Chapter 11
Testing Considerations and Variables

Testing is a critical step in the development of a training program. The first step in reaching your training goals is to figure out where you are. Think about how you use a GPS or other navigation system to get directions to a destination. If the GPS system can’t establish where you are, it cannot tell you how to get where you want to go. Testing helps determine your current levels of health, fitness, and performance so that you can develop your roadmap to success.

Ideally, you would perform testing before, or within a few weeks of, beginning a training program to establish a baseline. Testing allows you to identify your strengths and weaknesses and determine the best way to maintain or improve physical abilities. Testing also allows you to reassess your fitness levels periodically to measure progress and gauge the effectiveness of your training program. In this chapter we discuss how to select the appropriate tests to measure these factors and how to ensure that you are getting the best information possible when performing each test.

Test Selection

When determining what tests to select, the first thing to consider is the desired outcome of the training program. You can select from literally thousands of tests to measure health, fitness, and performance! But the feasibility of many of these tests, in terms of resources, time, and experience in performing and conducting them, is a key limiting factor. In chapter 12 we provide numerous examples of tests that measure both fitness and performance, are relatively easy to perform, and require minimal time, experience, and equipment to do well. Our aim is to present options to suit the goals of most readers, but we cannot possibly cover every possible test that might be applicable to a given sport or activity. Therefore, in this chapter we discuss in broad terms some of the factors to consider when selecting a test and ways to improve the results that you obtain from these measures.

Health- and Performance-Related Components of Fitness

Table 11.1 includes a list of the health- and performance-related components of fitness. Although the variables are often split into these two categories, understanding the distinction can be difficult, probably because most of these components are interrelated to some extent. For example, strength, speed, power, and mobility are all underpinning characteristics of agility. Therefore, a person who is deficient in one of these areas might also be hindered in terms of agility.

Health Assessment

Health is the foundation of fitness and performance. Therefore, to attain optimal levels of fitness and performance, good health is essential. For this reason, some basic health assessments should be performed before testing or beginning an exercise program. At minimum, a basic health-risk appraisal should be performed before you begin an exercise program. The Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire (PAR-Q) is a good tool for people who are participating in a self-guided exercise program (Spivey 2010). This questionnaire has been recognized as a good minimal prescreening for low- to moderate-level activity. If you answer yes to any of the questions listed in the PAR-Q, a more comprehensive evaluation by a qualified medical professional is warranted. To complete the questions listed in the PAR-Q, visit www.csep.ca/cmfiles/publications/parq/par-q.pdf.

Needs or Goals Analysis

When selecting tests, the best approach is to begin with the end in mind. In other words, what are the desired outcomes of your training program and how can you make certain that you have attained these goals? Generally, this process begins with performing a needs, or goals, analysis. Within this analysis, you should consider several factors, including the physiological, metabolic, and biomechanical demands of the activity in which you are seeking to make improvements. The following are a few questions that you should address before selecting which assessments to perform.

1. What are the main muscles or muscle groups needed to perform the target activity, and what actions are they performing?

   Are these muscles primarily used for strength and power movements in this activity (Type II fast-twitch muscle fibers) or endurance (Type I slow-twitch muscle fibers)? For instance, distance running uses predominately Type I muscle fibers, whereas sprinting uses predominately Type II muscle fibers. For this reason, strength and power tests would likely be better predictors of sprint performance than muscular endurance tests. Similarly, tests that assess muscular endurance of the trunk would likely be better predictors of potential injury for endurance athletes who must attempt to stabilize these muscles against gravity for long periods, especially under fatigue when mechanics may be compromised.

   Generally, muscles produce force (muscle fibers shorten to accelerate), reduce force (muscle fibers elongate to decelerate the body or limbs), and stabilize the body (tension is developed in the muscle fibers, but no real change in the length of the fiber is realized).

2. What range of motion and what type and duration of power are necessary for the activity?

   Most endurance activities, such as distance running, require smaller ranges of motion and require more sustained power over long distances for extended periods. In contrast, most explosive activities, such as sprinting and jumping, typically require greater ranges of motion and rapid force and power development over shorter distances.

   Therefore, although ROM is important for both groups of athletes to improve performance and reduce injury risk, athletes who perform explosive actions are likely to have greater dynamic ROM at certain joints because they are required to move the body through these ranges more frequently. These athletes would benefit from this type of testing and training.

3. What energy systems ( phosphagen , glycolytic, aerobic) are used and in what amounts?

   During various activities, different energy systems are called on to help provide energy. The ATP–PCr system is essential for exercises that require short bursts of explosive activity lasting less than 15 seconds. When the fuel sources for this energy system have been exhausted, the glycolytic energy system can be used to help supply energy to the body from stored carbohydrate (glycogen). As these energy supplies become depleted, generally within two to three minutes of moderate- to high-intensity activity, the body begins to rely more on the aerobic, or oxidative, energy system to provide energy. This system becomes more active in the production of energy when energy needs to be sustained for greater than two or three minutes. Consequently, the intensity of the exercise is lower than it is during anaerobic activity.

