part II, docs. 180, 186–7, 193, 196–8, 202.
25. Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire, 221–6.
26. TNA, DEFE 10/324, Working Party on Middle East redeployment, ‘Outline of the current state of affairs’, 12 Mar. 1952; Michael Mason, ‘The decisive volley: The battle of Ismailia and the decline of British influence in Egypt, January–July, 1952’, JICH, 19:1 (1991), 45–64.
27. Darwin, The Empire Project, 598–9; Michael Thornhill, ‘Britain, the United States and the rise of an Egyptian leader: The politics and diplomacy of Nasser’s consolidation of Power, 1952–4’, EHR, 119:483 (2004), 892–921.
28. Daniel Le Couriard, ‘Les Socialistes et les débuts de la guerre d’Indochine (1946–1947)’, Revue d’Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine, 31 (1984), 339–48; Gérard Bossuat, ‘Guy Mollet: La Puissance française autrement’, Relations Internationales, 57:1 (1989), 26–7.
29. Redha Malek, L’Algérie à Evian: Histoire des négociations secrètes, 1956–1962 (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1995), 24–6; Mohammed Harbi, Le F.L.N.: Mirage et réalité: Des origines à la prise du pouvoir (1945–1962) (Paris: Editions J.A., 1985), 197. These talks, conducted with FLN executive members Mohammed Yazid and Mohammed Khider, included meetings in Belgrade (July) and Rome (Sept.). The Algerians were rightly sceptical that the Socialists could carry the government and armed forces with them.
30. Martin Thomas, The French North African Crisis: Colonial Breakdown and Anglo-French Relations, 1945–1962 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2000), 104–5, 129.
31. François Bédarida and Jean-Pierre Rioux, eds, Pierre Mendès France et le mendésisme: L’Expérience gouvernementale et sa posterité (1954–1955) (Paris: Fayard 1985); J. Chêne, E. Aberdam, and H. Morsel, eds, Pierre Mendès France: La Morale en politique (Grenoble: Presses Universitaires de Grenoble, 1990).
32. Denis Lefebvre, Guy Mollet: Le Mal Aimé (Paris: Plon, 1992), 177–8.
33. Thomas, French North African Crisis, 109–20.
34. Bertjan Verbeek, Decision-Making in Great Britain during the Suez Crisis: Small Groups and a Persistent Leader (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003), 17–30.
35. Christopher Brady, ‘The Cabinet system and management of the Suez Crisis’, Contemporary British History, 11:2 (1997), 77–84; Charles Cogan, ‘De la politique du mensonge’, in Maurice Vaïsse, ed., La France et l’opération de Suez de 1956 (Paris: ADDIM, 1997), 130–1.
36. Sharkey, Living with Colonialism, 71–3, 91, quotation at 71.
37. Janice Boddy, Civilizing Women: British Crusades in Colonial Sudan (Princeton University Press, 2007), 284–310 passim, quotation at 310.
38. W. Travis Hanes III, Imperial Diplomacy in the Era of Decolonization: The Sudan and Anglo-Egyptian Relations, 1945–1956 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1995), chs 4–6.
39. Wm. Roger Louis, ‘The dissolution of the British Empire’, in Brown and Louis, OHBE, iv, 340–1.
40. TNA, Macmillan Private Office papers, FO 800/678, Ivone Kirkpatrick minute, 23 Nov. 1955.
41. TNA, FO 371/118676, J1023/6G, Selwyn Lloyd memo, ‘Communism and Africa’, 21 Apr. 1956.
42. Nasser confided to Tito and Nehru in July 1956 talks on the Yugoslavian island of Brioni that Soviet arms supplies were useful diplomatic levers. The ‘Brioni Declaration’ also affirmed the non-aligned nations’ support for Algerian independence, see: Heikal, Cutting the Lion’s Tail, 98–9, 112–13; DDF, 1956, II, no. 59 n. 2.
43. Project Alpha was a counterpoise to Egypt’s Nov. 1955 arms deal with Czechoslovakia, see Shimon Shamir, ‘The collapse of Project Alpha’, in Louis and Owen, Suez 1956, 78–99. The Aswan Dam project promised Egypt hydro-electric power and extensive cotton irrigation. By the time the Americans withdrew financial support for it on 19 July, Nasser had secured alternative Soviet funding: Douglas Little, ‘The Cold War in the Middle East: Suez Crisis to Camp David Accords’, in Leffler and Westad, Cambridge History of the Cold War, ii, 306–7.
44. To British annoyance, the French became principal supplier to the Israeli air-force, having provided surplus weaponry, including Mosquito fighter-bombers, during the 1948 war, see: Zach Levey, ‘French–Israeli Relations, 1950–1956: The strategic dimension’, in Smith, Reassessing Suez, 87–106.
45. Harold Dooley, ‘Great Britain’s “last battle” in the Middle East: Notes on Cabinet planning during the Suez Crisis of 1956’, IHR, 11:3 (1989), 487–90; Kyle, Suez, 91–6; Onslow, ‘Unreconstructed’, 77.
46. TNA, Eden papers, FO 800/726, Prime Minister’s telegram to Eisenhower, no. 3568, 5 Aug. 1956.
47. MAE, série Europe 1944–1960, sous-série Grande-Bretagne, vol. 138, London tel. 3006, Chauvel to Christian Pineau, 27 July 1956.
48. TNA, Eden papers, FO 800/726, Prime Minister’s telegrams to Eisenhower, nos. 3568, 4061, 5181, 5 Aug., 6 Sept., and 5 Nov. 1956.
49. Hugh Gaitskell, The Diary of Hugh Gaitskell, 1945–1956, ed. Philip M. Williams (London: Jonathan Cape, 1983), entry for 30 July 1956, 558–9, Bevan quotation at 549.
50. James Jankowski, Nasser’s Egypt, Arab Nationalism, and the United Arab Republic (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2002), 1–2, 11–18, chs 3–4. Labour backbencher Richard Crossman may have done so. He held informal discussions with Nasser and Colonel Anwar Sadat in Cairo in late Dec. 1953. Nasser, in Crossman’s account, was unwilling as yet to contemplate using force against Britain: The Backbench Diaries of Richard Crossman, ed. Janet Morgan (London: Book Club, 1981) 287.
51. What resistance historian Rod Kedward terms its ‘ambivalent legacy’ became more complex as French practices in Algeria became dirtier and a small minority of French men and women turned, instead, to supporting FLN ‘resistance’ networks, see Kedward, La Vie en bleu, 336–48. Equally revealing is Martin Evans, The Memory of Resistance: French Opposition to the Algerian War, 1954–1962 (Oxford: Berg, 1997).
52. Amery and Mclean’s involvement with MI6 deputy-chief George Young, their clandestine work against Nasser, and Amery’s contacts with Bourgès-Maunoury, and Mollet are reconstructed by Sue Onslow, ‘Unreconstructed Nationalists’, 75–95. In the weeks leading up to the Suez operation, Amery offered a back-channel to the French ministers, who were worried about faltering British resolve.
53. Georgette Elgey, ‘Le Gouvernement Guy Mollet et l’intervention’, and Charles-Robert Ageron, ‘L’Opération de Suez et la guerre d’Algérie’, in Vaïsse, La France et l’opération, 27–8, 43–9; DDF, 1956, II, nos. 109 and 112.
54. SHD-DAT, 1H1374/D2, ‘Situation des effectifs stationnées en AFN, 1 janvier 1956’.
55. TNA, FO 371/113797, Algiers Consulate to FO African Dept., 10 Jan. 1956.
56. Martin Thomas ‘Order before reform: The spread of French military operations in Algeria, 1954–1958’, in David Killingray and David Omissi, eds, Guardians of Empire: The Armed Forces of the Colonial Powers, c.1700–1964 (Manchester University Press, 1999), 198–220.
57. Philip M. Williams, Crisis and Compromise, 48–9.
58. ‘Dictatorship of the Populace’, New York Times, 7 Feb. 1956.
59. Samuel Kalman, ‘Le Combat par tous les moyens: Colonial violence and the extreme right in 1930s Oran’, FHS, 34:1 (2011), 125–53.
60. Martin Evans, Algeria: France’s Undeclared War (Oxford University Press, 2012), ch. 6.
61. Henri Lerner, Catroux (Paris: Albin Michel, 1990), 325–6; DDF, 1955, II, docs. 157, 172, 199.
62. Shepard, Invention of Decolonization, 47–54, 75–7; Stephen Tyre, ‘From Algérie française to France musulmane: Jacques Soustelle and the myths and realities of ‘integration’, 1955–1962’, FH, 20:3 (2006), 276–96.
63. Danièl Joly, The French Communist Party and the Algerian War (Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, 1991), 93–9.
64. TNA, FO 371/118676, J1023/16, FO minute by I.C. Alexander, 5 May 1956.
65. ‘Testimony of Georges Mattéi’, in Martin Alexander, Martin Evans, and J.F.V. Keiger, eds, The Algerian War and the French Army: Experiences, Images, Testimonies (Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2002), 250.
66. Danièle Joly, ‘France’s military involvement in Algeria: The PCF and the oppositionels’, in Scriven and Wagstaff, War and Society, 141–5; Evans, Algeria, ch. 6.
67. Raphaëlle Branche, L’Embuscade de Palestro: Algérie 1956 (Paris: Armand Colin, 2010), 7–9, chs 1–4, France Dimanche image, p. 54. One of the captured men died in an army rescue operation; two others were never found.
68. Roger Faligot and Pascal Krop, La Piscine: Les Services secrets français 1944–1984 (Paris: Seuil, 1985), 139–44.
69. MAE, série Europe 1944–1960, sous-série Grande-Bretagne, vol. 142 ‘Compterendu de la visite en Algérie des Parlementaires britanniques, 15–22 octobre 1956’.
70. The Diary of Hugh Gaitskell, 1945–1956, letters to Eden and replies, 3–10 Aug. 1956, pp. 570–5.
71. MAE, Europe 1944–1960, sous-série Grande-Bretagne, vol. 139, London tel. 1598/DP, Jean Chauvel to Christian Pineau, 3 Sept. 1956.
72. Maurice Vaïsse, ‘France and the Suez Crisis’, in Louis and Owen, Suez 1956, 137. Pineau rewrote his part in events, using the fact that his Foreign Ministry was ignored by Bourgès-Maunoury’s defence planners to suggest that he doubted the wisdom of intervention, see Pineau, Suez 1956 (Paris: Robert Laffont, 1976).
73. Faligot and Krop, La Piscine, 148; Douglas Porch, The French Secret Services: From the Dreyfus Affair to the Gulf War (London: Macmillan, 1996), 366–72.
74. TNA, Macmillan private office papers, FO 800/672, WF1051/33. Gladwyn Jebb conversation with Ambassador Jean Chauvel, 7 June 1955.
75. Cited in Levey, ‘French–Israeli Relations’, 102; see also Lucas, Divided We Stand, 158–60.
76. SHD-DAT, 9U4/D15, ‘Situation militaire au Moyen-Orient en date du 26 septembre 1956’.
77. William I. Hitchcock, ‘Crisis and modernization in the Fourth French Republic: From Suez to Rome’, in Mouré and Alexander, Crisis and Renewal, 232.
78. Lord Gladwyn, Memoirs of Lord Gladwyn (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1972), 282; Shlaim, ‘The Protocol’, 514–15.
79. MAE, série Europe 1944–1960, sous-série Grande-Bretagne, vol. 139, Pineau radio broadcast, 14 Sept. 1956.
80. Dalloz, ‘Alain Savary’, 42–54.
81. Omar Carlier, Alain Savary, politique d’honneur (Paris: Presses de Sciences Po., 2002), ch. 9.
82. TNA, FO 371/119558, JN10317/15, A.C.E. Malcolm to FO African Dept., 24 Oct. 1956; DDF, 1956, I, nos. 187, 236, 253.
83. Evans, Algeria, 186–7.
84. Pierre Dubois, ‘L’Aéronautique navale et les opérations d’Algérie, 1954–1962’, Revue Historique des Armées, 187 (1992), 113.
85. Mohamed Fathi Al Dib, Nasser’s liaison officer to the FLN, notes that the President sanctioned arms shipments to ALN fighters soon after the Algerian rebellion began in Nov. 1954. An Egyptian naval officer, Azzat Soliman, was appointed to find suitable vessels and the first materiel arrived in western Algeria in Dec. At least ten successful deliveries were made before the Athos (originally a British-registered ship) was impounded. The Egyptians also trained ALN guerrillas in Spanish Morocco, activity monitored by the SDECE. Mohamed Fathi Al Dib, Abdel Nasser et la Révolution algérienne (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1985), 41–3, 175–6; Malek, L’Algérie à Evian, 23–9.
86. USNA, RG 59, 751S.00, Ambassador Dillon to John Foster Dulles, 23 Oct. 1956.
87. MAE, série Amérique, sous-série: États-Unis, 1952–1963, vol. 342, Washington tel. 6589, 23 Oct. 1956.
88. This paragraph draws on my French North African Crisis, 114. The key information about who approved what came from Savary’s disgruntled chef de cabinet Jean Chazel in conversation with US Ambassador Dillon in Paris on 24 Oct.: NARA, RG 59, 751S.00 box 3378, Memo of conversation. Also useful is Lefebvre, Guy Mollet, 228–32.
89. TNA, FO 371/131663, JR1016/26, copy of US State Dept research branch report, ‘The leadership of the Algerian Liberation Front’, 22 May 1958; Harbi, Le F.L.N.: Mirage et Réalité, 184–92.
90. Peter G. Boyle, ed., The Eden-Eisenhower Correspondence, 1955–1957 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 149, 163, 167–8; Hahn, The United States, 212–13.
91. Cited in Darwin, The Empire Project, 603.
92. Diane B. Kunz, ‘The importance of having money: The economic diplomacy of the Suez Crisis’, in Louis and Owen, Suez 1956, 215–16; for an insider’s summary of the US position, see (former Assistant Secretary of State) Robert Bowie’s ‘Eisenhower, Dulles, and the Suez Crisis’, in the same volume, 189–214.
93. Hahn, The United States, 231–5.
94. Steven G. Galpern, Money, 178–92.
95. Kunz, ‘The Importance of Having Money’, 217–31; The Economic Diplomacy of the Suez Crisis (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), 29, 50, 116–52.
96. Martin Lynn, introduction to The British Empire in the 1950s, 8.
97. Thompson, introduction to Britain’s Experience of Empire, 8.
98. Wm. Roger Louis, ‘American anti-colonialism and the dissolution of the British Empire’, International Affairs, 61:3 (1985), 414.
99. MAE, série Europe 1944–1960, sous-série Grande-Bretagne, vol. 139, London tel. 5253, 28 Nov. 1956.
100. Louis, ‘Public enemy’, 190.
101. Stockwell, ‘Suez 1956’, 231–42; Robert Holland, Britain and the Revolt in Cyprus, 1954–1959 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998), 144–7, 157–71.
102. For the remarkable extent of Amery’s plotting, see Sue Onslow, ‘Julian Amery and the Suez Crisis’, in Smith, Suez Reassessed, 71–5.
103. Sabine Jansen, ed., Les Grands Discours parlémentaires de la Quatrième République de Pierre Mendès France à Charles de Gaulle (Paris: Armand Colin, 2006), 234–40.
104. MAE, série Europe 1944–1960, sous-série Grande-Bretagne, vol. 139, Direction générale politique circular to overseas posts, 31 Oct. 1956.
105. This minor diplomatic offensive was prompted by Hervé Alphand, French representative to the UN, who signalled the likely damage to French interests in the US and among UN member states: DDF, 1956, III, nos. 74 and 77.
106. TNA, FO 371/130625, WF1011/1, annual review for France, 21 Jan. 1957; Maurice Vaïsse, ‘Aux origines du mémorandum de septembre 1958’, Relations Internationales, 58 (1989), 254.
107. Maurice Vaïsse, ‘Post-Suez France’, in Louis and Owen, Suez 1956, 339.
108. Vaïsse, ‘Post-Suez France’, 336–40. ‘Europe will be your revenge’, Adenauer was reputed to have told Mollet on 6 Nov. 1956, the very day Operation Musketeer was halted.
109. TNA, DEFE 7/1127, General Keightley report, ‘Operations in Egypt, November to December 1956’, 10 June 1957; SHD-DAT, 9U4/D51, no. 281/GH1, ‘Rapport du Général Brohon’, 27 Nov. 1956.
110. TNA, FO 800/727, Selwyn Lloyd papers, tel. DTG 010900/Z.
111. TNA, FO 800/727, Lloyd papers, tel. 2363, 1 Nov. 1956.
112. Crossman, The Backbench Diaries of Richard Crossman, 551–2.
113. SHD-DAT, 9U4/D53, ‘Amiral Barjot projet pour Général Keightley’, n.d., Nov. 1956; André Beaufre, The Suez Expedition, 1956 (London: Faber and Faber, 1969), 108–21.
114. TNA, FO 800/727, Lloyd papers, Paris Embassy telegram 2570, 9 Nov. 1956. Ironically, Mollet accepted this request: telegram 414, Isaacson to FO, 10 Nov. 1956.
115. NARA, RG 59, 751S.00, box 3378, Consul Lewis Clark to State Dept., 9 Oct. 1956; Jacques Massu, La Vraie Bataille d’Alger (Paris: Plon, 1971).
116. SHD-DAT, 9U4/D52, Barjot report, ‘Conclusions à tirer de l’opération EGYPTE’, 31 Dec. 1956.
117. Dunn, The First Vietnam War; Timothy O. Smith, Britain and the Origins of the Vietnam War: UK Policy in Indochina, 1943–1950 (Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2007).
118. Nicholas J. White, ‘Decolonisation in the 1950s: The version according to British business’, in Lynn, The British Empire, 102.
119. I differ slightly here from Matthew Connelly’s key argument that the FLN transformed the war’s stakes—and ultimately won it—by taking its arguments to an international audience: Matthew Connelly, A Diplomatic Revolution: Algeria’s Fight for Independence and the Origins of the Post-Cold War Era (Oxford University Press, 2002), 278–81.
120. Sohail H. Hashmi, ‘Zero plus zero plus zero’: Pakistan, the Baghdad Pact, and the Suez Crisis’, IHR, 33:3 (2011), 525–44. The Baghdad Pact, a collective security treaty between Britain, Pakistan, Turkey, Iran, and Iraq, was under a year old when the Suez nationalization occurred.
121. Louis, ‘Public Enemy’, 192–3. Wm. Roger Louis contends that Britain’s hypocritical rhetoric about self-determination stirred UN criticism. France, like Portugal, was at least blatantly ‘colonialist’, although the French, too, were exasperated by General Assembly attacks, see my ‘France accused: French North Africa before the United Nations, 1952–1962’, Contemporary European History, 10:1 (2001), 91–121.
122. MAE, série Europe 1944–1960, sous-série Grande-Bretagne, vol. 138, Cairo tels. 724 and 727, Dorget to Foreign Ministry, 3 Aug. 1956.
123. MAE, série Europe 1944–1960, sous-série Grande-Bretagne, vol. 138, General Marcel Pénette, Washington Military Attaché, to Ministry of National Defence, 8 Aug. 1956.
124. Quoted in Peter Hennessey and Mark Laity, ‘Suez—what the papers say’, Contemporary Record, 1 (Apr. 1987), 8.
1. TNA, FO 371/21605, C15366/141/17, Consul Helm-Smith (Tananarive) to FO, 4 Nov. 1938.
2. Jean-François Zorn, ‘When French Protestants replaced British Missionaries in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, or, How to avoid the colonial trap’, in White and Daughton, In God’s Empire, ch. 10.
