FOREWORD BY GLORIA STEINEM
1. Abigail Adams, letter to John Adams, March 31, 1776, Braintree, Massachusetts, reprinted as “All Men Would Be Tyrants If They Could,” Lapham’s Quarterly, Spring 2014, www.laphamsquarterly.org/voices-in-time/all-men-would-be-tyrants-if-they-could.php?page=all.
2. Thomas Jefferson, letter to Samuel Kercheval, September 5, 1816, in The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Paul L. Ford (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1899): 10:45–46, fn1.
3. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1944), 1078.
INTRODUCTION
1. Calvin Massey, “The Originalist: Justice Antonin Scalia,” California Lawyer, January 2011, www.callawyer.com/Clstory.cfm?eid=913358.
2. “Justice Ginsburg on Women as Judges,” Thomas Jefferson School of Law, San Diego, February 8, 2013, C-SPAN broadcast, www.c-span.org/video/?310892–1/justice-ginsburg-women-judges.
3. For more information on Alice Paul, see the Alice Paul Institute website at www.alicepaul.org.
4. For more information, see the Equal Rights Amendment website, www.equalrightsamendment.org.
5. Alaska, California, Colorado, Delaware, Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Hampshire, Nebraska, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Texas, Tennessee, West Virginia, and Wisconsin.
6. Connecticut, Minnesota, New Mexico, Oregon, South Dakota, Vermont, Washington, and Wyoming.
7. Maine, Montana, and Ohio in 1974 and North Dakota in 1975.
8. Indiana.
9. Nebraska voted to rescind ratification in 1973, Tennessee in 1974, Idaho in 1977, and Kentucky in 1978. South Dakota voted in 1979 to limit the validity of its ratification to the expiration of the seven-year deadline that year.
10. For a complete history of the ERA, see Mary Frances Berry, Why ERA Failed: Politics, Women’s Rights, and the Amending Process of the Constitution (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988).
11. The validity of votes to rescind ratification is an open question, which is discussed in the last chapter of this book.
12. A Gallup poll in 1981 found that 63 percent of Americans polled supported the ERA, and a Harris poll in 1982 found that 73 percent of Americans supported the ERA. State polling results produced comparable numbers. See feminism101.com/timelineera.html.
13. Eleanor Smeal, in discussion with the author, May 23, 2014.
14. Berry, Why ERA Failed, 81.
15. Jennifer E. Manning and Ida A. Brudnick, Women in the United States Congress, 1917–2014: Biographical and Committee Assignment Information, and Listings by State and Congress (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2014).
16. See Abby Ferla, “ERA: Historical Curiosity or Needed Weapon Against Bias?,” Remapping Debate, www.remappingdebate.org/article/era-historical-curiosity-or-needed-weapon-against-bias-today?page=0,3.
17. Kalli Joy Gray, “Daily Kos/Service Employees International Union Poll: Huge Majority of Americans Support Equal Rights for Women in Constitution,” Daily Kos, April 24, 2012, www.dailykos.com/story/2012/04/24/1086021/-Daily-Kos-SEIU-poll-Huge-majority-of-Americans-support-equal-rights-for-women-in-Constitution#.
18. Laura Turquet, 2011–2012 Progress of the World’s Women: In Pursuit of Justice (New York: UN Women, 2011), progress.unwomen.org/pdfs/EN-Report-Progress.pdf.
19. Eleanor Roosevelt, “In Your Hands,” speech delivered on the tenth anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, March 27, 1958.
PAY INEQUITY
1. Monee Fields-White, “She’s Taking on Walmart,” The Root, June 24, 2010, www.theroot.com/articles/culture/2010/06/interview_betty_dukes_on_the_walmart_genderbias_lawsuit.html; “Supreme Court Weighs Massive Lawsuit Accusing Retail Giant Wal-Mart for Sexual Discrimination Against Female Workers,” Democracy Now! March 11, 2011, www.democracynow.org/2011/3/31/supreme_court_hears_weighs_massive_suit.
2. See the WAGE Project, www.wageproject.org/files/costs.php.
3. See ibid.
4. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, §703(a)(1) and (2), 42 U.S.C. § 2000e-2(a) (2000).
5. Associated Press, “Talks to Settle Women’s Pay Suit,” June 6, 1984.
6. Kouba v. Allstate Insurance Company, 521 F. Supp. 148 (1981).
7. Kouba v. Allstate Insurance Company, 691 F.2d 873 (Ninth Cir. 1982). The case was remanded for further consideration of the legitimate business reasons set forth to justify the use of prior salary, and eventually the case was settled.