   But a tradeoff between intensity and time is at play here, meaning that the longer the duration of the activity is, the lower the intensity must be to sustain the activity. Thus, the primary energy system called on to provide energy is based largely on the intensity and duration of the activity. Table 11.2 shows the relationship between intensity and duration for the energy systems. Table 11.3 shows the approximate energy contribution by energy system for each activity.

   

   

4. What are common injuries, or injury sites, related to this activity?

   With most activities, injury is always a risk. For instance, during long runs the muscles of the trunk may become fatigued and make it difficult to maintain good posture. Therefore, distance runners may be prone to lower back issues. Good muscular endurance in this area may help alleviate some of the postural changes caused by fatigue in this population. Thus, improving muscular endurance of the trunk would be of interest. Based on this notion, the front and side plank tests may be useful for measuring improvements in this area.

   Testing may also help us identify potential injury issues to address. For example, Emma is a high school volleyball athlete who successfully passed a squat assessment, but she was unable to perform the box step-off without her knees collapsing inward (valgus collapse). Because volleyball requires repeated jumps within a match, the repetitive stress of her landing in this irregular positon over time could result in injury. Therefore, jumping activities were contraindicated for Emma in her training program until she built up the requisite strength to absorb the landing with proper technique.

   This area of assessment can be tricky and may require a bit more experience and expertise to administer. Therefore, seeking the assistance of a certified strength and conditioning specialist with training in this area may be beneficial. Chapter 12 includes a few basic movement screenings that help identify poor movement patterns that could lead to injury or warrant referral to a medical professional.

Validity and Reliability

Validity and reliability are major concepts related to testing. Validity is the ability of a test to produce an accurate measurement of a specific outcome or attribute, and a reliable test is one that is repeatable. For a test to be valid, it must be reliable, but a test can be reliable without being valid. For example, if a person selected a vertical jump assessment to measure lower-body strength, the test would be reliable as long as the same protocols and procedures were followed for each trial. But the test may not be valid for measuring strength because this test is primarily used for measuring power. These two variables are related, because people with stronger lower bodies generally tend to jump higher, but a more valid test of lower body strength would be a 1–3RM squat. Another example would be the push-up versus the 1.5 mile (2.4 km) run to test endurance. Both are endurance tests, but the run measures endurance of the cardiovascular system using primarily the lower body, whereas the push-up test measures upper-body muscular endurance. Both measure endurance, but they test different body regions and different systems (cardiovascular versus muscular endurance).

Factors That Affect Test Performance

To get the best information possible, the following factors should be considered before testing. Thinking about these aspects of testing will not only ensure that you get accurate information but also enhance safety.

Testing Area

Before testing, make certain that the testing area promotes safe and efficient testing. For any speed or agility assessments, use an open area free of clutter and sharp objects. Additionally, the space around the perimeter of the testing area should be sufficient to allow people to exit the testing area safely. For instance, for a 30-meter dash, allow at least 15 to 20 meters after the finish line to allow the person to slow down and stop without worrying about running into anything.

Environmental Conditions

Environmental conditions may affect the accuracy and safety of certain tests. For example, performing an aerobic endurance test indoors in a climate-controlled facility will likely produce the most reliable results. When the test is performed outside, factors such as wind, humidity, and ambient temperature can affect the results (Harman 2008). Outdoor testing becomes even more problematic when it is performed in an area that has wide temperature fluctuations throughout the year. If an initial test and follow-up test are performed under different circumstances (e.g., one test during the summer under high ambient temperatures and the other during the winter under much lower temperatures), the results will not be comparable. Additionally, when testing outside, especially during the summer months, particular attention must be paid to heat and humidity. If testing outside, the tests should be performed early or late in the day to avoid peak temperatures and reduce the potential for heat-related illness. Maintaining proper hydration status should also be a priority. For all these reasons, testing indoors provides the most consistent and typically the safest conditions.

Testing Surface

All testing should be performed on resilient flooring that has a nonslip surface to reduce the risk of slipping and falling. Furthermore, for athletes, testing on a surface similar to what they play on is best.

Testing Order

Test should be ordered in a manner so that one test does not significantly affect the subsequent test. For instance, if the beep test was performed before an agility test, agility performance may be negatively affected because of fatigue. Performing the agility test first would likely have less effect on the beep test, so the order in which these are performed should be switched. Based on the recommendations of Harman (2008), the following would be considered the best testing sequence to use when doing multiple tests:

• Nonfatiguing tests: height, weight, body composition, grip strength, movement screens, vertical jump, standing long jump, medicine ball throws, and so on
• Agility tests: pro-agility test, 5-0-5, T-test
• Maximum power and strength tests: 1–6 repetition max (RM) testing, Olympic lifting movements (clean, snatch, and jerk)
• Sprint tests: 10-, 20-, and 30-meter sprints
• Local muscular endurance tests: push-ups, curl-ups, planks, pull-ups, one-minute squat test
• Anaerobic capacity tests: 300-meter run and 300-meter shuttle run
• Aerobic capacity tests: distance or time tests and beep test

Experience and Fitness Level

Many of the performance and fitness tests selected for this text can be performed relatively easily by both beginners and advanced athletes, assuming the absence of major orthopedic or cardiovascular limitations. But certain tests, such as a 1–6 RM bench press, may not be appropriate for a person who has performed only bodyweight exercises for the upper body (e.g., push-ups). In this case the person should be given a few weeks to become familiarized with this test using a lighter training load (e.g., 12–20 RM) before attempting to test using a heavier load.