3. Gwyn Campbell, ‘The Menalamba Revolt and brigandry in imperial Madagascar, 1820–1897’, International Journal of African Historical Studies 24:2 (1991), 259–61, 288–91. The revolt was so-called because of the ‘Mena’ (red) daub on their clothing (lamba).
4. Gwyn Campbell, ‘Crisis of faith and colonial conquest: The impact of famine and disease in late nineteenth-century Madagascar’, Cahier d’Études africaines, 32:127 (1992), 409–53; ‘Missionaries, Fanompoana and the Menalamba Revolt in late nineteenth-century Madagascar’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 15:1 (1988), 54–73; Stephen Ellis, ‘The political elite of Imerina and the revolt of the Menalamba: The creation of a colonial myth in Madagascar, 1895–1898’, JAH, 21 (1980), 221–33. The Anglican Church, largely staffed by the London Missionary Society, was declared the state church of Imerina in 1869.
5. Yves G. Paillard, ‘Domination coloniale et récupération des traditions autochtones: Le Cas de Madagascar de 1896 à 1914’, Revue d’Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine, 38 :1 (1991), 82–104.
6. Gwyn Campbell, ‘Unfree labour and the significance of abolition in Madagascar, c.1825–97’, in Gwyn Campbell, ed., Abolition and its Aftermath in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia (London: Routledge, 2005), 5, 66–82.
7. Gwyn Campbell, ‘Madagascar and the slave trade, 1810–1895’, JAH, 22:2 (1981), 207–27. Madagascar’s slaving was variously sustained in the nineteenth century by Mauritius-based British traders, Zanzibar-based Omani traders, and Creole traders from various Indian Ocean settlements.
8. Solofo Randrianja, Société et luttes anticoloniales à Madagascar (1896 à 1946) (Paris: Karthala, 2001), chs 3–4.
9. TNA, FO 371/21605, C15366/141/17, Helm-Smith to Foreign Office, 4 Nov. 1938.
10. Francis Koerner, Madagascar: Colonisation française et nationalisme malgache, 191–4, 307–12; Jennings, Vichy in the Tropics, 31–78.
11. Jacques Tronchon, L’Insurrection malgache de 1947 (Paris: Karthala, 1986), 23–4.
12. G. Wesley Johnson, ‘African political activity in French West Africa, 1900–1945’, in Michael Crowder and J. Ajayi, eds, History of West Africa (Harlow: Longman, 1987), 542.
13. Lucile Rabearimanana, ‘Les Malgaches et l’idée d’indépendance de 1945 à 1956’, in Ageron, Chemins, 263; Martin Shipway, ‘Madagascar on the Eve of Insurrection, 1944–7: The Impasse of a Liberal Colonial Policy,’ JICH, 24:1 (1996)’, 81–2.
14. ANOM, 3D34: Mission Merat report, 20 July 1949. The Free French administration established a new ‘native affairs’ service, or ‘direction des affaires Malgaches’, on 27 Dec. 1943.
15. Liliana Mosca, ‘À l’origine de la répression de 1947 à Madagascar: Raisons nationales ou logique internationale?’, Africa: Rivista trimestrale di studi e documentazione dell’Istituto Italiano per l’Africa e l’Oriente, 62:2 (2007), 258–9.
16. Virginia Thompson and Richard Adloff, The Malagasy Republic: Madagascar Today (Stanford University Press, 1965), 54–5.
17. AN, BB18 37762, sous-dossier: émeutes de Madagascar, mars 1947, no. 344/RC, Le Procureur général près la Cour d’appel de Madagascar et dépendances, Tananarive, à Monsieur le Garde des sceaux, 19 Apr. 1947; Rabearimanana, ‘Les Malgaches’, 267.
18. AN, BB18 37762, sous-dossier: Émeutes de Madagascar, mars 1947, no. 344/RC, 19 Apr. 1947.
19. Tronchon, L’Insurrection malgache, 40–53.
20. Tronchon, L’Insurrection malgache, 56–63. There was some vengefulness in the repression, the Tristani camp of the tirailleurs sénégalais having been attacked on the rebellion’s first night.
21. AN, BB18 37762, de Coppet speech to Representative Assembly, Antsirabe, 19 Apr. 1947.
22. AN, BB18 37762, sous-dossier: émeutes de Madagascar, mars 1947, Raseta letter to Vincent Auriol, 15 Apr. 1947.
23. Thompson and Adloff, The Malagasy Republic, 65.
24. The fallacy of reducing the rebellion to the work of a single umbrella movement is a central argument of Jacques Tronchon’s L’Insurrection malgache, 11, 22–36.
25. AN, BB18 37762: Troubles de Madagascar, arrestations de parlementaires, Ravoahanguy—Rabemanandjara, 15 Apr. 1947; Tronchon, L’Insurrection malgache, ‘Statuts du MDRM’, 249–51.
26. Jennifer Cole, Forget Colonialism: Sacrifice and the Art of Memory in Madagascar (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2001), 229.
27. Solofo Randrianja, ‘Aux origines du M.D.R.M. 1939–1946’, in Francis Arzalier and Jean Suret-Canale, eds, Madagascar 1947: La Tragédie oubliée (Paris: Temps des Cérises, 1999), 65–79.
28. Douglas Little, ‘Cold War and colonialism in Africa: The United States, France, and the Madagascar Revolt of 1947’, Pacific Historical Review, 59:4 (1990), 529, 535–8.
29. ANOM, 6(2)D123, sous-dossier: HCRF Madagascar, no. 476/DISCF, R. Baron, Chef de la Sûreté Générale Tananarive, 17 Jan. 1947; no. 704/DISCF, ‘Renseignements’, 23 Jan. 1947.
30. Rabearimanana, ‘Les Malgaches’, 265; Raymond Delval, ‘L’Histoire du PADESM (Parti des déshérités de Madagascar), ou, Quelques faits oubliés de l’histoire malgache’, in Ageron, Chemins, 276–7.
31. Delval, ‘L’Histoire du PADESM’, 277–8.
32. ANOM, 6(2)D176, ‘Renseignements sur le PADESM, rivalités avec le MDRM, 1946–56’; Shipway, ‘Madagascar’, 91–4.
33. Gérard Bossuat, ‘Le Plan Marshall dans la modernisation de la France’, in Serge Berstein and Pierre Milza, eds, L’Année 1947 (Paris: Presses de Sciences Po., 2000), 58–61.
34. Olivier Dard, ‘Théoriciens et praticiens de l’économie: Un changement de paradigm’, in Berstein and Milza, L’Année 1947, 78–93 passim.
35. René Gallissot, La République française et les indigènes: Algérie colonisée, Algérie algérienne (1870–1962) (Paris: Éditions de l’Atelier, 2006), 162–5.
36. ANOM, Affaires Politiques, C2116/D2, EMGDN, ‘Note sur le Statut de l’Algérie’, n.d., May 1947; Odile Rudelle, ‘Le Vote du statut de l’Algérie’, in Berstein and Milza, L’Année 1947, 313–14; Lewis, ‘French Politics and the Algerian Statute’, 147–72.
37. The Sétif uprising is discussed in ch. 11.
38. Christine Sellin, ‘Paul Ramadier et l’Indochine en 1947’, in Serge Berstein, ed., Paul Ramadier: La République et la Socialisme (Paris: Complexe, 1990), 377–85; B.D. Graham, Choice and Democratic Order: The French Socialist Party, 1937–1950 (Cambridge University Press, 1994), 369–72; Martin Thomas, ‘The colonial policies of the Mouvement Républicain Populaire, 1944–1954: From reform to reaction’, EHR, 118:476 (2003), 380–411.
39. AN, Fonds MRP, 350AP7, Dossier: 1MRP6/Dr. 2, Secrétariat Général ‘Note sur l’organisation du M.R.P.’, n.d.; Henri Descamps, La Démocratie Chrétienne et le MRP: De 1946 à 1959, book 3, 171–223; Letamendia, Le Mouvement Républicain Populaire, 151–251.
40. Serge Berstein, ‘De Gaulle, l’état, la république’, in Fondation Charles de Gaulle, actes du colloque, De Gaulle et le Rassemblement du peuple français (1947–1955) (Paris: Armand Colin, 1998), 386–8.
41. Frédéric Turpin, ‘Le RPF et la guerre d’Indochine (1947–1954)’, in Fondation Charles de Gaulle, De Gaulle et le Rassemblement du peuple français, 530–1.
42. Lewis, ‘The MRP’, 298–302.
43. Irwin M. Wall, French Communism in the Era of Stalin (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1984), ch. 3.
44. Marc Michel, ‘L’Empire colonial dans les débats parlémentaires’, in Berstein and Milza, L’Année 1947, 191–201.
45. AN, UDSR papers, 412AP/1, ‘Réflexions sur l’UDSR’, 8 July 1946; Philip M. Williams, Crisis and Compromise, 174–5.
46. Dalloz L’Humanité on Indochina
47. Jean-Jacques Becker, ‘L’Anti-communisme de l’SFIO’, in Berstein, ed., Paul Ramadier, 199–201.
48. Bruce D. Graham, ‘Le Choix atlantique ou troisième force internationale?’ in Berstein, Paul Ramadier, 160; Bruno Béthouart, ‘Le MRP, un nouveau partenaire’, in Serge Berstein, Frédéric Cépède, Gilles Morin and Antoine Prost, eds, Le Parti Socialiste entre Résistance et République (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 2000), 257–8.
49. AN, BB18 37762, sous-dossier: émeutes de Madagascar, mars 1947, de Coppet tel., 12 Apr. 1947.
50. AN, BB18 37762, de Coppet tel. to Ministry of Overseas France, 13 Apr. 1947.
51. Thompson and Adloff, The Malagasy Republic, 64–7. Only 75 Deputies attended the first National Assembly debate on the Madagascar Revolt.
52. Jacqueline Lévi-Valensi, ed., Camus at Combat: Writing, 1944–1947 (Princeton University Press, 2006), 290.
53. AN, BB18 37762: Troubles de Madagascar, ‘Procès de Tananarive’.
54. Thompson and Adloff, The Malagasy Republic, 54; Christian Bidégaray, ‘Le Tabou de l’indépendance dans les débats constituants: 1945–1958’, in Ageron and Michel, L’Afrique noire, 194.
55. Yves Beigbeder, Judging War Crimes and Torture: French Justice and International Criminal Tribunals and Commissions (1940–2005) (Leiden: Brill Academic, 2006), 83–4; Jacques Tronchon, ‘La Nuit la plus longue … du 29 au 30 mars 1947’, in Arzalier and Suret-Canale, eds, Madagascar 1947, 118–26.
56. Beigbeder, Judging War Crimes, 87–8; Tronchon, L’Insurrection malgache, 329–33.
57. Beigbeder, Judging War Crimes, 87–8.
58. Mairéad Ni Bhriain, ‘Intellectual discourse and the trial of the Malagasy deputies’, in Antoine Masson and Kevin O’Connor, eds, Representations of Justice (Brussels: Peter Lang, 2007), 64–5.
59. Beigbeder, Judging War Crimes, 85–8. This prosecutor exceeded his authority here as the three men were originally charged, not with murder (to which a death sentence could apply) but with organizing sedition, a political crime for which the death penalty was abolished in 1848.
60. Thompson and Adloff, The Malagasy Republic, 67.
61. AN, BB18 37762, no. 226, Minister for Overseas France to Prime Minister’s office, 5 Mar. 1948.
62. Sorum, Intellectuals and Decolonization, 42, 57. The former deputies were not permitted to return to Madagascar before independence in 1960, however.
63. ANOM, 3D32, Mission Demaille, 1947–48, no. 2/DC, Inspecteur des Colonies Demaille to Ministre de la France d’Outre-Mer, Tamatave, 12 Oct. 1947.
64. ANOM, 3D32, Mission Demaille, ‘Rapport concernant le problème de la récupération des stocks de café des campagnes antérieures dans les districts touchés par la rébellion’, 28 Oct. 1947.
65. TNA, FO 371/73721, J908/1019/69, Consular report on the Madagascar rebellion, 26 Jan. 1949.
66. Tronchon, L’Insurrection malgache, dossier 7: ‘Témoignages d’Européens sur l’insurrection’, 268–75. Rural settlers’ fear of sudden attack was a perennial aspect of colonial rule, but levels of colonial repression in response to it increased markedly after World War I: see Ann Laura Stoler, ‘Sexual affronts and racial frontiers: European identities and the cultural politics of exclusion in colonial Southeast Asia’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 34:3 (1992), 514–51; David Anderson, ‘Sexual threat and settler society: Black perils in Kenya, c.1907–1930’, JICH, 38:1 (2010), 47–74; Martin Thomas, ‘Eradicating “Communist banditry” in French Vietnam: The rhetoric of repression after the Yen Bay Uprising, 1930–32’, FHS, 34:3 (2011), 611–48.
67. ANOM, 6(2)D123, no. 97/S/D1, R. Baron, Chef de la Sûreté, ‘Renseignements’, 22 Jan. 1948.
68. Tronchon, L’Insurrection malgache, 48–53.
69. ANOM, 3D32, Mission Demaille, ‘Rapport concernant le rétablissement de la confiance franco-malgache’, Tananarive, 4 June 1948.
70. Jennifer Cole and Karen Middleton, ‘Rethinking ancestors and colonial power in Madagascar’, Africa, 71:1 (2001), 10–11; Cole, ‘Narratives and moral projects: Generational memories of the Malagasy 1947 rebellion’, Ethos, 31:1 (2003), 104, 111.
71. AN, BB18 37762, no. 31035, Ministère de la France d’Outre-Mer, Services judiciaires, Ministre de la France d’Outre-Mer a Monsieur le Garde des Sceaux, 27 June 1952. In total, Madagascar’s civil courts sentenced 3,629 people for involvement in the uprising. Of these, 128 received the death penalty, 283 received life terms, and 3,218 received lesser terms of imprisonment, often with forced labour.
72. Thompson and Adloff, The Malagasy Republic, 56, 66. Numbers of summary killings are unverified.
73. Cooper, Decolonization, 187–8.
74. Thompson and Adloff, The Malagasy Republic, 60–3.
75. Rabearimanana, ‘Les Malgaches et l’idée d’indépendance’, 268–70.
76. Beigbeder, Judging War Crimes, 83–4.
77. Cooper, Decolonization, 225–6.
78. ANOM, 3D32: Mission Demaille, 1947–48, ‘Rapport concernant le rétablissement de la confiance franco-malgache’, Tananarive, 4 June 1948.
79. Little, ‘Cold War and colonialism’, 542; Tronchon, L’Insurrection malgache, dossier 8: ‘Témoignages sur les tortures’, 276–87.
80. Beigbeder, Judging War Crimes, 83.
81. ANOM, 3D32, Mission Demaille, comments by Pierre de Chevigné, 4 June 1948.
82. Thompson and Adloff, The Malagasy Republic, 62.
83. Lucile Rabearimanana, ‘Femmes Merina et vie politique à Madagascar durant la décolonisation’, in Chantal Chanson-Jabeur and Odile Goerg, eds, ‘Mama Africa’ (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2006), 320–7.
84. ANOM, 3D34: Mission Merat, 1949, Report on Nosy Lava penitentiary, 20 May 1949. The bagne was the colloquial term for a penal colony, i.e. any prison system with forced labour, particularly the French Guyana penal colony, infamous for its appalling conditions.
85. Ibid. 271–4; Delval, ‘L’Histoire du PADESM’, 287.
86. Lucile Rabearimanana, ‘Les Tananariviens face à la proclamation de l’indépendance de Madagascar’, in Ageron and Michel, eds, L’Afrique noire, 577–9.
87. SHD-DAT, 14H48/D2, ‘Plan de mobilisation en cas de troubles graves des T. O. M.’, 26 Aug. 1958.
88. Octave Mannoni, ‘Psychologie de la révolte malgache’, Esprit, 166 (Apr. 1950), 581–95.
89. Cole, ‘Narratives’, 110–16.
90. Mosca, ‘À l’origine de la répression’, 262–72.
91. Lorcin, Historicizing Colonial Nostalgia, 146–7.
1. The parallels between the Madagascar insurrection and the Mau Mau are succinctly described—and rejected—by Martin Shipway, Decolonisation and Its Impact, 144–7.
2. David French, The British Way, chs 4–5.
3. Lynn, introduction’ to The British Empire in the 1950s, 2–5.
4. Philip Murphy, Party Politics and Decolonization: The Conservative Party and British Colonial Policy in Tropical Africa, 1951–1964 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1995), 50; Ronald Hyam, ‘The geopolitical origins of the Central African Federation: Britain, Rhodesia and South Africa, 1948–1953’, HJ, 30:1 (1987), 145–8.
5. John Darwin calls the federation ‘a bizarre construct of grand imperial strategy and settler sub-imperialism’, Darwin, ‘The Central African Emergency, 1959’, JICH, 21:3 (1993), 219.
6. Murphy, Party Politics, 58–9, 73–7. The three conglomerates were British South Africa (BSA), the Rhodesian Selection Trust, and Rhodesian Anglo-American Limited.
7. Philip Murphy, ‘Intelligence and decolonization: The life and death of the federal intelligence and security bureau, 1954–63’, JICH, 29:2 (2001), 104–12; Darwin, ‘Central African Emergency’, 219.
8. L. J. Butler, Copper Empire: Mining and the Colonial State in Northern Rhodesia, c.1930–1964 (Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2007), 201–5.
9. Hyam, ‘The geopolitical origins’, 156–7.
10. Philip Murphy, ‘“Government by blackmail”: The origins of the Central African Federation reconsidered’, in Lynn, The British Empire, 53–73; ‘“An intricate and distasteful subject”: British planning for the use of force against the European settlers of Central Africa, 1952–1965’, EHR, CXXI:492 (2006), 750.
11. L. J. Butler, ‘Britain, the United States, and the demise of the Central African Federation, 1959–63’, JICH, 28:3 (2000), 131–4; Darwin, ‘Central African Emergency’, 217.
12. Murphy, Party Politics, 61–8, 86–7, 231–2; Racial discrimination was embedded in Southern Rhodesian law and ‘insolent’ African behaviour, particularly in the workplace, was liable to punishment. Allison K. Shutt, ‘“The natives are getting out of hand”: Legislating manners, insolence and contemptuous behaviour in Southern Rhodesia, c.1910–1963’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 33:3 (2007), 653–72.
13. BLO, Barbara Castle papers, MS Castle 243, ANC/2/4, Northern Rhodesian ANC President H. M. Nkumbula and Secretary-General Kenneth Kaunda to Lusaka Governor, 24 Jan. 1958.
14. These official concerns about communist infiltration had ebbed and flowed since the Second World War, see: TNA, CO 537/4307, MI5 memo, ‘Communist influence in the African Continent’, 10 Mar. 1949; J1017/18/G, FO Research Department memo ‘A survey of Communism in Africa’, 30 Aug. 1950; Philip Murphy, ‘Creating a Commonwealth intelligence culture: The view from Central Africa, 1945–1965’, INS, 17:3 (2002), 131–62.
15. TNA, CO 1015/2056, Sir Arthur Benson, Government House, Lusaka, letter to W (Bill) L. Gorell Barnes, Colonial Office, 22 Sept. 1957.