8. “Payments to Women by Allstate,” New York Times, October 2, 1984.
9. Griggs v. Duke Power Co., 401 U.S. 424, 432 (1971).
10. Title VII, §703(k)(1)(i), 42 U.S.C. § 2000e-2(k) (2000).
11. Washington v. Davis, 426 U.S. 229, 243 (1976).
12. Ibid. at 238–39.
13. Ward’s Cove Packing v. Antonio, 490 U.S. 656 (1989).
14. Ibid. at 678.
15. Ibid. at 678, n.2.
16. Civil Rights Act of 1991 (Pub. L. No. 102–166) codified as amended throughout 42 U.S.C.
17. Dukes v. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., 222 F.R.D. 137 (N.D. Cal. 2004).
18. Dukes v. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., 603 F.3d. 571 (Ninth Cir. 2000) (en banc).
19. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., v. Dukes et al., 113 S. Ct. 2541 (2011).
20. Following the decision, women had to bring their sex discrimination claims against Walmart store by store, making their quest for justice much more difficult.
21. Fields-White, “She’s Taking on Walmart.”
22. “Supreme Court Weighs Massive Lawsuit.”
23. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., 113 S. Ct. at 2545.
24. Ibid. at 2562 (Ginsburg, J., dissenting).
25. Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire and Rubber Co., 421 F.3d 1196 (Eleventh Cir. 2005).
26. United Airlines, Inc. v. Evans, 431 U.S. 553, 558 (1977).
27. Separate and Not Equal? Gender Segregation in the Labor Market and the Gender Wage Gap, Institute for Women’s Policy Research Briefing Paper, September 2010.
28. Brad Plumer, “Five Shocking Facts about Child Care in the United States,” Washington Post, April 15, 2013.
29. County of Washington v. Gunther, 452 U.S. 161, 180 (1981).
30. Christensen v. State of Iowa, 563 F.2d 353, 356 (C.A. Iowa, 1977).
31. American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees v. State of Washington, 578 F. Supp. 846, 865–71 (W.D. Wash. 1983).
32. American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees v. State of Washington, 770 F.2d 1401, 1406 (Ninth Cir. 1985).
33. Ibid.
34. Lemons v. City of Denver, 620 F.2d 228, 229 (Tenth Cir. 1980).
35. Lemons, 1978 WL 13938, at *3 (D.Colo. Apr. 28, 1978).
36. Directive 76/117/EEC of the Council of European Communities of 10 February 1975 on the Approximation of the Laws of Member States Relating to the Application of the Principle of Equal Pay for Men and Women.
37. See Catharine A. MacKinnon, Sex Equality, 2nd ed. (New York: Foundation Press, 2007), 177–96.
38. Rexroat v. Arizona Department of Education, 2013 WL 85222, at *6 (D. Ariz. Jan. 7, 2013), quoting Kouba at 876–77.
39. Paycheck Fairness Act, S. 2199 (2014) (previously introduced as S.84 on January 23, 2013, with H.R. 377, introduced in the House of Representatives on that same date).
PREGNANCY DISCRIMINATION
1. Yuki Noguchi, “When Being Pregnant Also Means Being Out of a Job,” All Things Considered, National Public Radio, April 17, 2014, www.npr.org/2014/04/17/304070037/when-being-pregnant-also-means-being-out-of-a-job.
2. Carol Kleiman, “Court Victory in War on Sex Bias Was Not Without Serious Casualties,” Chicago Tribune, June 22, 1987.
3. Pat Morrison, “Job Litigant Asked God to Guide Justices,” Los Angeles Times, January 14, 1987, articles.latimes.com/1987–01–14/news/mn-3375_1_custody.
4. “Fair Treatment for Pregnant Workers: Natasha Jackson’s Story,” National Women’s Law Center and A Better Balance, June 18, 2013, www.nwlc.org/resource/fair-treatment-pregnant-workers-natasha-jacksons-story.
5. Jennifer Ludden, “Pushed Off the Job While Pregnant,” All Things Considered, National Public Radio, June 11, 2013, www.npr.org/2013/06/11/189207542/pushed-off-the-job-while-pregnant.
6. Clark v. California Employment Stabilization Commission, 166 Cal.App.2d 326, 332 (Dist. Ct. App. Cal. 1958).
7. Rentzer v. Unemployment Appeals Board, 32 Cal.App.3d 605, 604–607 (Dist. Ct. App. Cal. 1958).
8. “Estimated Pregnancy Rates and Rates of Pregnancy Outcomes for the United States, 1990–2008,” National Vital Statistics Report, June 20, 2012, www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr60/nvsr60_07.pdf.