Number of Trials and Rest Periods Between Tests

For most tests, two or three practice trials at one-half to three-quarters (50 to 75 percent) intensity should be allowed for familiarization purposes. After this, two or three test trials should generally be allowed, and the best of those trials should be recorded as the final score. But for exercises such as the bench press, people should attempt to get their max within five attempts; otherwise, fatigue may influence the amount of weight that they can lift as the number of sets progresses.

Adequate rest should be allowed between trials. In general, for nonfatiguing tests, additional tests can be performed within a minute of each other. For most tests, however, a rest of between three and five minutes between trials is needed to allow for energy system recovery.

Motivation

In many cases, accurate test scores come down to motivation. If a person is not motivated to perform a test with maximal effort or intensity, the results obtained are relatively useless. Many factors can influence motivation, including the testing environment, the importance of the test, and the perceived value of the test by the participant. For example, it may be difficult to motivate a baseball player to see the value in performing a 1.5-mile (2.4 km) run test, because baseball is a speed and acceleration game and not particularly dependent on aerobic endurance. But if the player is required to run this distance to make the team, he may be motivated to give a true effort, even though it may not be relevant to the sport. For that reason among others, test selection is critical. The greater the appearance is of direct carryover between a test and the attribute or skill we are trying to measure, the better the motivation is to give max effort to the activity.

Additionally, training partners, teammates, and onlookers may provide motivation to give greater effort during testing sessions. In some cases, however, this attention may increase anxiety and hinder individual performance. The best approach is to determine what motivational strategy works best for the person and attempt to replicate this strategy in future testing sessions.

Fatigue Level

Fatigue plays a major role in attaining a best performance. For this reason, participants should abstain from vigorous physical activity within the 48 to 72 hours before testing.

Nutritional Status and Hydration

Proper nutrition and fueling can play a significant role in energy levels. For example, the beep test is a measure of aerobic endurance. The aerobic energy system relies heavily on stored energy (glycogen, fat, and, though not ideal, protein) to sustain activity. If a person is not ingesting an appropriate amount of calories, fewer of these nutrients will be stored for utilization. A shortfall may affect a person’s ability to sustain performance for the duration of such a test.

Hydration also plays a critical role in performance. Dehydration by as little as 2 percent of total body weight can impair exercise and cognitive performance (Murray 2007). For this reason, a person should strive to attain and maintain appropriate hydration status at all times.

Test Relevance

When selecting or developing a testing battery, we are typically interested in the tests’ ability to measure improvement or help predict performance. The testing battery needs to be relevant to the person’s needs and measure the variable of greatest interest. For example, it would make little sense to perform a 30-meter sprint test with a swimmer, unless it was performed in the water. Land speed is irrelevant to this athlete’s sport-specific needs, will likely not be trained, and does not provide any usable information for improving performance in the water.

Sample Testing Batteries

Table 11.4 is an example of a testing battery advocated for law enforcement officers by the Cooper Fitness Institute. This battery of tests was created to predict performance in certain job tasks specific to this occupation (Research CIfA 2002).

The testing battery presented in table 11.5 is a sample testing battery for a Division II collegiate female volleyball team. The purpose of each test is included.

Finally, the last two sample testing batteries were designed for those who just want to measure their general fitness levels. Table 11.6 shows a testing battery for people who have access to a gym or gym equipment, whereas the sample featured in 11.7 can be performed practically anywhere using only body weight as resistance.

Adapting or Creating a Test

After doing your research, you may find that no specific standardized test meets your needs. In this case, you may have to develop your own test to measure your progress. When creating your own tests, you need to standardize the way in which you will test so that your results are reliable. For instance, let’s say that an ice hockey coach wanted to develop a test to assess change-of-direction speed for ice hockey. Overall, the coach likes the basic running pattern for the pro-agility test, but in ice hockey touching the ground with the hand may be not only irrelevant but dangerous. The coach decides to modify this test by performing it on ice and allowing the players to touch the line with the skate blade rather than the hand. Based on these modifications the coach would not be able to compare the players’ results to players who touch the line with the hand or perform these tests on a different surface (e.g., turf, grass, basketball court, and so on). But as long as the testing procedures remain consistent, the coach can compare results for current and future athletes on the team and measure improvement. This test would be relevant based on the needs of the coach, and it seems to have good face validity because it appears to measure what it is intended to.

Summary

Testing is an essential part of a comprehensive training program. Selecting valid and reliable fitness and performance tests that are relevant to the person’s goals will produce the most meaningful results and allow a person to evaluate his or her current fitness level, set appropriate training goals, and determine whether the current training program is working or needs to be adjusted.