16. BLO, Castle papers, MS Castle 243, John Hatch, Labour Party Commonwealth Officer, to Castle, 25 Oct. 1956; fos. 52–4: ‘Memo on the industrial dispute in Northern Rhodesia’, n.d., Nov. 1956; TNA, CO 1015/2056, Sir Arthur Benson, ‘Emergency Powers bill’, 5 Oct. 1957; CA(57)38, Colonial Policy Committee, ‘Powers of colonial governors’, n.d., Dec. 1957.
17. BLO, Castle papers, MS Castle 244, ‘African National Congress, Northern Rhodesia, ‘Comments on the proposals for constitutional change’, n.d., May 1958.
18. Darwin, ‘Central African Emergency’, 220–1.
19. Megan Vaughan, ‘Suicide in late colonial Africa: The evidence of inquests from Nyasaland’, AHR, 115:2 (2010), 387.
20. Butler, ‘Britain, the United States’, 133–4.
21. Darwin, The Empire Project, 619–21.
22. Darwin, ‘Central African Emergency’, 219–21.
23. TNA, CO 1015/2056, Sir Arthur Benson letter to ‘Bill’, W.L. Gorell Barnes, 2 Mar. 1959.
24. The restrictions enacted in Northern Rhodesia hinged on a ban imposed on ANC activities, see: Castle papers, MS Castle 244, Kenneth Kaunda letter to Commander T.S.L. Fox-Pitt, 20 Mar. 1959.
25. TNA, CO 1015/2056, tel. 546/15/01, Sir Arthur Benson to Lennox-Boyd, 4 Mar. 1959.
26. TNA, CO 1015/2056, Benson letter to Gorell Barnes, 2 Mar. 1959.
27. TNA, CO 1015/2056, tel. CAA546/15/01, Lennox-Boyd to Benson, 5 Mar. 1959. Macmillan chided the Colonial Secretary at a private dinner on 14 Dec. 1958 for making an ‘injudicious speech’ on Cyprus policy to a Conservative Party meeting that was leaked to the press: Macmillan Diaries, 2nd ser., d. 34, fo.4, entry for 14 Dec. 1958.
28. A view also propounded in Darwin, ‘Central African Emergency’, 227.
29. Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire, 263.
30. Castle papers, MS Castle 245, fos. 130–3 and 153–5, Barbara Castle articles, ‘The died detainee’, New Statesman, 14 Feb. 1959; ‘Eleven dead men’, New Statesman, 16 May 1959.
31. BLO, Macmillan papers, Diaries, 2nd ser., d. 35, fos. 16–17, entry for 5 Mar. 1959.
32. BLO, Macmillan papers, Diaries, 2nd ser., d. 35, fos. 24–34, entries for 11 and 17 Mar. 1959.
33. BLO, Macmillan papers, Diaries, 2nd ser., d. 35, fos. 20–4, 74–6, entries for 9 and 10 Mar., 10 and 24 Apr. 1959.
34. BLO, Macmillan papers, Diaries, 2nd ser., d. 35, fo. 120, entry for 4 June 1959.
35. BLO, Macmillan papers, Diaries, 2nd ser., d. 36, fos. 18–27, entries for 16, 17 and 22 June 1959.
36. BLO, Macmillan papers, Diaries, 2nd ser., d. 36, fos. 63 and 76, entries for 13 and 18 July 1959. Macmillan’s fear was that Attorney-General Sir Reginald Manningham-Buller would force the ‘highly-strung’ Lennox-Boyd to resign, destroying the Cabinet’s residual unity in the process.
37. BLO, Macmillan papers, Diaries, 2nd ser., d. 35, fo. 120, 4 June 1959.
38. BLO, Macmillan papers, Diaries, 2nd ser., d. 37, fos.70–8, entries for 16 and 24 Nov. 1959.
39. Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire, 282–5; Butler, ‘Britain, the United States’, 132–5.
40. Murphy, “Government by blackmail”, 54, 60.
41. Murphy, ‘Intelligence and decolonization’, 124.
42. Alice Ritscherle, ‘Disturbing the people’s peace: Patriotism and “respectable” racism in British responses to Rhodesian independence’, in Levine and Grayzel, Gender, 199.
43. Ranajit Guha, ‘Not at home in empire’, Critical Inquiry, 23:3 (1997), 487–9.
44. Will Jackson, Madness and Marginality: The Lives of Kenya’s White Insane (Manchester University Press, 2012), ch. 1.
45. David M. Hughes, Whiteness in Zimbabwe: Race, Landscape and the Problem of Belonging (New York: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2010), 2; cited in Jackson, Madness, ch. 1 n. 56.
46. Anderson, Histories of the Hanged, 1, 55–7, quotation at p. 1.
47. Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire, 103. Baring joined the Indian civil service but cemented his reputation with wartime postings to Southern Rhodesia as governor in 1942, thence to South Africa as high commissioner in 1944.
48. David A. Percox, ‘Mau Mau and the arming of the state’, in E. S. Atieno Odhiambo and John Lonsdale, eds, Mau Mau and Nationhood (Oxford: James Currey 2003), 121–54.
49. Georgia Sinclair, At the End of the Line: Colonial Policing and the Imperial Endgame, 1945–80 (Manchester University Press, 2006), 154–60.
50. David Throup, ‘Crime, politics and the police in colonial Kenya, 1939–63’, in Anderson and Killingray, Police and Decolonization, 140–8.
51. David M. Anderson, ‘British abuse and torture in Kenya’s counter-insurgency, 1952–1960’, SWI, 23:4/5 (2012), 700–19.
52. Anderson, Histories of the Hanged, 18–19. Membership of the Kikuyu Cultural Association was approaching 4,000 by the time Kenyatta left for London.
53. Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, ‘Custom, modernity, and the search for Kihooto: Kenyatta, Malinowski and the making of Facing Mount Kenya’, in Helen Tilley and Robert J. Gordon, eds, Ordering Africa: Anthropology, European Imperialism, and the Politics of Knowledge (Manchester University Press, 2007), 174–5, 180.
54. Carol Polsgrove, Ending British Rule in Africa: Writers in a Common Cause (Manchester University Press 2009), 6–12, 25–30.
55. Berman and Lonsdale, ‘Custom’, 181, 185–7.
56. John Lonsdale, ‘Authority, gender and violence: The War within Mau Mau’s fight for land and freedom’, in Atieno Odhiambo and Lonsdale, Mau Mau, 46–53, quotation at 53.
57. For the Red Cross case, see: Fabian Klose, ‘The colonial testing ground: The International Committee of the Red Cross and the violent end of empire’, Humanity, 2:1 (2011), 107–26.
58. Lorcin, Historicizing Colonial Nostalgia, 43.
59. Anderson, Histories of the Hanged, 93–7.
60. Lonsdale, ‘Kenya: Home county and African frontier’, 80, 101–5. Lonsdale refers to over thirty farmhouse assaults in the first six months of 1953. For the strictures of inter-racial hierarchy, see Dane Kennedy, Islands of White: Settler Society and Culture in Kenya and Southern Rhodesia, 1890–1939 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1987); and for the social opprobrium heaped on so-called ‘poor whites’ who fell short of settler society’s standards, see: Will Jackson, ‘Bad blood, psychopathy and politics of transgression in Kenya colony, 1939–1959’, JICH, 39:1 (2011), 73–94.
61. Jackson, Madness, ch. 2.
62. Jackson, Madness, ch. 2.
63. Bruce Berman, Control and Crisis in Colonial Kenya: The Dialectic of Domination (London: James Currey, 1990), 262–4, 282–8.
64. Settler critics underestimated the Governor’s conservatism. Mitchell favoured collaboration with traditional Kenyan elites rather than significantly greater involvement of educated Africans, including party political representatives, in Kenya’s Executive Council, see: Murphy, Party Politics, 17–18.
65. John Lonsdale, ‘KAU’s cultures: Imaginations of community and constructions of leadership in Kenya after the Second World War’, Journal of African Cultural Studies, 13:1 (2000), 109–22.
66. Berman, Control and Crisis, 322–5.
67. John Lonsdale, ‘Mau Maus of the mind: Making Mau Mau and remaking Kenya’, JAH, 31:3 (1990), 393–421.
68. Daniel Branch, Defeating Mau Mau, Creating Kenya: Counterinsurgency, Civil War, and Decolonization (Cambridge University Press, 2009), 36–9.
69. Anderson, Histories of the Hanged, 11–12, 28–30, 39–43.
70. Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire, 189–90.
71. Branch, Defeating Mau Mau, 2–3, 24, 40–52; Caroline Elkins, ‘Detention, rehabilitation and the destruction of Kikuyu society’, in Atieno Odhiambo and Lonsdale, Mau Mau, 191–226.
72. Branch, Defeating Mau Mau, 16–18.
73. The legislation enabling these evictions passed into law in 1940, but its enforcement was delayed by the Second World War, see David M. Anderson and David W. Throup, ‘Africans and Agricultural Production’, 327–46. For the agronomic background: Richard Waller, ‘“Clean” and “dirty”: Cattle disease and control policy in colonial Kenya’, JAH, 45:1 (2004), 69–78.
74. The disruption of Kikuyu village society emerges from the oral evidence compiled in former aid worker Greet Kershaw’s Mau Mau from Below (Oxford: James Currey, 1997). Further explanations of the post-war crisis in Kikuyu agriculture are Tabitha Kanogo, Squatters and the Roots of Mau Mau (London: James Currey, 1987), especially chs 4–5; and David Throup, Economic and Social Origins of Mau Mau, 1945–1953 (Oxford: James Currey, 1987); Lonsdale, ‘Authority’, 56–9; Anderson, Histories of the Hanged, 24–9; Christopher Youé, ‘Black squatters on white farms: Segregation and agrarian change in Kenya, South Africa and Rhodesia, 1902–1963’, IHR, 24:3 (2002), 558–602.
75. Elkins, ‘Detention’, 201; Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa: Book Two: Violence and Ethnicity (Oxford: James Currey, 1992), ch. 12.
76. Joanna Lewis, ‘“Daddy wouldn’t buy me a Mau Mau”: The British popular press and the demoralization of empire’, in Atieno Odhiambo and Lonsdale, Mau Mau, 232–47.
77. Kazi ya Mau Mau! Nairobi Government booklet, 1953.
78. MAE, Série K: Afrique-Levant, Sous-série: Possessions britanniques, 1944–1952, file 9, A. Beaulieux, ‘A. S. Kenya African Union’, 8 July 1948. Ronald Hyam describes Kenyatta as ‘probably the most misunderstood nationalist leader in the history of British Africa’, see: Britain’s Declining Empire, 190.
79. MAE, Série K: Afrique-Levant, Sous-série: Possessions britanniques, Kenya, Administration de la colonie, répression du mouvement Mau Mau, 1953–1959, no. 12/AL, ‘Le Procès de JOMO KENYATTA’, 13 Jan. 1953. Although a key witness was found to have lied in court, Kenyatta was eventually sentenced to seven years’ hard labour.
80. Anderson, Histories of the Hanged, 124–35; Branch, Defeating Mau Mau, 56–9.
81. Anderson, Histories of the Hanged, 151–80 passim.
82. MAE, Série K: Afrique-Levant, Sous-série: Possessions britannique, 1944–1952, file 9, ‘A.S. de la situation au Kenya au cours de la première quinzaine de mai’.
83. Anderson, Histories of the Hanged, 230–2.
84. Perversely, the Nairobi government cited the consolidation of Mau Mau bands into larger groups as evidence that they faced greater security force pressure. MAE, Série Afrique-Levant, Sous-série: Nord-Est Africain britannique, 1953–1959, file 3, Morand to Direction Afrique-Levant, 30 Apr. 1953.
85. David M. Anderson, ‘The Battle of Dandora swamp: Reconstructing the Mau Mau land freedom army, October 1954’, in Atieno Odhiambo and Lonsdale, Mau Mau, 157–63, 170–1.
86. Anderson, Histories of the Hanged, 235–44.
87. Ibid. no. 132/AL, Morand to Foreign Minister, 30 Apr. 1953.
88. MAE, Série Afrique-Levant, Sous-série: Nord-Est Africain britannique, 1953–1959, file 3: Kenya, no. 171/AL, Morand to Direction Afrique-Levant, 16 juin 1953.
89. Ibid. no. 241/AL, Morand to Direction Afrique-Levant, 17 Sept. 1953. ‘A. S. La Situation au Kenya au cours des mois de juillet et d’août’.
90. Prisoners’ strategies of resistance to interrogation are examined in Derek R. Peterson, ‘The intellectual lives of Mau Mau detainees, JAH, 49:1 (2008), 73–91.
91. MAE, Série Afrique-Levant, Sous-série: Nord-Est Afrique britannique, 1953–1959, file 3: Kenya Information Service Swahili pamphlet, ‘Mau Mau’; no. 257/AL, Morand memo, 28 Sept. 1953.
92. Ibid. no. 333/AL, Morand, ‘A.S. Situation au Kenya’, 20 Nov. 1953.
93. Ibid. nos. 47 & 61, Morand to Direction Afrique-Levant, 18 & 23 Feb. 1954.
94. TNA, CO 822/796. ‘Operation Anvil, Outline Plan’, Nairobi, 22 Feb. 1954.
95. TNA, CO 1066/16: Operation ‘Anvil’, Operation ‘Scaramouche’ and camp visits, 1954–55.
96. French, The British Way, 30, 106, 110–11, 124.
97. MAE, Série Afrique-Levant, Sous-série: Nord-Est Afrique britannique, 1953–1959, file 3: Kenya, no. 44/AL, Morand, ‘A.S. La Situation au Kenya’, 28 Jan. 1955.
98. BLO, Barbara Castle papers, MS Castle 245, ‘Justice in Kenya’, The New Statesman and Nation, 17 Dec. 1955; Anderson, Histories of the Hanged, 7–8.
99. MAE, Nord-Est Afrique britannique, 1953–1959, file 3, Nairobi consulate, ‘Exécutions pour crimes et délits pendant l’état d’urgence’, s.d., janvier 1955.
100. Anderson, Histories of the Hanged, 36–7.
101. Caroline Elkins, Imperial Reckoning: The Untold Story of Britain’s Gulag in Kenya (New York: Henry Holt, 2005). Cambridge historian Ronald Hyam considers the ‘gulag’ label overblown and misleading, suggesting a policy of elimination where none existed; see Britain’s Declining Empire, 192 n. 111. His point is a fair one, although Kenya’s detention camp system evolved into a massive programme whose punishments, brain-washing, and social engineering were redolent of Soviet practices.
102. Murphy, Alan Lennox-Boyd, 150–1. The Colonial Secretary Lennox-Boyd inspected the Manyani camp during an East African tour in Oct. 1954 and praised camp authorities for working to improve it.
103. For the war’s gender dynamics, see Tabitha Kanogo, ‘Kikuyu women and the politics of protest: Mau Mau’, in Sharon MacDonald, Pat Holden and Shirley Ardener, eds, Images of Women in Peace and War: Cross-Cultural and Historical Perspectives (London: Macmillan, 1987), 78–99; Luise White, ‘Separating the men from the boys: Constructions of gender, sexuality, and terrorism in central Kenya, 1939–1959’, International Journal of African Historical Studies, 23:1 (1990), 1–25; A. M. White, ‘Fanon and the African woman combatant’, in Alfred Nhema and Paul Tiyambe Zeleza, eds, The Roots of African Conflicts: The Causes and Costs (Oxford: James Currey, 2008), 136–55.
104. Elkins, ‘Detention’, 205.
105. BLO, Macmillan papers, Diaries, 2nd ser., d. 36, fo.18, entry for 16 June 1959.
106. Sloan Mahone, ‘The psychology of rebellion: Colonial medical responses to dissent in British East Africa’, JAH, 47:2 (2006), 241–58.
107. Lewis, Empire State-Building, 287–9, 342–3.
108. Jackson, Madness, ch. 6, pre cue for n. 6.
109. Elkins, ‘Detention’, 198–202, Anderson, Histories of the Hanged, 46–7.
110. Berman, Control and Crisis, 359–63.
111. Peterson, ‘The intellectual lives’, 73–91.
112. Two individuals, John Cowan, prisons officer in charge of the Mwea camps in Central Province, and Terence Gavaghan, a local District Officer, enforced the ‘dilution technique’ the most rigorously, see: Elkins, Imperial Reckoning, 317–30; Elkins, ‘Detention’, 213–15.
113. Anderson, Histories of the Hanged, 4; Murphy, Alan Lennox-Boyd, 149.
114. Toye, Churchill’s Empire, 294–5, 299; Murphy, Alan Lennox-Boyd, 152–5.
115. Spruyt, Ending Empire, 128–30.
116. Murphy, Alan Lennox-Boyd, 152–3.
117. Daniel Branch, Kenya: Between Hope and Despair, 1963–2010 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011), ch. 1.
118. This is a key conclusion of Daniel Branch’s Defeating Mau Mau, 208–12.
119. Darwin, ‘Central African Emergency’, 218.
1. Norman Etherington, ‘The missionary experience in British and French empires’, in White and Daughton, In God’s Empire, 279.
2. Elizabeth Schmidt, ‘Top down or bottom up? Nationalist mobilization reconsidered, with special reference to Guinea’, AHR, 110 (Oct., 2005), 975–1014. And for a different view, Mairi MacDonald, ‘A vocation for independence: Guinean nationalism in the 1950s’, in Chafer and Keese, eds, Francophone Africa at Fifty (Manchester University Press, forthcoming).
3. Eric Silla, People Are Not the Same: Leprosy and Identity in Twentieth-Century Mali (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1998), 117, 129–34.
4. A conclusion in tune with Sarah Stockwell, ‘Ends of Empire’, 275, and Ebere Nwaubani, The United States and Decolonization in West Africa, 1950–1960 (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2001), 16–17.
5. Yves Person, ‘French West Africa and decolonization’, in Prosser Gifford and Wm. Roger Louis, eds, The Transfer of Power in Africa: Decolonization, 1940–1960, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982), 141–2.
6. Holland, European Decolonization, 158.
7. Conklin, A Mission to Civilize, 23–37.
8. Municipal councils were set up in Senegal between 1872 and 1879, see H. O. Idowu, ‘The establishment of elective institutions in Senegal, 1869–1880’, JAH, 9:2 (1968), 261–77. On 1 Oct. 1916 male adult originaires (original inhabitants) of the four communes were granted French citizenship without forfeiting their customary rights as practising Muslims.
9. Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch, ‘Nationalité et citoyenneté en Afrique occidentale française: Originaires et citoyens dans le Sénégal colonial’, JAH, 42:2 (2001), 285–305.
10. USNA, RG 59, 851T.00, French Africa, Political 1945–1949, box 6328, US Consulate Brazzaville memcon., ‘Postwar prospects in French Equatorial Africa’, 14 July 1945.
11. This and subsequent paragraphs draw heavily on Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch, ‘L’Impact des intérêts coloniaux: S. C. O. A. et C. F. A. O. dans l’Ouest Africain, 1910–1965’, JAH, 16:4 (1975), 595–621.
12. Richard A. Joseph, ‘Settlers, strikers and sans-travail: The Douala riots of September 1945’, JAH, 15:4 (1974), 669.
13. Timothy C. Weiskel, ‘Independence and the longue durée: The Ivory Coast “miracle” reconsidered’, in Gifford and Louis, Decolonization, 358–63.