9. Fred Strebeigh, Equal: Women Reshape American Law (New York: W.W. Norton, 2009), 91.
10. Aiello v. Hansen, 359 F. Supp. 792, 801 (N.D. Cal. 1973).
11. Geduldig v. Aiello, 417 U.S. 484, 496 (1974).
12. Ibid. at 496, 497.
13. Ibid. at 500, 501.
14. Gilbert v. General Electric Company, 375 F. Supp. 367 (1974).
15. General Electric Co. v. Gilbert, 429 U.S. 125, 149 (1976).
16. Ibid. at 153.
17. Title VII, 42 U.S.C. § 2000e(b) (2000).
18. California Government Code §12945(b)(2) (West 2005).
19. California Federal Savings & Loan Assoc. v. Guerra, F., 479 U.S. 272, 280 (1987).
20. California Federal Savings and Loan Association v. Guerra F., 758 F.2d 390, 391 (Ninth Cir. 1985).
21. Ibid. at 396.
22. California Federal Savings and Loan Assoc., 479 U.S. at 273.
23. Ibid. at 286.
24. General Electric Co., 429 U.S. citing 124 Cong Rec. 21442 and 36818 (1978).
25. California Federal Savings and Loan Assoc., 479 U.S. at 290.
26. Kleiman, “Court Victory in War on Sex Bias.”
27. Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Co. v. EEOC, 667 F.2d 448 (Fourth Cir. 1982).
28. EEOC v. Lockheed Missiles & Space Co., 680 F.2d 1243 (Ninth Cir. 1982).
29. Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Co. v. EEOC, 462 U.S. 669 (1983).
30. Title VII, 42 U.S.C. § 2000e(b).
31. Young v. United Parcel Service, Inc., 707 F.3d 437, 448 (Fourth Cir. 2013).
32. Urbano v. Continental Airlines, Inc., 138 F.3d 204 (Fifth Cir. 1998); Reeves v. Swift Transportation Company, Inc., 446 F.3d 637 (Sixth Cir. 2006); Serednyj v. Beverly Healthcare, LLC, 656 F.3d 540 (Seventh Cir. 2011).
33. “It Shouldn’t Be a Heavy Lift: Fair Treatment for Pregnant Workers,” National Women’s Law Center and A Better Balance, June 18, 2013; Peggy Young’s story, 15, available at www.abetterbalance.org/web/images/stories/ItShouldntBeAHeavyLift.pdf.
34. Ibid., Svetlana Arizanovska’s story, 18; Arizanovska v. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., 682 F.3d 698 (Seventh Cir. 2012).
35. “It Shouldn’t Be a Heavy Lift,” Doris Garcia’s story (under the pseudonym Guadalupe Hernandez), 4, www.nwlc.org/resource/fair-treatment-pregnant-workers-guadalupe-hernandezs-story.
36. Complaint filed on February 24, 2014, in the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia, Doris Nohemi Garcia Hernandez v. Chipotle Mexican Grill, Inc., available at s3.documentcloud.org/documents/1028683/chipotle-lawsuit.pdf.
37. Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc., 134 S. Ct. 2751 (2014).
38. Ibid.
39. Wheaton College v. Burwell, 134 S. Ct. 2806 (2014).
40. Ibid.
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN
1. See ACLU, “Domestic Violence & Human Rights: Lenahan v. USA,” www.aclu.org/womens-rights/domestic-violence-human-rights-lenahan-v-usa.
2. Fred Strebeigh, Equal: Women Reshape American Law (New York: W.W. Norton, 2009), 426.
3. Brzonkala v. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 169 F.3d 820 (Fourth Cir. 1999).
4. “Domestic Violence: Not Just a Family Matter,” Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Crime and Criminal Justice of the House Committee on the Judiciary, 103d Cong., H.R. Conf. Rep. No. 103–711 (1994), 385.