14. John Kent, ‘United States reactions to empire, colonialism, and Cold War in black Africa, 1949–57’, JICH, 33:2 (2005), 198–209.
15. USNA, RG 59, 851T.00, French West Africa, Political 1945–49, box 6327, AMCONGEN, Dakar, ‘Long range economic and social planning in French West Africa’, 5 Dec. 1945.
16. USNA, RG 59, 851T.00, French West Africa, Political 1950–54, box 5008, AMCONGEN, Dakar, ‘Tentative proposals for development of Africa by ECA funds’, 29 June 1950.
17. J.-C. Berthélemy, ‘L’Économie de l’Afrique occidentale française et du Togo, 1946–1960’, Revue Française de l’Histoire d’Outre-Mer, 67:248, (1980), 301.
18. Tony Chafer, ‘Education and political socialisation of a national-colonial political elite in French West Africa, 1936–47’, JICH, 35:3 (2007), 441, 448–9.
19. Murphy, Party Politics, 107–12, 117–19. Sir Edward Spears and Duncan Sandys were among those with interests in British West African mining consortia. Beyond West Africa, several more either sat on the board or held investments with Tanganyika Concessions Limited, a company also linked to the vast Belgian Congo conglomerate, the Union Minière du Haut Katanga.
20. Polsgrove, Ending British Rule, 75–6.
21. Irwin, ‘A wind of change?’, 914–16. As Irwin explains, the pre-eminent importance of defeating apartheid goes a long way to explaining the pan-Africanist view.
22. Frederick Cooper, ‘Alternatives to nationalism in French Africa, 1945–1960’, in Jost Dülffer and Marc Frey, eds, Elites and Decolonization in the Twentieth Century (Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2011), 110–24.
23. Catherine Atlan, ‘Demain la balkanisation? Les Députés africains et le vote de la Loi-cadre (1956)’, in Becker, AOF, 358–75.
24. Cooper, ‘Alternatives to nationalism’, 110–33.
25. Frederick Cooper, ‘Possibility and constraint: African independence in colonial perspective’, JAH, 49 (2008), 167–8.
26. Cooper, ‘Possibility’, 171–5.
27. Cooper, ‘Alternatives to nationalism’, 114–16.
28. Alexander Keese, ‘A culture of panic: “Communist” scapegoats and decolonization in French West Africa and French Polynesia (1945–1957)’, French Colonial History, 9 (2008), 136–8.
29. Elizabeth Schmidt, ‘Cold War in Guinea: The Rassemblement Démocratique Africain and the struggle over Communism, 1950–1958’, JAH, 48:1 (2007), 99, 102–3.
30. Schmidt, ‘Cold War’, 100–1; Cold War and Decolonization in Guinea, 1946–1958 (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2007), 13–15, 25–7.
31. Chafer, ‘Education’, 449–50. The Socialist Minister for Overseas France, Marius Moutet, was particularly hostile to the RDA, viewing it through the prism of Socialist rivalry with the French Communists.
32. Schmidt, ‘Cold War in Guinea’, 100; Mairi S. MacDonald, ‘A “frontal attack on irrational elements”: Sékou Touré and the management of elites in Guinea’, in Düllfer and Frey, Elites, 195–8.
33. Frederick Cooper, ‘Alternatives to empire: France and Africa after World War II’, in Douglas Howland and Luise White, eds, The State of Sovereignty: Territories, Laws, Populations (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2009), 98–105.
34. BDEEP, series B, vol. 7: Nigeria, Part I: Managing Political Reform, 1943–1953 (London: HMSO, 2001), ed. Martin Lynn, docs. 11–15.
35. For contrasting verdicts on Nigeria’s ‘chiefly politics’, see Olufemi Vaughan, ‘Chieftaincy politics and communal identity in western Nigeria, 1893–1951’, JAH, 44:2 (2003), 285–91; Peter K. Tibenderana, ‘The irony of indirect rule in the Sokoto Emirate, Nigeria, 1903–1944’, African Studies Review, 31:1 (1988), 67–92.
36. ‘Nigeria—conquerors and conquered’, W. Ormsby Gore, M.P., The Listener, 4 Dec. 1929.
37. BDEEP, series B, vol. 7: Nigeria, Part I, docs. 31, 32; John Flint, ‘Scandal at the Bristol Hotel: Some thoughts on racial discrimination in Britain and West Africa and its relationship to the planning of decolonisation, 1939–1947’, JICH, 12:1 (1983), 74–93.
38. Carolyn A. Brown, We were all slaves: African Miners, Culture, and Resistance at the Enugu Government Colliery (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2003), 282–317.
39. BDEEP, series B, vol. 7: Nigeria, Part I, docs. 80–84; Carolyn A. Brown, ‘Becoming “men”, becoming “workers”: Race, gender, and workplace struggle in the Nigerian coal industry, 1937–1949’, in Peter Alexander and Rick Halpern, eds, Racializing Class, Classifying Race: Labour and Difference in Britain, the USA and Africa (London: Macmillan, 2000), 168–9, 186–8.
40. Graham Furniss, ‘On engendering liberal values in the Nigerian colonial state: The idea behind the Gaskiya Corporation’, JICH, 39:1 (2011), 96–8, 109–14.
41. BDEEP, series B, vol. 7: Nigeria, Part I, doc. 30.
42. Phia Steyn, ‘Oil exploration in colonial Nigeria, c.1903–58’, JICH, 37:2 (2009), 261–6.
43. BDEEP, series B, vol. 7: Nigeria, Part I, docs. 52, 54, 69, 74.
44. Martin Lynn, ‘“We cannot let the North down”: British policy and Nigeria in the 1950s’, in Lynn, The British Empire, 144–60.
45. Martin Lynn, ‘The Nigerian self-government crisis of 1953 and the Colonial Office’, JICH, 34:2 (2006), 246–8.
46. John Flint, ‘Managing nationalism: The Colonial Office and Nnamdi Azikiwe’, JICH, 27:1 (1999), 143–58.
47. Lynn, ‘“We cannot”’, quotation at 154.
48. BDEEP, series B, vol. 7: Nigeria, Part I, doc. 49.
49. Lynn, ‘“We cannot”’, 154–8.
50. Lynn, ‘The Nigerian self-government crisis’, 251–3.
51. BDEEP, series B, vol. 7: Nigeria, Part I, doc. 187.
52. Lynn, ‘The Nigerian self-government crisis’, 253–4.
53. BDEEP, series B, vol. 7: Nigeria, Part I, doc. 205.
54. BDEEP, series B, vol. 7: Nigeria, Part I, docs. 190–192, 198, 202.
55. BDEEP, series B, vol. 7: Nigeria, Part I, doc. 210.
56. BDEEP, series B, vol. 7: Nigeria, Part II: Moving to Independence, 193–1960, docs. 238, 241; Lynn, ‘The Nigerian self-government crisis’, 255–7.
57. Lynn, ‘“We cannot”’, 154–60.
58. The classic elaboration of this argument is J.M. Lee, ‘“Forward thinking” and war: The Colonial Office during the 1940s’, JICH, 6:1 (1977), 64–78.
59. Richard Crook, ‘Decolonization, the colonial state and chieftaincy in Ghana’, African Affairs, 85:338 (1986), 90. For contrasting views of indirect rule’s application to Gold Coast chieftaincy politics, see Roger S. Gocking, ‘Indirect rule in the Gold Coast: Competition for office and the invention of tradition’, CJAS, 28:3 (1994), 421–5, 438–42. For convincing evidence that such prodding cut both ways, see Sean Stilwell, ‘Constructing colonial power: Tradition, legitimacy and government in Kano, 1903–63’, JICH, 39:2 (2011), 195–7, 204–14.
60. Roger S. Gocking, ‘British justice and the native tribunals of the southern Gold Coast Colony’, JAH, 34:1 (1993), 110–12.
61. John Flint, ‘Planned decolonization and its failure in British Africa’, African Affairs, 82:328 (1983), 389–411; Robert Pearce, ‘The Colonial Office and planned decolonization in Africa’, African Affairs, 83:330 (1984), 77–93. For the view that self-government did not mean decolonization: Crook, ‘Decolonization, the colonial state’, 75–86.
62. Richard Rathbone, ‘A murder in the Gold Coast: Law and politics in the 1940s’, JAH, 30 (1989), 445–56.
63. Rathbone, ‘A murder’, 456–61.
64. Francis K. Danquah, ‘Sustaining a West African cocoa economy: Agricultural science and the swollen shoot contagion in Ghana, 1936–1965’, African Economic History, 31:1 (2003), 44–8.
65. Danquah, ‘Sustaining’, 49–57. Ironically, once elected to office in 1951 Nkrumah endorsed further cutting out to stem the spread of swollen shoot.
66. David Killingray, ‘Soldiers, ex-servicemen, and politics in the Gold Coast, 1939–50’, Journal of Modern African Studies, 21:3 (1983), 531–3.
67. Richard Rathbone, ‘Police intelligence in Ghana in the late 1940s and 1950s’, in Robert Holland, ed., Emergencies and Disorder in the European Empires after 1945 (London: Cass, 1994), 107–9.
68. BDEEP, series B, vol. I: Ghana, Part I: 1941–1952 (London: HMSO, 1992), edited by Richard Rathbone, docs. 21, 23, 25; Richard Rathbone, ‘Political intelligence’, 84.
69. Danquah, ‘Sustaining’, 52.
70. BDEEP, series B, vol. I: Ghana, Part I: 1941–1952, xlii–xlviii, docs. 32–37, 64–67, 85.
71. BDEEP, series B, vol. I: Ghana, Part I: 1941–1952, doc. 78.
72. Rathbone, ‘Political intelligence’, 84–91.
73. BDEEP, series B, vol. I: Ghana, Part I: 1941–1952, docs. 44, 88–89.
74. Richard Crook, ‘Decolonization, the colonial state’, 95–9, 103–5.
75. Jean Marie Allman, ‘“Hewers of wood, carriers of water”: Islam, class, and politics on the eve of Ghana’s independence’, African Studies Review, 34:2 (1991), 1–2, 6–11.
76. BDEEP, series B, vol. I: Ghana, Part II: 1952–1957, docs. 157, 158, 160.
77. Richard Rathbone, ‘Kwame Nkrumah and the chiefs: The fate of “natural rulers” under nationalist governments’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6th Ser.:10 (2000), 48, 57–60; Jean Marie Allman, ‘The youngmen and the porcupine: Class, nationalism and Asante’s struggle for self-determination, 1954–57’, JAH, 31:2 (1990), 263–79.
78. Kate Skinner, ‘Reading, writing and rallies: The politics of “freedom” in southern British Togoland, 1953–1956’, JAH, 48:1 (2007), 125–32.
79. Rathbone, ‘Kwame Nkrumah’, 51–5, 61; Nkrumah and the Chiefs: The Politics of Chieftaincy in Ghana, 1951–1960 (Oxford: James Currey, 2000), 89–103.
80. Philippe Dewitte, ‘La CGT et les syndicats d’Afrique occidentale française (1945–1957)’, Le Mouvement Social, 117 (1981), 4–5, 10–11.
81. Ibid. 98–9; regarding ex-servicemen’s politics, see Gregory Mann, Native Sons: West African Veterans and France in the Twentieth Century (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006), 108–45.
82. Coquery-Vidrovitch, Africa, Endurance and Change South of the Sahara, 265–8.
83. Cooper, Decolonization, 241–7.
84. Ibid. 278–86; Timothy Oberst, ‘Transport workers, strikes and the “imperial response”: Africa and the post World War II conjuncture’, African Studies Review, 31:1 (1988), 117–33; Jean Suret-Canale, ‘L’Indépendance de la Guinée: Le Rôle des forces intérieures’, in Ageron and Michel, L’Afrique noire française, 131–2.
85. Frederick Cooper: ‘The Senegalese general strike’, 165–215; ‘“Our strike”’, JAH, 37:1 (1996), 81–118.
86. Cooper, Decolonization and African Society, 282. Equivalent benefits for African workers in the private sector were not conceded until 1956.
87. Chafer, End of Empire, chap. 2. The essential qualification for subject voting rights was a French education or military service.
88. Cooper, ‘The dialectics of decolonization’, 425.
89. Chafer, End of Empire, 105–9.
90. Schmidt, Cold War, 35–43, 49–63; Klaas van Walraven, ‘Decolonization by referendum: The anomaly of Niger and the fall of Sawaba, 1958–1959’, JAH, 50:2 (2009), 273.
91. Alexander Keese, ‘“Quelques satisfactions d’amour-propre”: African elite integration, the loi-cadre, and involuntary decolonisation of French tropical Africa’, Itinerario 26 (2003), 37–38.
92. Person, ‘French West Africa and decolonization’, 151; Hargreaves, Decolonization in Africa, 141–2.
93. Chafer, End of Empire, ch. 3. René Pleven was leader of the UDSR.
94. Schmidt, ‘Cold War’, 102–19; Mobilizing the Masses: Gender, Ethnicity, and Class in the Nationalist Movement in Guinea, 1939–1958 (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2005).
95. For the négritude pioneer Martiniquan poet, Aimé Césaire’s divorce from French Communism during the years of RDA realignment, see: Thomas A. Hale and Kora Véron, ‘Aimé Césaire’s break from the Parti Communiste Français: Nouveaux élans, nouveaux défis’, FPCS, 27:3 (2009), 47–62.
96. Benjamin Stora, Nationalistes Algériens et Révolutionnaires Français au temps du Front Populaire (Paris: Editions L’Harmattan, 1987); T. -A. Schweitzer, ‘Le Parti communiste français, le Comintern et l’Algérie dans les années 1930’, Le Mouvement Social, 78 (1972), 115–36.
97. These ambiguities are discussed in G. Wesley Johnson, ‘Les Élites au Sénégal pendant la période d’indépendance’, in Ageron and Michel, L’Afrique noire française, 26–36.
98. Schmidt, ‘Cold War’, 103–19.
99. Tony Chafer, ‘Students and nationalism: The role of students in the nationalist movement in Afrique Occidentale Française (AOF), 1946–60’, in Charles Becker, Saliou Mbaye, and Ibrahima Thioub, eds, AOF: réalités et heritages: Sociétés ouest-africaines et ordre colonial, 1895–1960 2 vols, (Dakar: Direction des Archives du Sénégal, 1997), 395–6, 402–3.
100. AN, UDSR papers, 412AP/34, Jean Gunsett letter to Joseph Perrin (Senator for Côte d’Ivoire), 7 June 1956.
101. Thierno Bah, ‘Les Étudiants de l’Afrique noire et la marche à l’indépendance’, in Ageron and Michel, L’Afrique noire française, 41–56.
102. Gregory Mann, ‘Fetishizing religion: Allah Koura and French ‘Islamic Policy’ in late colonial French Soudan (Mali)’, JAH, 44:2 (2003), 263–5, 280–1.
103. Robert Launay and Benjamin F. Soares, ‘The formation of an “Islamic sphere” in French colonial West Africa’, Economy and Society, 28 (1999), 497; also cited in Mann, ‘Fetishizing religion’, 265.
104. Elizabeth A. Foster, ‘A mission in transition: Race, politics, and the decolonization of the Catholic Church in Senegal’, in White and Daughton, In God’s Empire, 271–3.
105. J. G. Vaillant, Black, French and African: A Life of Léopold Sédar Senghor (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990). Kwame Nkrumah disparaged ‘Negritude’, dismissing it as elitist and inauthentic.
106. Person, ‘French West Africa’, 161.
107. Cooper, Decolonization and African Society, 424–5.
108. Chafer, End of Empire, ch. 6.
109. Martin Shipway, ‘Gaston Defferre’s loi-cadre and its application, 1956–57: Last chance for a French African “empire-state”?’ in Tony Chafer and Alexander Keese, eds, Francophone Africa at Fifty (Manchester University Press, forthcoming).
110. SHD-DAT, 14H48/D5, no. 02859, Direction des Affaires Militaires, ‘Organisation militaire des T.O.M. en vue du maintien et rétablissement de l’ordre’, 27 June 1956; no. 3116, 3eme Bureau, ‘Action psychologique et sécurité intérieure’, n.d., June 1956.
111. Cooper, ‘Alternatives to empire’, 107–9.
112. Cooper, Possibility’, 175.
113. An argument developed by Fred Cooper in both ‘Possibility’, 169–77, and ‘Alternatives to empire’, 110–24.
1. BLO, Macmillan Diaries, 2nd ser., d. 37, fo.64, entry for 10 Nov. 1959.
2. BLO, Macmillan Diaries, 2nd ser., d. 37, fo.55–7, entry for 30 Oct. 1959.
3. The prime minister was physically sick with worry immediately before he delivered the speech.
4. British newspaper readers were introduced to Macmillan as electoral super-hero by cartoonist Vicky (Victor Weisz) in an Evening Standard cartoon on 6 Nov. 1959. As Ronald Hyam notes, since the mid 1950s Macmillan had employed a different elemental metaphor—the tidal-wave—to describe the unstoppable force of African nationalism: Britain’s Declining Empire, 242–3.
5. Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire, 258–60.
6. For more complex readings of the speech and its context, see L.J. Butler and Sarah Stockwell, eds, Wind of Change (Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2013).
7. Schmidt, Cold War, ch. 6; also cited in Cooper, ‘Possibility’, 168.
8. TNA, WO 216/913, GOC Ghana letters to Sir Francis Festing, 7 Mar. and 26 Aug. 1959.
9. TNA, FO 371/137966, J1075/21, 22, 23 and 27: Sir Harold Caccia Washington dispatches, and record of tripartite talks on Africa, 16–21 Apr. 1959.
10. Cooper, ‘Alternatives to empire’, 125.
11. Chipman, French Power in Africa (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989),106–7.
12. Cooper, ‘Alternatives to empire’, 124–7.
13. Schmidt, ‘Top down or bottom up?’ 975–1014.
14. Van Walraven, ‘Decolonization by referendum’, 271–9. Niger was the only AOF territory other than Guinea in which significant numbers were affiliated to a radical nationalist party, Sawaba, built on the wreckage of the earlier Parti Progressiste Nigérien that had fallen victim to French repression of RDA-affiliated groups in the early 1950s.
15. Cooper, ‘Alternatives to empire’, 124–9.
16. Alexander Keese, ‘First lessons in neo-colonialism: The personalisation of relations between African politicians and French officials in sub-Saharan Africa, 1956–66’, JICH, 35:4 (2007), 593–613.
17. Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire, 265–6.
18. For a brilliant survey of these policy reviews, see Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire, 250–7.
19. Macmillan Diaries, 2nd ser., d. 34, fo.48, entry for 22 Jan. 1959; Deborah Posel, The Making of Apartheid, 1948–1961: Conflict and Compromise (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), 227–55; Ronald Hyam, ‘The parting of the ways: Britain and South Africa’s departure from the Commonwealth, 1951–1961’, JICH, 26:2 (1998), 157–75.
20. Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire, 271–2; Robert Holland, Britain and the Revolt, 133, 223.
21. Andrekos Varnava, ‘Reinterpreting Macmillan’s Cyprus policy, 1957–1960’ Cyprus Review, 22:1 (2010), 91.
22. Holland, Britain and the Revolt, 129–30, 153.
23. Carruthers, Winning Hearts, 239–41.
24. For background: David Goldsworthy, ‘Britain and the international critics of colonialism, 1951–1956’, Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, 29:1 (1991), 1–24.
25. René Girault, ‘La France en accusation à l’ONU, ou les pouvoirs d’une organisation internationale’, Relations Internationales, 76:3 (1993), 411–22; Martin Thomas, ‘France accused’, Contemporary European History, 10:1 (2001), 91–121; Suha Bölükbasi, ‘The Cyprus dispute and the United Nations: Peaceful non-settlement between 1954 and 1996’, IJMES, 30:3 (1998), 411–15; Edward Johnson, ‘Britain and the Cyprus problem at the United Nations, 1954–58’, JICH, 28:3 (2000), 114–27; Holland, Britain and the Revolt, 41–5, 218–19.
26. Holland, Britain and the Revolt, 46; Martin Thomas, ‘Defending a lost cause? France and the United States’ vision of imperial rule in French North Africa, 1946–1956’, DH, 26:2 (2002), 228–39.
27. Owen, ‘Critics of empire in Britain’, in Brown and Louis, OHBE, iv: The Twentieth Century, 204–7.
28. Josiah Brownell, ‘The taint of communism: The Movement for Colonial Freedom, the Labour Party, and the Communist Party of Great Britain, 1954–70’, Canadian Journal of History, 42:2 (2007), 235–58.
29. Robert Skinner, The Foundations of Anti-Apartheid: Liberal Humanitarians and Transnational Activists in Britain and the United States, c.1919–64 (Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2010), chs 5–6.
30. French, The British Way, 106–9, 176–8; Holland, Britain and the Revolt, 135–41.
31. Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire, 152–3.
32. Holland, Britain and the Revolt, 18–19. Organized through the Cypriot Orthodox Church, voting was not conducted in secret and Turkish Cypriots, understandably, did not take part. Even so, the 96.5 per cent vote in favour of Enosis was striking.
33. Bölükbasi, ‘The Cyprus dispute’, 413.
34. Holland, Britain and the Revolt, 98.
35. For background to the Emergency, see Robert Holland, ‘Never, Never Land: British colonial policy and the roots of violence in Cyprus, 1950–54’, in Holland, Emergencies, 148–76; and, in the same collection, for initial security responses to EOKA, see David M. Anderson, ‘Policing and communal conflict: The Cyprus Emergency, 1954–60’, 177–89.
36. Holland, Britain and the Revolt, 74–82. Riots in Nicosia on 17 Sept. 1955 culminated in the destruction of the city’s British Institute. They were preceded by Turkish violence against Greeks in Istanbul and Izmir, a scary portent of what might occur if the Cyprus problem were not contained.
37. Murphy, Alan Lennox-Boyd, 117–19. As Robert Holland notes, ‘the British were never to be quite clear where Makarios’ religion ended and his politics began’. For instance, while staying in Athens in July 1952, the Archbishop joined soon-to-be EOKA leader Colonel George Grivas in swearing a ‘holy sacred oath’ to strive for Enosis. See Holland, Britain and the Revolt, 25, 28–9.
38. Holland, Britain and the Revolt, 84.
39. Holland, Britain and the Revolt, 99–105. On 14 Dec. 1955 132 AKEL members were arrested and sent to detention camps.
40. Holland, Britain and the Revolt, 115–19. When Lennox-Boyd got wind of La Bastille, he insisted that Seychelles Governor, Sir William Addis, house Makarios in his more felicitously-named country residence, Sans Souci (Without a Care).
41. RHL, MSS., ‘British Rule in Cyprus—a personal reminiscence’, n.d., p.22.
42. A useful reading of the conflicting international pressures over Cyprus at the time is: Evanthis Hatzivassiliou, ‘Blocking Enosis: Britain and the Cyprus question, March–December 1956’, JICH, 19:2 (1991), 247–63.
43. TNA, AIR 8/1926, JP(57)81, COS memo, ‘Military policy for Cyprus’, 3 July 1957; Chief of Air Staff brief, 10 July 1957. RAF planners were particularly critical of partition, warning that bases would have to be re-supplied through hostile Greek Cypriot territory.
44. Evanthis Hatzivassiliou, Britain and the International Status of Cyprus, 1955–59 (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1997), 128–35.
45. Rauf Denktash obituary, The Economist, 21 Jan. 2012.
46. Varnava, ‘Reinterpreting’, 92–3.
47. Holland, Britain and the Revolt, 243–5, 253–6. The massacre of eight Greek Cypriot detainees dumped by a Police detachment outside the Turkish village of Guenyeli on 12 June 1958 provided shocking proof both of worsening cross-communal hatreds and of security-force irresponsibility.
48. Holland, Britain and the Revolt, 204–6.
49. BLO, Macmillan Diaries, 2nd ser., d. 29, fos.88–9, entry for 7 July 1957.
50. Holland, Britain and the Revolt, 236–61 passim.
51. BLO, Macmillan Diaries, 2nd ser., d. 29, fos.88–97, entries for 7, 10 and 11 July 1957.
52. Holland, Britain and the Revolt, 274–6.
53. TNA, DEFE 5/85, COS(58)243, ‘Release of military manpower from police duties in colonial territories’, 30 Oct. 1958.
54. TNA, DEFE 5/87, COS(58)272, British Defence Co-ordination Committee report, ‘Cyprus’, 1 Dec. 1958.
55. Holland, Britain and the Revolt, 295–7.
56. The argument that the Cyprus settlement was primarily a Greco-Turkish government achievement is made in Varnava, ‘Reinterpreting’, 95–100.
57. Lynn, ‘“We cannot let the North down”’, 155–60.
58. James R. Brennan, ‘Youth, the TANU Youth League and managed vigilantism in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 1925–73’, Africa, 76:2 (2006), 227–32. TANU’s highly-effective youth wing devoted greater effort to intimidating internal opponents than to fighting the colonial authorities.
59. John Darwin, The Historical Debate, 74–9.
60. Catherine R. Schenk, Britain and the Sterling Area: From Devaluation to Convertibility in the 1950s (London: Routledge, 1994), 20–5; Schenk, The Decline of Sterling, 84–7.
61. Sarah Stockwell, ‘Instilling the “sterling tradition”: Decolonization and the creation of a central bank in Ghana’, JICH, 26:2 (1998), 100–1, 109–15.
62. MAE série Z: Europe, 1944–1960, sous-série: Grande-Bretagne, vol. 95, no. 5122, René Massigli to Foreign Ministry, 12 Dec. 1952.
63. MAE série Z: Europe, 1944–1960, sous-série: Grande-Bretagne, vol. 95, Massigli memo, ‘Problème de la convertibilité’, 13 Dec. 1952.
64. Darwin, The Empire Project, 582–3.
65. Schenk, The Decline of Sterling, 88–9.
66. Catherine Hodeir, Stratégies d’Empire: Le Grand Patronat colonial face à la décolonisation (Paris: Belin, 2003), 281–301.
67. Schenk, The Decline of Sterling, 89–93.
68. Robert F. Dewey, Jr, British National Identity and Opposition to Membership of Europe, 1961–63: The Anti-Marketeers (Manchester University Press, 2009), 30–8, 177–91.
69. Ibid. 60–8.
70. ‘The Commonwealth and Europe’, Harold Macmillan, M.P., The Listener, 27 Sept. 1962.
71. White, ‘Decolonisation in the 1950s’, 100–22.
72. Schenk, The Decline of Sterling, 92–3; Gerald Krozewski, Money and the End of Empire: British Economic Policy and the Colonies, 1947–1958 (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001), 131–7.
73. White, ‘Decolonisation in the 1950s’, 102–5.
74. White, ‘Decolonisation in the 1950s’, 106–17.
75. TNA, DEFE 7/1296, Ministerial Committee on Strategic Export Policy first meeting’, 8 June 1956.
76. TNA, DEFE 13/274, SE(O)CP(56)23, MOD Strategic Exports Committee, ‘Export of arms to the Middle East’, 13 Nov. 1956. Also in Nov. 1956 the existing ban on British arms supplies to Egypt and Syria was extended to include Saudi Arabia and Yemen.
77. TNA, DEFE 13/214, Supply of Arms to the Middle East, Apr. 1958. Sometimes this caution backfired. US refusal to finance the sale of state-of-the-art British Hunter VI aircraft to Iraq’s monarchical regime in early 1958 exposed the limitations of British influence.
78. TNA, DEFE 7/1295, memo by Sir Frank Lee, Board of Trade Permanent Secretary, ‘Commercial prospects in the Middle East’, 20 Apr. 1959; FO tel. 2508 to Washington Embassy, 29 May 1959.
79. TNA, DEFE 5/91, COS(59)122, annex, ‘The Middle East and Africa’, 30 Apr. 1959.
80. TNA, DEFE 5/92, COS(59)146, annex, COS committee memo, ‘Long-term deployment of the Army’, 24 June 1959.
81. TNA, DEFE 5/92, COS(59)162, COS comments on Africa committee report, ‘Africa—the next ten years’, 6 July 1959.
82. TNA, DEFE 7/1013, C.-in-C. Mediterranean to GHQ Middle East, ‘US and UK Planning in Libya, 7 Aug. 1958; D(28)4, MOD Defence Committee brief, ‘Libya garrison’, n.d.
83. Spencer Mawby, ‘Britain’s last imperial frontier: The Aden Protectorates, 1952–59’, JICH, 29:2 (2001), 75–100.
84. Nigel John Ashton, ‘A microcosm of decline: British loss of nerve and military intervention in Jordan and Kuwait, 1958 and 1961’, HJ, 40:4 (1997), 1072–83; Clive Jones, ‘“Among ministers, mavericks and mandarins”: Britain, covert action and the Yemen civil war, 1962–64’, MES, 40:1 (2004), 99–122.
85. TNA, DEFE 5/91, COS(59)122, annex, ‘The Middle East and Africa’, 30 Apr. 1959.
86. The notion of a mid twentieth-century British Middle Eastern ‘moment’ was refined by Elizabeth Monroe in, Britain’s Moment in the Middle East, 1914–1956 (London: Cox and Wyman, 1963).
87. Stuart Ward, ‘“No nation could be broker”: The satire boom and the demise of Britain’s world role’, in ed., British Culture and the End of Empire (Manchester University Press, 2001), 91–109.
88. A conclusion borne out by Louis and Robinson, ‘Imperialism of Decolonization’.
89. TNA, DEFE 4/132, COS(PAR)(60), annex: ‘Military strategy for circumstances short of global war’, 21 June 1960.
90. TNA, PREM 11/3336, PM/61/3, Minutes by de Zulueta and Foreign Secretary, 5 and 10 Jan. 1961.
91. TNA, PREM 11/3336, De Zulueta note, ‘Discussions with the French about European minorities in Africa’, 13 Jan. 1961; Rambouillet talks transcript, 28 Jan. 1961.
92. Cooper, ‘Possibility’, 169.
93. Murphy, Party Politics, 216–18, quotation at p. 217.
94. Murphy, Party Politics, 238.
95. BLO, Castle papers, MS Castle 16, fos.8–9, 11 Dec. 1963.
96. BLO, Castle papers, MS Castle 16, fos.11–13, 11 Dec. 1963.
97. Andrew S. Thompson, introduction to Britain’s Experience of Empire in the Twentieth Century, 17.
98. Linda Colley, ‘Europe, not empire: Britain’s foreign policy challenge’, The Guardian, 6 Jan. 2012.
1. Martin Evans, Algeria, 131–2.
2. Jean-Charles Jauffret, ed., La Guerre d’Algérie par les documents, ii, 359–61.
3. Evans, Algeria, 118–23; Mohammed Harbi, Le FLN: Mirage et réalité (Paris: Editions Jeune Afrique, 1981), 96–100. The nine were Hocine Aït Ahmed, Ahmed Ben Bella, Mohammed Boudiaf, Rabah Bitat, Mostefa Ben Boulaïd, Larbi Ben M’hidi, Mourad Didouche, Mohammed Khider, and Belkacem Krim. The leadership remained broadly collective, but was prone to factional splits; Boudiaf played the leading organizational role. Force of circumstance and the rising influence of guerrilla (ALN) leaders also altered its complexion: Ben Boulaïd Ben M’hidi, and Didouche died at the hands of the French army; Ben Bella, Bitat, Boudiaf, and Khider spent most of the war in jail.
4. Gilbert Meynier, Histoire intérieure du F.L.N., 1954–1962 (Paris: Fayard, 2002), 121–3.
5. ANOM, Marcel Edmond Naegelen, Cabinet files, 9cab/48, menées anti-nationales, atteintes à la sûreté de l’Etat, MTLD, 1947–51; 9cab/58: Renseignements RG, 1948–51.
6. Meynier, Histoire intérieure, 129–48; Evans, Algeria, 127–9.
7. MAE, série: Afrique-Levant 1944–1959, sous-série: Algérie 1944–1952, vol. 6, Algiers prefect, ‘Note sur l’activité subversive du PPA-MTLD, Département d’Alger’, n. d. 1950; Meynier, Histoire Intérieure, 87; Harbi, Le F.L.N.: Mirage et réalité, 70–6.
8. AN, René Mayer papers, 363AP32/D3, no. 3266, Governor-General Roger Léonard to Interior Ministry, 3 Jan. 1955.
9. Jean-Charles Jauffret, ‘The origins of the Algerian War: The reaction of France and its army to the emergencies of 8 May 1945 and 1 Nov. 1954’, JICH, 21:3 (1993), 24–8.
10. Jean-Louis Planche, Sétif 1945 (Paris: Perrin, 2006), 135–51; Jean-Pierre Peyroulou, Guelma, 1945: Une subversion française dans l’Algérie coloniale (Paris: La Découverte, 2009); Martin Thomas, ‘Colonial violence in Algeria and the distorted logic of state retribution: The Sétif Uprising of 1945’, Journal of Military History 75:1 (2011), 523–56.
11. AN, René Mayer papers, 363AP32/D3, no. 497/CC, Léonard to Interior Minister, 22 Jan. 1955.
12. Denis Roland, ‘Jacques Soustelle, de l’ethnologie à la politique’, Guerres Mondiales et Conflits Contemporains, 180 (Oct. 1995), 171–85; Jacques Soustelle, ‘L’État actuel des travaux concernant l’histoire ancienne du Mexique’, Revue Historique, 213:1 (1955), 39–46; Aleksandar Bošković, ‘In the age of the fifth sun: Jacques Soustelle’s studies of Aztec religion’, Anthropos, 87:4/6 (1992), 533–7.
13. Bernard Ullmann, Jacques Soustelle: Le Mal Aimé (Paris: Plon, 1995), 186–90; Geoffrey Adams, The Call of Conscience: French Protestant Responses to the Algerian War, 1954–1962 (Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1998), 27–8;
14. Cited in Alistair Horne, A Savage War of Peace: Algeria, 1954–1962 (New York: NYRB Classics, 2006), 108, and in Chipman, French Power in Africa, 78.
15. Evans, Algeria, 131–3; Shepard, Invention, 69–70.
16. AN, René Mayer papers, 363AP32/D1, Constantine Conseil Général motion delivered by Dr Abdelkader Bendjelloul, n.d., Sept. 1954.
17. Cited in Shepard, Invention, 64.
18. Stephen Tyre, ‘From Algerie française, FH, 20:3 (2006), 276–96.
19. Xavier Yacono, ‘Les Pertes algériennes de 1954 à 1962’, Revue de l’Occident Musulman et de la Méditerranée, 34 (1983), 119–34.
20. Guy Pervillé, ‘La Guerre d’Algérie: Combien de morts?’ in Harbi and Stora, La Guerre d’Algérie, 476–85.
21. Martha Crenshaw Hutchinson, Revolutionary Terrorism: The FLN in Algeria, 154–1962 (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1978).
22. Jacques Frémeaux, ‘Usage et obsolescence des Français d’Algérie’, in Jean-Charles Jauffret, ed., Des hommes et des femmes en guerre d’Algérie (Paris: Autrement, 2003), 49.
23. Rémi Kauffer, ‘OAS: La Guerre franco-française d’Algérie’, in Harbi and Stora, La Guerre d’Algérie, 470.
24. Emma Kuby, ‘A war of words over an image of war: The Fox-Movietone scandal and the portrayal of French violence in Algeria, 1955–1956’, FPCS, 30:1 (2012), 46–57. Faure’s hapless government alleged that the gendarme was bribed by employees of Fox Movietone News, whose French cameraman Georges Chassagne captured the original incident.
25. Tramor Quémeneur, ‘La Détention ou l’illégalité: Trois parcours de refus d’obéissance dans la guerre d’Algérie’, in Jauffret, Des hommes et des femmes, 431–42; ‘Testimony of Georges Mattéi’, in Martin S. Alexander, Martin Evans, and J.F.V. Keiger, eds, The Algerian War and the French Army: Experiences, Images, Testimonies (Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2002), 249–53.
26. Lazreg, Torture, 123–30.
27. Todd Shepard, ‘“Something notably erotic”: Politics, “Arab men”, and sexual revolution in postdecolonization France, 1962–1974’, Journal of Modern History, 84:1 (2012), 87–8.
28. Raphaëlle Branche and Jim House, ‘Silences on state violence during the Algerian War of independence: France and Algeria, 1962–2007’, in Efrat Ben-Ze’ev, Ruth Ginio, and Jay Winter, eds, Shadows of War: A Social History of Silence in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge University Press, 2010), 119–20.
29. Marnia Lazreg, The Eloquence of Silence: Algerian Women in Question (London: Routledge, 1994), chs 3, 6–7.
30. Neil MacMaster, Burning the Veil: The Algerian War and the ‘Emancipation’ of Algerian Women, 1954–62 (Manchester University Press, 2009), 209–16.
31. Natalya Vince, ‘Transgressing boundaries: Gender, race, religion, and “Françaises musulmanes” during the Algerian War of independence’, FHS, 33:3 (2010), 459–63; Cherifa Bouatta, ‘Feminine militancy: Moudjahidates during and after the Algerian War’, in Valentine M. Moghadam ed., Gender and National Identity: Women and Politics in Muslim Societies (London: Zed Books, 1994), 19–26. The fullest collection of moudjahida accounts was compiled by former fighter-turned-historian Djamila Amrane: Des femmes dans la guerre d’Algérie: Entretiens (Paris: Karthala, 1994).
32. Lazreg, Torture, 157–67.
33. Raphaëlle Branche, La Torture et l’armée pendant la guerre d’Algérie (Paris: Gallimard, 2001), 303–6; ‘Des viols pendant la guerre d’Algérie’, Vingtième Siècle, 75 (2002), 123–32; ‘La Sexualité des appelés en Algérie’, in Jauffret, Des hommes et des femmes, 412–13. Branche is scrupulous in identifying instances of sexual violence, making clear how commonplace it became.
34. MacMaster, Burning the Veil, 316–22, 334–41.
35. Natalya Vince, ‘To be a moudjahida in independent Algeria: Itineraries and memories of women veterans of the Algerian War’, PhD thesis, University of London, 2009, 33–4.
36. MacMaster, Burning the Veil, chs 7–9; Lazreg, Torture, 146–52.
37. Diane Sambrone, ‘La Politique d’émancipation du gouvernement français à l’égard des femmes algériennes pendant la guerre d’Algérie’, in Jauffret, Des hommes et des femmes, 228–42; Vince, ‘Transgressing boundaries’, 446–9, 464–7.
38. Martin Evans, The Memory of Resistance: French Opposition to the Algerian War (1954–1962) (Oxford: Berg, 1997), 39–44; Marie-Pierre Ulloa, Francis Jeanson : A Dissident Intellectual from the French Resistance to the Algerian War (Stanford University Press, 2007).