5. Violence Against Women Act of 1994, 42 U.S.C. § 13981.
6. Strebeigh, Equal, 344.
7. Ibid., 351.
8. Ibid., 344.
9. See Liu v. Striuli, 36 F. Supp.2d 452 (D.R.I. 1999); Ziegler v. Ziegler, 28 F. Supp.2d 601 (E.D. Wash. 1998); Crisonino v. New York City Housing Authority, 985 F. Supp. 385 (S.D.N.Y. 1997); Anisimov v. Lake, 982 F. Supp. 531 (N.D. Ill. 1997); Seaton v. Seaton, 971 F. Supp. 1188 (E.D. Tenn. 1997); Doe v. Hartz, 970 F. Supp. 1375 (N.D. Iowa 1997), rev’d on other grounds, 134 F.3d 1339 (Eighth Cir. 1998); Doe v. Doe, 929 F. Supp. 608 (D. Conn. 1996); Timm v. DeLong, 59 F. Supp. 2d 944 (D. Neb. 1998); Mattison v. Click Corp. of America, Inc., 1998 WL 32597 (E.D. Pa. Jan. 27, 1998).
10. Brzonkala v. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 132 F.3d 949 (Fourth Cir. 1997) (three-member panel).
11. Brzonkala, 169 F.3d 820.
12. United States v. Harris, 106 U.S. 629 (1883).
13. “An Act to protect all citizens in their civil and legal rights.” Civil Rights Act of 1875, 18 Stat. Part III, p. 335.
14. Civil Rights Cases, 109 U.S. 3 (1883).
15. Ibid. at 24.
16. Bradwell v. Illinois, 83 U.S. 130, 141 (1872).
17. Civil Rights Cases, 109 U.S. at 24 (1883).
18. Ibid. at 61 (Harlan, J., dissenting).
19. Ibid.
20. Ibid. at 54 (Harlan, J., dissenting).
21. S.Rep. No. 103-138 (1993), 54.
22. H.R. Rep. No. 103-395 (1993), 26; S.Rep. No. 103-138 (1993), 37.
23. Women and Violence: Hearing Before the Committee on the Judiciary, 101st Cong. 58 (1990) (statement of Helen K. Neuborne); S. Rep. No. 103-138, at 41.
24. Brzonkala, 169 F.3d at 826.
25. United States v. Alfonso Lopez, Jr., 514 U.S. 549, 567 (1995).
26. United States. v. Morrison, 529 U.S. 598, 613 (2000).
27. Ibid. at 620.
28. Ibid. at 621, citing Shelley v. Kraemer, 334 U.S. 1, 13, and n. 12 (1948).
29. Congressional Globe, 42d Cong., 1st sess., App. 153 (1871) (statement of Rep. Garfield).
30. Morrison, 529 U.S. at 622.
31. Ibid. at 624.
32. Ibid. at 661 citing Crimes of Violence Motivated by Gender, Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Civil and Constitutional Rights of the House Committee on the Judiciary, 103d Cong., 1st sess., 34–36 (1993).
33. Castle Rock v. Gonzales, 545 U.S. 748, 753 (2005).
34. DeShaney v. Winnebago County Department of Social Services, 489 U.S. 189, 195 (1989).
35. Gonzales v. City of Castle Rock, 307 F.3d 1258, 1265 (Tenth Cir. 2002).
36. Castle Rock, 545 U.S. at 759.
37. Ibid. at 760 (citing ABA Standards for Criminal Justice).
38. Ibid. at 760, citing Gonzales v. City of Castle Rock, 366 F.3d 1093, 1109 (Tenth Cir. 2004).
39. Ibid. at 760.
40. Ibid. at 765.
41. Ibid. at 766.
42. Ibid. at 768.
43. Ibid. at 780 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
44. Ibid. at 784 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
45. Ibid. at 779 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
46. Lenahan (Gonzales), et al., v. United States, Case 12.626, Inter-Am. C.H.R., Report No. 80/11 (2011).
47. Ibid. at paras 109, 119, 120.
48. United Nations Human Rights Council, “Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, Its Causes and Consequences,” June 1, 2011, www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/docs/17session/A.HRC.17.26.Add.5_AEV.pdf.
49. Civil Rights Cases, 109 U.S. at 27.
50. Strebeigh, Equal, 426.
DISCRIMINATORY LAWS
1. Ruth Bader Ginsburg, remarks as honored guest of the “Great Lives in the Law” series at Duke University Law School, January 31, 2005.