39. Shepard, Invention, 66–7.
40. Shepard, Invention, 75–7.
41. Annie Cohen-Solal, ‘Camus, Sartre and the Algerian War’, Journal of European Studies, 28:1 (1998), 43–50.
42. Shepard, Invention, 63–4, 68; James D. Le Sueur, Uncivil War: Intellectuals and Identity Politics During the Decolonization of Algeria (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001), ch. 4.
43. Le Sueur, Uncivil War, 86–90, 96–117; David Carroll, ‘Camus’s Algeria: Birthrights, colonial injustice, the fiction of a French-Algerian people’, Modern Language Notes, 112 (1997), 517–49.
44. Jennings, Revolution and the Republic, 494–500.
45. Shepard, Invention, 61–2, 71–2.
46. Le Sueur, Uncivil War, 249–53.
47. Le Sueur, Uncivil War, 224–5.
48. Jane E. Goodman and Paul A. Silverstein, eds, ‘Introduction’, in Bourdieu in Algeria: Colonial Politics, Ethnographic Practices, Theoretical Developments (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2009), 10–22.
49. Jacques Marseille, ‘L’Investissement public en Algérie après la Deuxième Guerre Mondiale’, Revue Française d’Histoire d’Outre-Mer, 70:260 (1983), 180–9; Nathalie Ruz, ‘La Force du “Cartierisme”’, in Jean-Pierre Rioux, ed., La Guerre d’Algérie et les Français (Paris: Fayard, 1990), 328–33.
50. SHD-DAT, 1H1106/D1, ‘Tableaux de l’économie algérienne, 1960’.
51. For the long history of internment camps in Algeria, see Sylvie Thénault, Violence ordinaire dans l’Algérie coloniale: Camps, internements, assignations à résidence (Paris: Odile Jacob, 2011); Michel Cornaton, Les Camps de regroupement de la guerre d’Algérie (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1998).
52. On ideas of ‘good’ and ‘bad’ French colonists, see Jennifer E. Sessions, By Sword and Plow, 232–4; Benjamin Stora, ‘The “southern” world of the pieds noirs: References to and representations of Europeans in colonial Algeria’, in Caroline Elkins and Susan Pedersen, eds, Settler Colonialism in the Twentieth Century (London: Routledge, 2005), 226, 231. Stora suggests that fewer than three per cent of Algerian settlers exceeded the average standard of living in France.
53. Jean-Jacques Jordi, ‘L’Inconscience ou le peril’, in Jean-Jacques Jordi and Guy Pervillé, eds, Alger, 1940–1962: Une ville en guerres (Paris: Autrement, 1999), 96–9.
54. Stathis Kalyvas, The Logic of Violence in Civil War (Cambridge University Press, 2006), 183–91.
55. Guy Pervillé, ‘Une capital convoitée’, in Jean-Jacques Jordi and Guy Pervillé, eds, Alger, 1940–1962: Une ville en guerres (Paris: Autrement, 1999), 127–8.
56. Lorcin, Historicizing Colonial Nostalgia, 146.
57. Stora, ‘The “southern” world’, 236–8.
58. Patricia M. E. Lorcin, ‘Introduction’, to Lorcin, ed., Algeria & France: Identity, Memory, Nostalgia (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2006), xxiii.
59. Émilie Elongbil Ewane, ‘Hébergement et répression: Le Centre de la Part-Dieu’, in Raphaëlle Branche and Sylvie Thénault, La France en guerre, 1954–1962: Expériences métropolitaines de la guerre d’indépendance algérienne (Paris: Autrement, 2008), 419–25; Jim House and Andrew Thompson, ‘Immigration and housing during and after decolonisation: Britain and France, 1945–1974’, in Andrew Thompson, ed., Writing Imperial Histories (Manchester University Press, 2013), ch. 10.
60. Neil MacMaster, Colonial Migrants and Racism: Algerians in France, 1900–62 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997), 193.
61. Jacques Valette, La Guerre d’Algérie des Messalistes, 1954–1962 (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2001).
62. Linda Amiri, La Bataille de France: La Guerre d’Algérie en France (Paris: Robert Laffont, 2004); Valette, La guerre d’Algérie des Messalistes; Ali Haroun, La 7e Wilaya: La Guerre du FLN en France 1954–1962 (Paris: Seuil, 1986).
63. Emmanuel Blanchard, ‘Contrôler, enfermer, éloigner: La Répression policière et administrative des algériens de métropole (1946–1962)’, in Branche and Thénault, La France en guerre, 318–31; Blanchard, La Police Parisienne et les Algériens (1944–1962) (Paris: Nouveau Monde, 2011), 127–41, 166–73, 313–58.
64. For the juridical foundations of the clearest example, apartheid South Africa, see: Posel, The Making of Apartheid; Ivan Evans, ‘Racial violence and the origins of segregation in South Africa’, in Caroline Elkins and Susan Pedersen, eds, Settler Colonialism in the Twentieth Century (London: Routledge, 2005), 183–202.
65. Caroline Elkins, ‘Race, citizenship, and governance: Settler tyranny and the end of Empire’, in Elkins and Pedersen, Settler Colonialism, 203–22.
66. Philip Murphy makes this point about leading Southern Rhodesians of the Central African Federation: see, ‘Government by blackmail’, 54–64; also cited in Stockwell, ‘Ends of Empire’, 276.
67. Political scientist Hendrik Spruyt highlights the correlation between settler influence, the incidence of colonial violence and partition schemes, Ending Empire: Contested Sovereignty and Territorial Partition (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005), 27, 36–8.
68. Jackson, Madness.
69. Philippe Bourdrel, La Dernière Chance de l’Algérie française: Du gouvernement socialiste au retour de De Gaulle, 1956–1958 (Paris: Albin Michel, 1996), 21–8.
70. Evans, Algeria, 148–9.
71. This argument is pivotal to Evans, Algeria.
72. Thomas, The French North African Crisis, 103–5.
73. SHD-DAT, 1H1379/D1, EMA-1, ‘Plan d’urgence 1ère partie’, 18 Mar. 1956; Marill, ‘L’Héritage indochinois’, 31–2.
74. SHD-DAT, 1H1374/D3, EMA summary, ‘Situation des trois armées en Algérie, 1956’.
75. Alain Monchabion, ‘Un positionnement syndical original: L’Union des grandes écoles’, in Branche and Thénault, La France en guerre, 165–6.
76. Thomas, ‘Order before reform’, in Killingray and Omissi, Guardians of Empire, 198–221.
77. Fredrik Logevall, Choosing War: The Lost Chance for Peace and the Escalation of War in Vietnam (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1999), chs 9–12; Brian VanDeMark, Into the Quagmire: Lyndon Johnson and the Escalation of the Vietnam War (Oxford University Press, 1991).
78. Evans, Algeria, 126–7.
79. Some 1.2 million Algerian Muslims fell under the initial ‘state of siege’ restrictions: USNA, RG 59, 751S.00, box 3375, Algiers Consulate to State Department, 13 Apr. 1955.
80. SHD-DAT, 1H1374/D2, EMA-3, ‘Algérie—organisation territoriale’, 5 Feb. 1955; Service Historique de l’Armée de l’Air, carton Z23344, Robert Lacoste, ‘Directive générale’, 19 May 1956.
81. AN, René Mayer papers, 363AP32/D1, Pierre-Charles Dupuch to Soustelle, 11 July 1955.
82. Benjamin Stora, ‘Le Massacre du 20 août 1955: Récit historique, bilan historiographique’, Historical Reflections, 36:2 (2010), 97–107.
83. Charles-Robert Ageron, ‘L’Insurrection du 20 août 1955 dans le nord Constantinois: De la résistance armée à la guerre au peuple’, in Charles-Robert Ageron, ed., La Guerre d’Algérie et les Algériens, 1954–1962 (Paris: Armand Colin, 1997), 27–50; Evans, Algeria, 140–1.
84. Thomas, ‘Colonial Violence in Algeria’, 523–56; Peyroulou, Guelma, 1945; Planche, Sétif.
85. A rare exception is a dossier of Algerian depositions detailing security force and vigilante violence: ANOM, Gouvernement Général de l’Algérie (GGA), Cabinet Chataigneau, 8cab/166, Commissaire Divisionnaire Bergé to Directeur Général de la Sécurité Générale, 20 Jan. 1946.
86. Lazreg, Torture, 111–15.
87. These definitions draw on Charles Tilly, ‘Contentious choices’, Theory and Society, 33:3/4 (2004), 473.
88. There are parallels with the way that Guatemalan government and military defended violence against the country’s Mayan population: Greg Grandin, The Last Colonial Massacre, 188–90.
89. James McDougall, ‘Savage wars? Codes of violence in Algeria, 1830s–1990s’, Third World Quarterly, 26:1 (2005), 119. For careful analysis of ‘logical’ communal violence in another settler society, see: Branch, Defeating Mau Mau, 49–60.
90. Joshua Cole, ‘Massacres and their historians: Recent histories of state violence in France and Algeria in the twentieth century’, FPCS, 28:1 (2010), 110–16.
91. TNA, FO 371/118302, Baghdad, Cairo, and Washington tels., 25, 27, and 30 Aug. 1955.
92. TNA, FO 371/118302, Bonn consulate to FO, 23 Aug. 1955.
93. M. S. Alexander and P. C. F. Bankwitz, ‘From politiques en képi to military technocrats: De Gaulle and the recovery of the French Army after Indochina and Algeria,’ in G. Andreopoulos and H. Selesky eds, The Aftermath of Defeat: Societies, Armed Forces and the Challenge of Recovery (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994), 83–7.
94. TNA, FO 493/174, MA/Paris/322, Report by Brigadier A.C.F. Jackson, 17 Nov. 1955.
95. TNA, Macmillan Private Office papers, FO 800/672, memcon. with Julius Holmes, 6 Oct. 1955.
96. AN, René Mayer papers, 363AP32/D1, Pierre-Charles Dupuch to Bône Mayor, 15 Oct. 1955.
97. AN, René Mayer papers, 363AP32/D1, no. 105/PR, Dupuch to René Mayer, 15 Oct. 1955.
98. AN, René Mayer papers, 363AP32/D4, sous-dossier ‘Maurice Papon’, 1949–57; L. Mazzuca, Chair of Sétif Radical Party, to René Mayer, 14 Nov. 1951.
99. Vann Kelly, ‘A prefect’s road from Bordeaux, through Algeria, and beyond, August 1944–October 1961’, in Richard J. Golsan, ed., Memory and Justice on Trial: The Papon Affair (London: Routledge, 2000), 50–6.
100. AN, René Mayer papers, 363AP32/D4, no. 4510, Papon ‘Directive concernant l’action politique’, 4 Sept. 1956; SHD-DAT, 1H2404/D1, no. 825/RM10, Bureau psychologique, 23 Feb. 1957.
101. Danièle Joly, The French Communist Party, 93–9, 137–9; ‘France’s military involvement in Algeria: The PCF and the oppositionnels’, in Scriven and Wagstaff, War and Society, 130–4.
102. AN, MRP papers, 350AP/85/D5, Jean Fonteneau to Georges Le Brun Keris, 6 June 1956.
103. AN, MRP papers, 350AP/85/D5, Pierre Pflimlin, ‘Déclaration sur l’Algérie faite au Comité nationale du MRP’, 8 July 1956.
104. Vote rigging peaked during Marcel-Edmond Naegelen’s 1948 to 1951 governorship. A tough Socialist deputy from Alsace, he led the clampdown against the MTLD and gerrymandered Algeria’s electoral districts, insisting that the local population ‘expected’ political guidance from their administrators. Letamendia, Le Mouvement Républicaine Populaire, 355; USNA, RG 59, 751S.00, box 3700, Algiers Consulate to State Department, 2 Mar. 1950.
105. TNA, FO 371/113795, JF1019/6 and FO 371/119357, JF1019/33, Algiers Consular reports to FO, 26 Apr. 1955 and 26 Jan. 1956.
106. Raphaëlle Branche, L’Embuscade de Palestro: Algérie 1956 (Paris: Armand Colin, 2010).
107. Evans, The Memory of Resistance, 141.
108. Jean-François Sirinelli, ‘Les Intellectuels dans la mêlée’, in Rioux, La Guerre d’Algérie, 118–20.
109. Evans, Algeria, 199; Marc Sadoun, ‘Les Socialistes entre principes, pouvoir et mémoire’, in Rioux, La Guerre d’Algérie, 229–30. André Philip parted company with the Socialists in 1958, later aligning with de Gaulle. Alain Savary resigned as Minister of State for Moroccan and Tunisian Affairs in Nov. 1956. Michel Rocard published a report criticizing Algeria’s rural resettlement camps. Other leading Socialists who contested Mollet’s decisions included Daniel Mayer, Marceau Pivert, and Gaston Defferre.
110. Danielle Tartakowsky, ‘Les Manifestations de rue’, in Rioux, La Guerre d’Algérie, 132–3.
111. Evans, The Memory of Resistance, 77–81; Mohammed Khane, ‘Le Monde’s coverage of the army and civil liberties during the Algerian War, 1954–58’, in Alexander, Evans, and Keiger, The Algerian War and the French Army, 174–92.
112. Donald Reid, ‘Review article: The Question of Henri Alleg’, IHR, 29:3 (2007), 573–86. Harold Macmillan’s Private Office received a sack of letters from outraged constituents after The Manchester Guardian serialized Alleg’s harrowing story in Mar. 1958: Conservative Party Archive, Bodleian Library, Oxford, CC04/7/167.
113. Anthony Nutting, ‘Nationalism in the Middle East: The tragedy of Algeria’, New York Herald Tribune, 15 May 1957.
114. Egyptian aid is detailed in Fathi Al Dib, Abdel Nasser (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1985), 41–3, 175–204.
115. MAE, série Europe 1944–1960, sous-série Grande-Bretagne, vol. 142, Jean Chauvel to Christian Pineau (transcript of in-flight conversation), 28 Sept. 1956.
116. MAE, série Europe 1944–1960, sous-série Grande-Bretagne, vol. 142, ‘Compterendu de la visite en Algérie des Parlementaires britanniques, 15–22 Oct. 1956’.
117. ‘Mémoire du PPA signé de Mohammed Khider’, 3 Sept. 1953, in Mohammed Harbi, Les Archives de la révolution algérienne (Paris: Editions Jeune Afrique, 1981), doc. 2.
118. AN, René Mayer papers, 363AP32/D4, Maurice Papon, ‘Le Problème tunisien: Réflexions sur la méthode’, 6 Dec. 1952.
119. MAE, série Afrique-Levant, sous-série: Algérie, vol. 4, Cairo tel. 451, 21 Mar. 1952.
120. ‘Rapport d’Aït Ahmed, Bureau politique du PPA, au Comité central élargi’, in Harbi, Les Archives, doc. 1.
121. Harbi, Le FLN: Mirage et réalité, 143; Proclamation du FLN, 1 Nov. 1954, in Harbi, Les Archives, 102.
122. Heinz-Gerhard Haupt and Klaus Weinhauer, ‘Terrorism and the state’, in Bloxham and Gerwarth, Political Violence, 194–5; Connelly, Diplomatic Revolution, 96–7.
123. Jacques Frémeaux, ‘La Guerre d’Algérie et les relations internationales’, Relations Internationales, 105:1 (2001), 60–5.
124. TNA, FO 371/125933, JR10345/4, Congressional Record, 2 July 1957. Kennedy chaired the Africa sub-committee of the Senate foreign relations committee.
125. Robert J. Bookmiller, ‘The Algerian war of words: Broadcasting and revolution, 1954–1962’, Maghreb Review, 14:3–4 (1989), 196–213; Charles-Robert Ageron, ‘Un aspect de la guerre d’Algérie: La Propagande Radiophonique du FLN et des états arabes’, in Ageron, La Guerre d’Algérie, 245–59.
126. SHD-DAT, 1H1101/D1, Inspection des Forces Armées, AFN, 2ème Division, ‘Action de la rébellion à l’extérieur de l’Algérie’, 28 Sept. 1957.
127. Fabian Klose, ‘“Source of embarrassment”: Human rights, state of emergency, and wars of decolonization’, in Stefan-Ludwig Hoffmann, ed., Human Rights in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge University Press, 2011), 237–57.
128. Matthew Connelly, ‘Rethinking the Cold War and decolonization: The grand strategy of the Algerian war of independence’, IJMES, 33:2 (2001), 223–41.
129. Sylvie Thénault, Une drôle de justice: Les Magistrats dans la guerre d’Algérie (Paris: La Découverte, 2001), part II.
130. MacMaster, Burning the Veil, 318.
131. MAE, série Europe, sous-série Grande-Bretagne, vol. 143, Ministry secretariat note, 13 Feb. 1958. The MPs singled out the unreliability of confessions extracted under torture.
132. Lazreg, Torture, 161–3. Djamila Boupacha suffered broken ribs, multiple cigarette burns, and was raped with a beer bottle. As we saw in the Preface, another fidayate, Louisette Ighilahriz’s account of her experiences in an Algiers torture centre triggered a media storm when published in France in 2001.
133. Judith Surkis, ‘Ethics and violence: Simone de Beauvoir, Djamila Boupacha, and the Algerian War’, FPCS, 28:2 (2010), 38–55.
134. Vince, ‘Transgressing boundaries’, When Boupacha was freed from prison in the weeks following the Algerian ceasefire on 26 Apr. 1962 she was reluctant to return to Algeria, lamenting that women would be confined to a life of domesticity in an FLN-run state: see MacMaster, Burning the Veil, 381.
135. Christopher E. Goscha, ‘Hanoi and Saigon at War: The making of the Viet Minh’s underground cities (1945–54)’, War in History, (2012), Jim House, ‘L’Impossible Contrôle d’une ville coloniale: Casablanca, décembre 1952’, Genèses, 1:86 (2012), 78–103.
136. Robert Malley, The Call from Algeria: Third Worldism, Revolution, and the Turn to Islam (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1996), 84–8, 122–30.
137. Re-named in commemoration of its young revolutionary heroine, rue Hassiba Ben Bouali is now a major Algiers thoroughfare.
138. Christopher Cradock & M. L. R. Smith, ‘“No fixed values”: A reinterpretation of the influence of the theory of Guerre révolutionnaire and the Battle of Algiers, 1956–1957’, Journal of Cold War Studies, 9:4 (2007), 68–105.
139. This paragraph draws on Martin Evans’ excellent account of the battle in Algeria, 201–21.
140. SHD-DAT, 1H1104/D4, ‘Regroupement des populations’, 22 Mar. 1958.
141. TNA, FO 371/125949, JR10217/3, Paris Chancery to FO, 30 July 1957.
142. TNA, FO 371/131674, JR10317/1, Jebb to FO, 27 Dec. 1957; Evans, Algeria, 200–1, 212.
143. Raphaëlle Branche, ‘La Commission de sauvegarde pendant la guerre d’Algérie: Chronique d’un échec annoncé’, Vingtième Siècle, 61:1 (1999), 14–29.
144. Jean-Charles Jauffret, ‘The war culture of French combatants in the Algerian conflict’, in Alexander, Evans, and Keiger, The Algerian War and the French Army, 104.
145. Roland Barthes, ‘La Grammaire africaine’, in Mythologies (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1957), 230; Huw Bennett, ‘Soldiers in the court room: The British Army’s part in the Kenya Emergency under the legal spotlight’, JICH, 39:5 (2011), 717–30.
146. Jean-Charles Jauffret, ‘Pour une typologie des hommes du contingent en guerre d’Algérie’, in Jauffret, Des hommes et des femmes, 386–7.
1. TNA, FO 371/125945, JR1201/3, Colonel A. J. Wilson, Algeria inspection, 8–16 Jan. 1957.
2. Paul Villatoux, ‘Le Colonel Lacheroy théoricien de l’action psychologique’, in Jean-Charles Jauffret, ed., Des hommes et des femmes, 494–507.
3. Brigadier J. A. H. Mitchell, ‘Personality notes’ on Algiers corps commanders: TNA, FO 371/131685, JR1193/19, ‘Report on visit to 10e Région militaire, 16–31 Oct. 1958’.
4. TNA, FO 371/125945, JR1201/3, Wilson, Algeria inspection report, 8–16 Jan. 1957.
5. TNA, FO 371/125945, JR1201/16, encl.: Jackson report to FO, 12 Aug. 1957.
6. TNA, FO 371/131663, JR1016/12A, ‘Present military situation’, 27 Feb. 1958.
7. SHD-DAT, 1H1104/D4, no. 2200/DN, Secrétariat permanent de la Défense nationale en Algérie (DNA), ‘Organisation des services de surveillance et de fermature des frontières’, 15 Oct. 1957.
8. TNA, FO 371/131668, JR1018/11, ‘Frontier barrier between Algeria and Tunisia’, 28 Apr. 1958.
9. SHD-DAT, 1H1101/D1, DNA, ‘Quelques noms et quelques chiffres concernant la rébellion Algérienne’, 21 Oct. 1958.
10. TNA, FO 371/131685, JR1193/7, War Office report, ‘Military operations in Algeria’, based on Wilson’s inspection tour, 10–18 July 1958, pp. 3–4.
11. TNA, FO 371/131685, JR1193/7, War Office report, op cit, pp. 4–5, 13–15. Wilson misunderstood the actions of ALN civilian auxiliaries, notably in Eastern Algeria, see: Daho Djerbal, ‘Mounadiline et moussebiline, les forces auxiliaires de l’ALN du nord-Constantinois’, in Jauffret, Des hommes et des femmes, 292–6.
12. TNA, FO 371/131685, JR1193, Roderick Sarell to Brigadier Mitchell, 19 Sept. 1958; author’s interview with Sarell, Newbury, Berkshire, 13 Mar. 2000.
13. The exception was the Army’s Fifth Bureau, responsible for psychological warfare, whose mission was to induce Algerian civilians to side with France, see SHD-DAT, 1H2404/D2, ‘RM10, 5ème Bureau memo, ‘Activités et problèmes du 5ème Bureau pour la période avril–juin 1958’, 7 July 1958.
14. Neil MacMaster, ‘The ‘silent native’: Attentisme, being compromised, and banal terror during the Algerian War of independence, 1954–62’, in Thomas, French Colonial Mind: Violence, 283–303.
15. Odile Rudelle, Mai 1958, de Gaulle et la République (Paris: Plon, 1988), 103–10; Jean Charlot, Le Gaullisme d’opposition, 1946–1958 (Paris: Fayard, 1983), 347–60.
16. Jean-Pierre Bat, ‘Jacques Foccart, eminence grise for African affairs’, in Chafer and Keese, Francophone Africa.
17. Martin Thomas, ‘Policing Algeria’s borders, 1956–1960: Arms supplies, frontier defences and the Sakiet affair’, War & Society, 13:1 (1995), 81–99; Geoffrey Barei, ‘The Sakiet Sidi Youssef incident of 1958 in Tunisia and the Anglo-American “good offices” mission’, Journal of North African Studies, 17:2 (2012), 355–71.
18. Irwin M. Wall, France, the United States, and the Algerian War (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2001), 99–133; Connelly, Diplomatic Revolution, 160–7.
19. Alexander Keese, Living with Ambiguity: Integrating an African Elite in French and Portuguese Africa, 1930–61 (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2007), 100–1, 124–5, 280.
20. Miles Kahler, Decolonization in Britain and France: The Domestic Consequences of International Relations (Princeton University Press, 1984), 91–7.
21. MacMaster, Burning the Veil, 118–23.
22. MacMaster, Burning the Veil, 114–15.
23. MacMaster, Burning the Veil, 116–44.
24. Author’s interview with Roderick Sarell, 13 Mar. 2000.
25. BLO, Macmillan papers, Diaries, 2nd ser., d. 31, fo. 111, entry for 16 May 1958.
26. Claude d’Abzac-Epezy, ‘La Société militaire, de l’ingérence à l’ignorance’, in Rioux, La guerre d’Algérie, 245–9.
27. Evans, Algeria, 232–5; Macmillan papers, Diaries, 2nd ser., d. 31, fo. 135, entry for 31 May 1958: For Macmillan, ‘Everything turns on the Socialists, whom Mollet is trying to lead into acquiescence.’
28. Jansen, Les Grands Discours parlémentaires, 271–5.
29. AN, MRP papers, 350AP/85/D5, MRP2, MRP Secretariat, ‘La Situation du MRP à Alger’, n.d., May 1960. In May 1960 the Algiers section established a rival ‘Algerian MRP’ to push for integration.
30. AN, MRP papers, 350AP/76/D4, MRP8, Confédération Française des Travailleurs Chrétiens pamphlet, ‘Devant les événements de mai 1958: Pour quoi?’
31. AN, MRP papers, 350AP/85/D5, Algiers federation to MRP Congress, 8 May 1961; ‘Testament de la section d’Alger’, 16 May 1962; ‘Appel du Congrès National’, 16 May 1962.
32. Mohammed Harbi and Gilbert Meynier, Le F.L.N.: Documents et Histoire, 1954–1962 (Paris: Fayard, 2004), 358–60; Meynier, Histoire intérieure, 352–5.
33. MAE, série Europe 1944–1960, sous-série Grande-Bretagne, vol. 143, Jean Chauvel to Foreign Ministry, 18 Sept. 1958.
34. TNA, FO 371/131672, JR1024/8, JR1024/9, JR1024/20, JR1024/27: tels. on GPRA recognition, Sept.–Oct. 1958.
35. Evans, Algeria, 244; DDF, vol. II, 1958, doc. 285n.1.
36. Michèle Cointet, De Gaulle et l’Algérie française, 1958–1962 (Paris: Perrin 1995), 64–6.
37. SHD-DAT, 1H2035/D1, EMI-3, ‘Le Barrage avant de la frontier tunisienne’, n.d., Mar. 1960.
38. Thomas, ‘Policing Algeria’s borders’, 81–99.
39. Bar-On, ‘Three days in Sèvres’, 173.
40. SHD-DAT, Z23344, General Martial Valin, ‘Aspects de la situation militaire en Algérie’, Jan. 1959; Yoav Gortzak, ‘Using indigenous forces in counterinsurgency operations: The French in Algeria, 1954–1962’, Journal of Strategic Studies, 32:2 (2009), 307–33.
41. SHD-DAT, 1H2036/D1, General Olié to Challe, 3 Jan. 1960.
42. Harbi and Meynier, Le F.L.N.: Documents et Histoire, 530–9; Meynier, Histoire intérieure, 448.
43. Charles de Gaulle, Memoirs of Hope (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1971), 60–2; Cointet, De Gaulle et l’Algérie française, 38–9.
44. Government controls on Algeria’s internal market were also tightened to break the FLN’s grip over the rural economy, see: SHD-DAT, 1H1104/D6, Delegate-General’s office, ‘Organisation de la lutte économique et financière contre la rébellion’, 28 Oct. 1959.
45. SHD-DAT, 1H2467/D1bis, ‘Discours prononcé par de Gaulle à Constantine’, 3 Oct. 1958.
46. ANOM, Marius Moutet papers, PA 28, C28/D170, ‘Rapport sur le programme arrêté par les députés d’Algérie et du Sahara’, 8 Dec. 1958.
47. SHD-DAT, 1H1106/D3, Statistique générale de l’Algérie, ‘Plan de Constantine’, 1960.
48. Daniel Lefeuvre, ‘L’Échec du Plan de Constantine’, in Rioux, La Guerre d’Algérie, 320.
49. Charles-Robert Ageron, ‘Complots et purges dans l’armée de libération algérienne (1958–1961)’, Vingtième Siècle, 59:1 (1998), 15–27; Evans, Algeria, 261–8.
50. Evans, Algeria, 271.
51. Alexander and Bankwitz,‘From politiques en képi’, 91–2.
52. Evans, Algeria, 271–2.
53. Alexander, ‘Seeking France’s “lost soldiers”: Reflections on the Military Crisis in Algeria’, in Kenneth Mouré and M. S. Alexander, eds, Crisis and Renewal in France, 1918–1962 (Oxford: Berghahn, 2002), 250.
54. SHD-DAT, 1H2734, Corps d’Armée d’Alger (CAA), 3ème bureau, ‘Évolution de la rébellion sur le territoire du CAA, Oct.–Dec. 1960’, 27 Dec. 1960.
55. TNA, FO 371/138606, JR1193/3, Meeting with Colonel Alain de Boisseau, 18 Apr. 1959; FO 371/147328, ‘Calendar of events: Algeria, 1959’; PREM 11/3200, ‘Algeria’, 2 Mar. 1960.
56. TNA, FO 371/147365, JR1193/5, Inter-service liaison mission report to FO, 17 Oct. 1960; FO 371/155514, ‘Calendar of events for Algeria, 1960’.
57. Philip Hemming, ‘Macmillan and the end of the British Empire in Africa’, in Richard Aldous and Sabine Lee, eds, Harold Macmillan and Britain’s World Role (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996), 111.
58. TNA, FO 371/143694, WUN11922/27, Admiralty Directorate of Plans, ‘French Mediterranean fleet withdrawal’, 4 Mar. 1959; FO 371/154573, WUN1196/5, France and NATO’, 19 Jan. 1960.
59. TNA, DEFE 13/178, Harold Watkinson note for PM, 14 Apr. 1961; Mervyn O’Driscoll, ‘Explosive challenge: Diplomatic triangles, the United Nations, and the problem of French nuclear testing, 1959–1960’, Journal of Cold War Studies, 11:1 (2009), 28–56.
60. French, The British Way, 201–18. French notes that the British Army was a more assiduous institutional learner than the Colonial Office about the limits of counter-insurgency.
61. TNA, DEFE 7/2234, JP(61)149, ‘British strategy in the sixties’, 19 Dec. 1961, Watkinson note to Treasury Chief Secretary, both 19 Dec. 1961.
62. See Jeffrey A. Lefebvre, ‘Kennedy’s Algerian dilemma: Containment, alliance politics and the “rebel dialogue”’, MES, 35:2 (1999), 61–82.
63. TNA, FO 371/169107, Paris despatch no 1, 3 Jan. 1963; Shepherd, Iain MacLeod, 158–9, 193–5.
64. Shepard, ‘“Something notably erotic”’, 89.
65. Shepard, Invention, 90–8.
66. Shepard, Invention, 82–3, 97–100, 114–15.
67. TNA, FO 371/147347, FO monthly report on Algeria, 8 April–8 May 1960; Jeffery S. Ahlman, ‘The Algerian question in Nkrumah’s Ghana, 1958–1960: Debating violence and nonviolence in African decolonization’, Africa Today, 57:2 (2010), 80–2.
68. Evans, Algeria, 299. The internment camp regime was gradually wound down during 1961.
69. AN, MRP papers, 350AP/85/D5, Jean Franceschi to MRP President, 29 Apr. 1961.
70. Evans, Memory of Resistance, 188–93; Claire Guyot, ‘Entre morale et politique: Le Centre catholique des intellectuels français face à la décolonisation’, Vingtième Siècle, 63 (1999), 75–86.
71. TNA, PREM 11/3337, Dixon to Foreign Office, 14 July 1961.
72. Jean-François Sirinelli, ‘Guerre d’Algérie, guerre des pétitions? Quelques jalons’, Revue Historique, 291:1 (1988), 73–100.
73. Philip Dine, ‘French culture and the Algerian War: Mobilizing icons’, Journal of European Studies, 28:1 (1998), 51–68. As Dine notes, photo-journalism and gestures like the 1958 decision by ten Algerian footballers to quit the French league to form an Algerian ‘national’ team in Tunis probably did more than intellectual argument to persuade the French public of the war’s injustice.
74. Jim House and Neil MacMaster, Paris 1961: Algerians, State Terror, and Memory (Oxford University Press, 2006), 137–8, 216–26.
75. House and MacMaster, Paris 1961, 99–100. Under the curfew terms all Algerians residing in the Paris Prefecture were prohibited from leaving their homes between 8.30 p.m. and 5.30 a.m. Their cafés were required to shut by 7 p.m. and use of motor vehicles during the curfew period was banned.
76. Kelly, ‘A prefect’s road’, 62–4.
77. House and MacMaster, Paris 1961, 105–11; Neil MacMaster, ‘Identifying “terrorists” in Paris: A police experiment with IBM machines during the Algerian War’, FPCS, 28:3 (2010), 23–45.
78. House and MacMaster, Paris 1961, 161–7.
79. House and MacMaster, Paris 1961, 139–3, 149–57, 216–41.
80. SHD-DAT, 1H2467/D1bis, Bureau du moral, ‘Subversion O.A.S. dans l’armée’, 31 Mar. 1962.
81. Evans, Algeria, 309–15; House and MacMaster, Paris 1961, 247–52.
82. Cited in Shepard, Invention, 105.
83. The ‘official line’ of an honourable peace was repeated in instructions issued by Armed Forces Minister Pierre Messmer to French commanders in the week before the cease-fire: SHD-DAT, 1H2467/D6, no. 106/MA/CAB/INF/CS, ‘Les Termes probables de la négociation’, 8 Mar. 1962.
84. TNA, PREM 11/3641, Salan letter to Macmillan, 3 Mar. 1962.
85. Evans, Algeria, 303–4; Berny Sebe, ‘In the shadow of the Algerian War: The United States and the Common Organisation of Saharan Regions/Organisation commune des régions sahariennes (OCRS), 1957–62’, JICH, 38:2 (2010), 303–22.
86. Olivier Dard, ‘Réalités et limites de l’internationalisation de l’anti-anticolonialisme de la guerre d’Algérie au début des années 70’, in Olivier Dard and Daniel Lefeuvre, eds, L’Europe face à son passé colonial (Paris: Riveneuve editions, 2008), 254–61.
87. Martin Thomas, ‘A path not taken? British perspectives on French colonial violence after 1945’, in L. J. Butler and Sarah Stockwell, eds, Wind of Change (Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2013).
88. TNA, DEFE 7/2200, Joint Planning Staff brief, 8 Dec. 1959.
89. Murphy, ‘“An intricate and distasteful subject”’, 752–69.
90. The full story is recounted by Matthew Hughes, ‘Fighting for white rule in Africa: The Central African Federation, Katanga, and the Congo Crisis, 1958–1965’, IHR, 25 (2003), 592–615.
91. Murphy, ‘“An intricate and distasteful subject”’, 755–7.
92. For a positive assessment of the range of British strategic options at the time of Rhodesia’s Unilateral Declaration of Independence, see Carl Watts, ‘Killing kith and kin: The viability of British military intervention in Rhodesia, 1964–5’, Twentieth Century British History 16 (2005), 382–415.
93. Murphy, ‘“An intricate and distasteful subject”’, 756–7.
94. A point convincingly made by Philip Murphy in ‘“An intricate and distasteful subject”’, 746–9, 776.
95. John W. Young, The Labour Governments, 1964–1970, ii: International Policy (Manchester University Press, 2003), 173–8.
96. John W. Young, ‘The Wilson Government and the debate over arms sales to South Africa’, Contemporary British History, 12:3 (1998), 62–86; Tim Bale, ‘“A deplorable episode”? South African arms sales and the statecraft of British social democracy’, Labour History Review, 62:1 (1997), 22–40.
97. Alice Ritscherle, ‘Disturbing the people’s peace: Patriotism and “respectable” racism in British responses to Rhodesian independence’, in Levine and Grayzel, Gender, 197–8.
98. Donal Lowry, ‘Rhodesia 1890–1980: “The lost Dominion”’, in Bickers, Settlers, 112–14.
99. Ritscherle, ‘Disturbing’, 200.
100. Young, The Labour Governments, Vol. II, 174–6.
101. Lowry, ‘Rhodesia 1890–1980’, 116–22. Smith was a wartime fighter pilot. In 1969 Rhodesia’s settlers numbered 228,296 among a black population approaching five million.
102. Mark Stuart, ‘A Party in three pieces: The Conservative split over Rhodesian oil sanctions, 1965’, Contemporary British History, 16:1 (2002), 51–88.
103. Ritscherle, ‘Disturbing’, 201–2, 209.
104. Francis, ‘Men of the Royal Air Force’, 180–4, quotation at 180. Battle of Britain hero Douglas Bader became an outspoken News of the World columnist, a staunch defender of white minority rule.
105. Josiah Brownell, ‘“A sordid tussle on the Strand”: Rhodesia House during the UDI rebellion (1965–80)’, JICH, 38:3 (2010), 472–91.
106. Lowry, ‘Rhodesia’, 123–8, 134–5, 146; Ritscherle, ‘Disturbing’, 203; Josiah Brownell, ‘The hole in Rhodesia’s bucket: White emigration and the end of settler rule’, JSAS, 34:3 (2008), 591–610.
107. The Guardian, 12 Oct. 1965, quoted in Ritscherle, ‘Disturbing’, 211.
108. Joanna Warson, ‘A transnational decolonisation: Britain, France and the Rhodesian problem, 1965–1969’, in Chafer and Keese, Francophone Africa. British oil companies BP and Shell also breached sanctions restrictions: see Young, The Labour Governments, Vol. II, 181.
109. Harold Wilson, The Labour Government, 1964–1970: A Personal Record (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1971), 303.
110. Wilson, The Labour Government, 305–6.
111. Wilson, The Labour Government, 307–18.
112. Young, The Labour Governments, Vol. II, 64–80, 102–9, 155–9, 200–10; Matthew Jones, ‘A decision delayed: Britain’s withdrawal from South East Asia reconsidered’, EHR, 67:472 (2002), 569–95.
113. The Times, 7 Mar. 1968; Young, The Labour Governments, Vol. II, 185.
114. Jacob Abadi, ‘Great Britain and the Maghreb in the epoch of pan-Arabism and Cold War’, Cold War History, 2:2 (2002), 142.
115. Shepard, Invention, 76, citing Alain Peyrefitte, C’était de Gaulle, i: La France redevient la France (Paris: Fayard, 1994), 54.
116. Dominique Pestre, ‘Scientists in time of war: World War II, the Cold War, and science in the United States and France’, FPCS, 24:1 (2006), 27–39, at 33 & 36.
117. Andrea Smith, ‘Coerced or free? Considering post-colonial returns’, in Richard Bessel and Claudia B. Haake, eds, Removing Peoples: Forced Removal in the Modern World (Oxford University Press, 2009), 395–414.
1. These opening paragraphs rely on M. Kathryn Edwards, ‘Traître au colonialisme? The Georges Boudarel affair and the memory of the Indochina War’, French Colonial History, 11 (2010), 193–209.
2. On the derivation of ‘crimes against humanity’ see Geoffrey Robertson, Crimes Against Humanity: The Search for Global Justice (London: Penguin, 2006), chs 2–3, 5–7.
3. Bousquet was Interior Ministry secretary general responsible for the Vichy Police. He helped direct the round-up of Jews in France who were then sent to Nazi death camps. Paul Touvier served in Vichy’s paramilitary Milice. He ordered the execution of seven Jewish hostages on 29 June 1944 in reprisal for the Resistance’s assassination of Vichy Propaganda Minister Philippe Henriot. Papon was secretary general in the Gironde Prefecture. He authorized the detention of over 1,500 Jews, including large numbers of children, and then handed them over to the Germans to be sent to the gas chambers. As we have seen, his wartime record proved no bar to his later career in Algeria and Paris. Bousquet was assassinated just before his trial; Touvier was eventually convicted in 1994 and Papon in 1998: Richard J. Golsan, ed., Memory, the Holocaust, and French Justice: The Bousquet and Touvier Affairs (London: University Press of New England, 1996); ‘Memory’s bombes à retardement: Maurice Papon, crimes against humanity and 17 Oct. 1961’, Journal of European Studies, 28 (1998), 158–72; ‘Maurice Papon and crimes against humanities in France’; and Christopher Flood, ‘Extreme right-wing perspectives on the Touvier and Papon trials’, in Golsan, Memory and Justice, 1–33 and 73–95.
4. Geoff Eley, ‘Imperial imaginary, colonial effect: Writing the colony and the metropole together’, in Catherine Hall and Keith McClelland, Race, Nation and Empire (Manchester University Press, 2010), 220–8; Ann Laura Stoler and Frederick Cooper, ‘Between metropole and colony: Rethinking a research agenda’, in Cooper and Stoler, Tensions of Empire, 1–56; Robert Aldrich and Stuart Ward, ‘Ends of empire: Decolonizing the nation in British and French historiography’, in Stefan Berger and Chris Lorenz, Nationalising the Past: Historians as Nation Builders in Modern Europe (Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2010), 259–81; and Catherine Hall and Sonya O. Rose, eds, At Home with the Empire: Metropolitan Culture and the Imperial World (Cambridge University Press, 2006).
5. Understandably, this viewpoint was popular among post-colonial nationalist regimes, although it could result in historical distortion. An extreme case, Robert Mugabe’s Zimbabwe, is thoughtfully discussed by Terence Ranger, ‘Nationalist historiography, patriotic history and the history of the nation: The struggle over the past in Zimbabwe’, JSAS, 30:2 (2004), 215–34.
6. Darwin, ‘Decolonization’, in Winks, ed., OHBE, v:, 552; also cited in Elkins, ‘Race, citizenship, and governance’, 203.
7. TNA, CO 1027/172, Information Department, ‘French colonial publicity in the USA’, 31 Dec. 1958.
8. John Lewis Gaddis, ‘Grand strategies in the Cold War’, in Leffler and Westad, Cambridge History of the Cold War, ii, 12.
9. Hopkins, ‘Rethinking decolonization’, 216.
10. Ahlman, ‘The Algerian question in Nkrumah’s Ghana’, 76–80; Plummer, In Search of Power, 69–85, 101.
11. Roland Burke, Decolonization and the Evolution of International Human Rights (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010), chs 1–2; Meredith Terretta, ‘“We had been fooled into thinking that the UN watches over the entire world”: Human rights, UN trust territories, and Africa’s decolonization’, Human Rights Quarterly, 34:2 (2012), 330–1.
12. Jim Tomlinson, ‘The decline of the Empire and the economic decline of Britain’, Twentieth Century British History, 14:3 (2003), 203–12; Marseille, Empire colonial, 356–60.
13. I do not wish to imply, though, that the ‘fight or flight’ model can explain everything. For instance, missionaries and the work of colonial religious conversion cries out for reassessment. Indeed, the religious legacy of empire in Africa and Asia is arguably stronger than any other administrative or cultural ‘hangover’. Africa’s fast-growing Anglican movement and the rude health of West African and Vietnamese religious observance point to an imperial offshoot whose vigorous growth cannot be tied to local trajectories of fight or flight. On this point, see Norman Etherington, ‘The missionary experience in British and French empires’, in White and Daughton, In God’s Empire, 282–3.
14. An observation first made by political scientist Tony Smith, ‘The French colonial consensus and people’s war, 1946–58’, Journal of Contemporary History, 9 (1974): 217–47.
15. TNA, FO 371/119350, JF1015/8, D.J. Mill-Irving to African Department, 28 Jan. 1956.
16. See Stuart Ward’s thoughtful review of Wendy Webster’s, Englishness and Empire, 1939–1965 (Oxford University Press, 2005): ‘Echoes of empire’, History Workshop Journal, 61 (2006), 273–5.
17. Murphy, ‘“An intricate and distasteful subject”’, 746–9. The fertile Mitidja plain south of Algiers was the heartland of settler agriculture.
18. Gavin Nardocchio-Jones, ‘From Mau Mau to Middlesex? The fate of Europeans in independent Kenya’, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 26:3 (2006), 492–5, 497–504.
19. The gap between Britain’s retrospective image of orderliness and widespread violence has been highlighted by Ronald Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire, 398–9, and Caroline Elkins, ‘The reassertion of the British Empire in Southeast Asia’, Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 39:3 (2009), 368–71.
20. Ian Talbot, ‘The end of the European colonial empires and forced migration: Comparative case studies’, Panikos Panayi and Pippa Virdee, eds, Refugees and the End of Empire: Imperial Collapse and Forced Migration in the Twentieth Century (Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2011), 28–50.
21. Elizabeth Buettner, ‘From somebodies to nobodies: Britons coming home from India’, in Martin Daunton and Bernhard Rieger, eds, Meanings of Modernity: Britain from the Late Victorian Era to the Second World War (Oxford: Berg, 2001), 221–40.
22. Sponsored by Gamal Nasser, Egypt and Syria formed the United Arab Republic in Jan. 1958. Syrian secession in Sept. 1961 spelt the UAR’s demise. Federation between Senegal and French Sudan (present-day Mali) was also short-lived, lasting from Apr. 1959 until Aug. 1960. See: Jankowski, Nasser’s Egypt, 115–36, 161–78; Monique Lakroum, ‘Sénégal-Soudan (Mali): Deux états pour un empire’, in Coquery-Vidrovitch and Goerg, L’Afrique occidentale au temps des français, 188–9.
23. The limitations of American supremacy are examined in A. G. Hopkins, ‘Capitalism, nationalism and the new American Empire’, JICH, 35:1 (2007), 95–117; Dane Kennedy, ‘Essay and reflection: On the American Empire from a British imperial perspective’, IHR, 29:1 (2007), 83–108; Louisa Rice, ‘Cowboys and Communists: Cultural diplomacy, decolonization and the Cold War in French West Africa’, Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History, 11:3 (2010).
24. Sonya O. Rose, ‘Who are we now? Writing the post-war “nation”, 1948–2001’, in Hall and McClelland, Race, Nation and Empire (Manchester University Press, 2010), 164. For living conditions and women’s experiences, see Wendy Webster, Imagining Home: Gender, Race And National Identity, 1945–1964 (London: Routledge, 1998), ch. 3.
25. Elizabeth Buettner, ‘“Would you let your daughter marry a Negro?”: Race and sex in 1950s Britain’, in Levine and Grayzel, Gender, 221–32.
26. Marjory Harper & Stephen Constantine, Migration and Empire: OHBE Companion Volume (Oxford University Press, 2010), 338–40; Hopkins, ‘Rethinking decolonization’, 221–2.
27. Chafer, The End of Empire, 12.
28. Schenk, The Decline of Sterling, 117, 425.
29. Max Silverman, Deconstructing the Nation: Immigration, Racism and Citizenship in Modern France (London: Routledge, 1992), 42–57.
30. Infamous landmarks here were the 1964 election victory of Conservative anti-immigration candidate Peter Griffiths in the West Midlands seat of Smethwick and on 20 Apr. 1968 Conservative MP for Wolverhampton South-West Enoch Powell’s ‘Rivers of Blood’ speech, an invective warning of the dangers of continuing Commonwealth immigration to Britain. See: Amy Whipple, ‘Revisiting the “rivers of blood” controversy: Letters to Enoch Powell’, Journal of British Studies, 48:3 (2009), 717–35; Peter Brooke, ‘India, post-imperialism and the origins of Enoch Powell’s “rivers of blood” speech’, HJ, 50:3 (2007), 669–87.
31. Shepard, ‘“Something notably erotic”’, 92–107. There were colonial antecedants to allegations of criminality endemic among Algerian male immigrants, see: Emmanuel Blanchard, ‘Le Mauvais Genre des Algériens: Des hommes sans femme face au virilisme policier dans le Paris d’après-guerre’, Clio: Histoire, Femmes et Sociétés, 27:2 (2008), 209–22.
32. Jim Wolfreys, ‘Neither right nor left? Towards an integrated analysis of the Front National’, in Nicholas Atkin and Frank Tallett, eds, The Right in France: From Revolution to Le Pen (London: I. B. Tauris, 2003), 263, 270–2.
33. Etienne Balibar, ‘Uprisings in the “Banlieues”,’ Constellations, 14 (2007), 48; cited in Ann Laura Stoler, ‘Colonial Aphasia: Race and Disabled Histories in France’, Public Culture, 23:1 (2010), 127.
34. For differing views of this process in Britain, see John M. MacKenzie, ‘The persistence of empire in metropolitan culture’, in Stuart Ward, ed., British Culture and the End of Empire (Manchester University Press, 2001), 21–34; Stephen J. Howe, ‘Internal decolonization? British policies since Thatcher as post-colonial trauma’, Twentieth Century British History, 14:3 (2003), 288–91.
35. Bruno Charbonneau, ‘Dreams of empire: France, Europe and the new interventionism in Africa’, Modern and Contemporary France, 16:3 (2008), 279–95; Jean-Pierre Bat, ‘Jacques Foccart’.
36. John Horne, ‘Defeat and memory in modern history’, in MacLeod, Defeat and Memory, 11–14.
37. Richard Rathbone, ‘Kwame Nkrumah and the chiefs’, 47.
38. Henry F. Carey, ‘The postcolonial state and the protection of human rights’, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 22:1&2 (2002), 59–61, 67–9.
39. French, The British Way, 166–73.
40. The background to these ‘lost’ documents is described in David M. Anderson, ‘Mau Mau in the High Court and the “lost” British Empire archives: Colonial conspiracy or bureaucratic bungle?’, JICH, 39:5 (2011), 699–716, and Huw Bennett, ‘Soldiers in the Court Room’. See also Mandy Banton, ‘Destroy? “Migrate”? Conceal? British strategies for the disposal of sensitive records of colonial administrations at independence’, JICH, 40:2 (2012), 323–37.
41. Benjamin Stora, La Gangrène et l’oubli: La Mémoire de la guerre d’Algérie (Paris: La Découverte, 1991), chs 16, 17.
42. Daniel Lefeuvre, ‘La France face à son passé colonial: Un double enjeu’, in Dard and Lefeuvre, L’Europe face à son passé colonial, 366–9.
43. Horne, ‘Defeat and Memory’, 19–24.
44. French, The British Way, 194–6; Kumar Ramakrishna, ‘Content, credibility and context: Propaganda, government surrender policy and the Malayan Communist mass surrender of 1958’, INS, 14:4 (1999), 242–66.
45. Raphaëlle Branche, ‘Cinquante ans après la guerre d’Algérie, il est temps de parler!’ <http://www.lemonde.fr/idees/article/2012/07/05/cinquante-ans-apres-la-guerre-d-algerie-il-est-temps-de-parler_1729180_3232> accessed 28 June, 2013.
46. Emeka Ojukwu obituary, The Economist, 3 Dec. 2011; Young, The Labour Governments, Vol. II, 196–200.
47. Chibuike Uche, ‘Oil, British interests and the Nigerian Civil War’, JAH, 49:1 (2008), 111–35.
48. Christie Achebe, ‘Igbo women in the Nigerian-Biafran War, 1967–1970’, Journal of Black Studies, 43:2 (2012), 785–811. Estimates of fatalities range from a low of 50,000 to a figure of one million, see Young, The Labour Governments, Vol. II, 193.
49. Michael E. Latham, ‘The Cold War in the Third World, 1963–1975’, in Leffler and Westad, eds, Cambridge History of the Cold War, Vol. II, 260–7; Latham, Modernization as Ideology: American Social Science and ‘Nation Building’ in the Kennedy Era (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2000); Roy Allison, The Soviet Union and the Strategy of Non-Alignment in the Third World (Cambridge University Press, 1988), ch. 1.
50. Piero Gleijeses, Conflicting Missions: Havana, Washington, and Africa, 1959–1976 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), chs 2, 4, 10; Robert Scott Jaster, The Defence of White Power: South African Foreign Policy Under Pressure (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1988); Chen Jian, Mao’s China and the Cold War (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), chs 3, 9; Stephen F. Jackson, ‘China’s Third World foreign policy: The case of Angola and Mozambique, 1961–93’, China Quarterly, 143, (June, 1995), 387–422.
51. Matthew Jones, Conflict and Confrontation in South East Asia, 1961–1965: Britain, the United States, Indonesia and the Creation of Malaysia (Cambridge University Press, 2001), chs 8–10.
52. Louis, ‘The Dissolution of the British Empire in the era of Vietnam’, 15–16.
53. Rhiannon Vickers, ‘Harold Wilson, the British Labour Party, and the war in Vietnam’, Journal of Cold War Studies, 10:2 (2008), 41–70; Fredrik Logevall, Choosing War, 339–40, 373.
54. Saki Dockrill, Britain’s Retreat from East of Suez: The Choice between Europe and the World? (Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2002), 114–18, chs 6–9.
55. Matthew Jones, ‘A decision delayed: Britain’s withdrawal from South East Asia reconsidered, 1961–68’, EHR, 67:472 (2002), 569–95.
56. Chi-Kwan Mark, ‘Lack of means or loss of will? The United Kingdom and the decolonization of Hong Kong, 1957–1967’, IHR, 31:1 (2009), 70–1.
57. The East of Suez retreat was never total. In autumn 2011 nineteen warships, two submarines and sixty-eight military aircraft, plus 4,000 service personnel from Britain, Australia, New Zealand, Malaysia, and Singapore took part in joint military exercises marking the fortieth anniversary of the ‘Five Power Defence Arrangements’ (FPDA) concluded on 1 Nov. 1971. A strategic sticking plaster applied by the British to cover their East of Suez withdrawal, the FPDA has proved remarkably durable and now focuses on piracy, humanitarian and disaster relief alongside rising Chinese sea power. See ‘Banyan: Echoes of Dreamland’, The Economist, 5 Nov. 2011, p. 76, <http://www.economist.com/node/21536609> accessed 28 June 2013.
58. Dockrill, Britain’s Retreat, 114–18.
59. Andrea Benvenuti, ‘The British are “taking to the boat”: Australian attempts to forestall Britain’s military disengagement from Southeast Asia, 1965–1966’, DS, 20:1 (2009), 86–106, quotation at p. 90.
60. Martin Conway and Robert Gerwarth, ‘Revolution and counter-revolution’, in Bloxham and Gerwarth, Political Violence, 166.
61. Eunan O’Halpin, ‘“A poor thing but our own”: The Joint Intelligence Committee and Ireland, 1965–72’, INS, 23:5 (2008), 658–80.
62. Rose, ‘Who are we now?’ 154–5.
63. John Darwin, ‘British decolonization after 1945: A pattern or a puzzle’, JICH, 12:2 (188), 188, 206; also cited in Elizabeth Buettner, Empire Families: Britons and Late Imperial India (Oxford University Press, 2004), 264–5.
64. Murphy, Alan Lennox-Boyd, 102–4, 118–21, 152–5.
65. Darwin, ‘Was there a fourth British Empire?’ 27–8.
66. Murphy, Party Politics, 19–22.
67. David French, ‘Nasty not nice: British counter-insurgency doctrine and practice, 1945–1967’, SWI, 23:4/5 (2012), 744–61.
68. James Mark, Nigel Townson, and Polymaris Voglis, ‘Inspirations’, in Robert Gildea, James Mark and Anette Warring, eds, Europe’s 1968: Voices of Revolt (Oxford University Press, 2013), 87–100.
69. Jeremi Suri, ‘The rise and fall of an international counterculture, 1960–1975’, AHR, 114:1 (2009), 48–9; Julian Jackson, ‘The mystery of May 1968’, FHS, 33:4 (2010), 625–53; Michael Scott Christofferson, ‘The French “sixties”’, FPCS, 26:3 (2008), 126–40.
70. Guiliano Garavini, ‘The colonies strike back: The impact of the Third World on western Europe, 1968–1975’, Contemporary European History, 16:3 (2007), 299–319.
71. Cited in Elizabeth Buettner, ‘“We don’t grow coffee and bananas in Clapham Junction you know!” Imperial Britons back home’, in Bickers, Settlers, 322–3.
72. Simon J. Potter, ‘Empire, cultures and identities in nineteenth and twentieth century Britain’, History Compass, 5 (2007), 57.
73. Buettner, Empire Families, 2–3, 252–3, and on complex expatriate identities: Mrinalini Sinha, ‘Britishness, clubbability, and the colonial public sphere: The genealogy of an imperial institution in colonial India’, Journal of British Studies, 40:4 (2001), 489–521; Lynn Hollen Lees, ‘Being British’, 76–101.
74. Patricia M. E. Lorcin, ‘Historiographies of Algiers’, in Zeynep Çelik, Julia Clancy-Smith, and Frances Terpak, eds, Walls of Algiers: Narratives of the City through Text and Image (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2009), 241–2.
75. Claire Eldridge, ‘“We’ve never had a voice”: Memory construction and the children of the harkis (1962–1991)’, FH, (2009), 88–107.
76. Simpson, ‘The United States and the curious history’, 678–85. For the Algerian case, see Jeffrey James Byrne, ‘Our own special brand of socialism: Algeria and the contest of modernities in the 1960s’, DH, 33:3 (2009), 427–47.
77. Westad, The Global Cold War, 90; Aaron Windel, ‘British colonial education in Africa: Policy and practice in the era of trusteeship’, History Compass, 7:1 (2009), 17.
78. Westad, The Global Cold War, 97–104.
79. Subir Sinha, ‘Lineages of the developmentalist state: Transnationality and village India, 1900–1965’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 50:1 (2008), 57–61.
80. Rob Nixon, Slow Violence and the Environmentalism of the Poor (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011), especially the introduction and chs 1–2.
81. Joseph M. Hodge, ‘Colonial experts, 308–13; Gregory A. Barton, ‘Environmentalism, development and British policy in the Middle East 1945–65’, JICH, 38:4 (2010), 619–39.
82. Matthew Connelly, ‘Population control is history: Perspectives on the international campaign to limit population growth’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 45:1 (2003), 125–8.
83. Daniel Speich, ‘The Kenyan style of “African Socialism”: Developmental knowledge claims and the explanatory limits of the Cold War’, DH, 33:3 (2009), 456–66.
84. Brad Simpson, ‘Indonesia’s “accelerated modernization” and the global discourse of development, 1960–1975’, DH, 33:3 (2009), 467–8, 482–6; Jeremy Kuzmarov, ‘Modernizing repression: Police training, political violence, and nation-building in the “American century”’, DH, 33:2 (2009), 197–209.
85. Kuzmarov, ‘Modernizing repression’, 201–18.