2. Muller v. Oregon, 208 U.S. 412, 421 (1908).
3. Craig v. Boren, 429 U.S. 190 (1976).
4. Immigration and Nationality Act, 8 U.S.C. §1409(a) (2006).
5. Tuan Anh Nguyen v. INS, 533 U.S. 53, 62 (2001).
6. Ibid. at 65.
7. Ibid. at 70.
8. Ibid. at 66.
9. Ibid.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid. at 55.
12. Ibid. at 86 (O’Connor, J., dissenting).
13. Ibid. at 92 (O’Connor, J., dissenting).
14. Ibid. at 94 (O’Connor, J., dissenting).
15. David Lamb, “Children of the Vietnam War,” Smithsonian Magazine, June 2009.
16. Reed v. Reed, 404 U.S. 71 (1971).
17. Frontiero v. Richardson, 411 U.S. 677, 688 (1973).
18. Ibid. at 692 (Powell, J., concurring).
19. Craig, 429 U.S. at 200.
20. Ibid. at 223.
21. Ibid. at 201.
22. Ibid. at 214.
23. Ibid. at 204.
24. Ibid. at 210.
25. Ibid. at 211 (Powell, J., concurring).
26. Ibid. at 212 (Stevens, J., concurring).
27. Ibid. at 214 (Stevens, J., concurring).
28. Ibid. at 217 (Burger, J., dissenting).
29. Ibid. at 220 (Rehnquist, J., dissenting).
30. Ibid. at 221 (Rehnquist, J., dissenting).
31. Ibid. at 218 (Rehnquist, J., dissenting).
32. Ibid. at 219 (Rehnquist, J., dissenting).
33. Ibid. at 226 (Rehnquist, J., dissenting).
34. United States v. Virginia, 44 F.3d 1229 (Fourth Cir. 1995).
35. United States v. Virginia et al., 518 U.S. 515 (1996).
36. Faulkner v. Jones, 51 F.3d 440 (Fourth Cir. 1995).
37. Jennifer Berry Hawes, “Where Is Shannon Faulkner Now? First Female Cadet at The Citadel Talks with Oprah Again,” Post and Courier, October 20, 2012, www.postandcourier.com/article/20121020/PC12/121029996.
38. Grove City Coll. v. Bell, 465 U.S. 555 (1984).
39. Athletics Under Title IX, www.titleix.info/10-key-areas-of-title-ix/athletics.aspx.
40. “Title IX: Facts at a Glance,” ACLU, February 24, 2012, www.aclu.org/womens-rights/title-ix-facts-glance.
41. See Alexander v. Yale University, 631 F.2d 178 (Second Cir. 1980), which first found sexual harassment of female students to constitute sex discrimination and to fall within the scope of Title IX. In cases of sexual harassment, however, liability has been severely limited by the Supreme Court. See Gebser v. Lago Vista Independent School District, 524 U.S. 274, 292 (1998), where the court held in the case of a high school teacher who had a year-long sexual relationship with an eighth grader that the school could not be held liable “absent actual notice and deliberate indifference.”
42. Lochner v. New York, 198 U.S. 45 (1905).
43. Muller, 208 U.S. at 420.
44. Ibid. at 421.
45. “State May Limit Woman’s Work,” The Oregonian, February 25, 1908 (summary available at the Oregon History Project, www.ohs.org/education/oregonhistory/historical_records/dspDocument.cfm?doc_ID=08D53543-C36D-178B-AA6FAB67DB35C200).
46. Muller, 208 U.S. at 421.
47. Kahn v. Shevin, 416 U.S. 351 (1974).
48. Weinberger v. Wiesenfeld, 420 U.S. 636 (1975).
49. Califano v. Webster, 430 U.S. 313, 317 (1977).
50. Califano v. Goldfarb, 430 U.S. 199 (1977).
THE NEW ERA
1. See Abby Ferla, “ERA: Historical Curiosity or Needed Weapon Against Bias?” Remapping Debate, www.remappingdebate.org/article/era-historical-curiosity-or-needed-weapon-against-bias-today?page=0,3.
2. Ibid.
3. Idaho v. Freeman, 529 F. Supp. 1107, 1152 (D.C. Idaho 1981).
4. Ibid. at 1126.
5. Dillon v. Gloss, 256 U.S. 368, 374 (1921).
6. Ibid. at 375.
7. Ibid. at 374.
8. Idaho, 529 F. Supp. at 1133.
9. Ibid. at 1152.
10. Ibid. at 1153.
11. Ibid. at 1153.
12. Nebraska in 1973, Tennessee in 1974, Idaho in 1977, Kentucky in 1978, and South Dakota in 1979.
13. Idaho, 529 F. Supp. at 1147–48.
14. Ibid. at 1149.
15. Ibid. at 1154.
16. National Organization for Women, Inc. v. Idaho, 459 U.S. 809 (1982).
17. Despite a motion filed by the Carter administration’s Department of Justice to disqualify him, Chief Judge Marion Callister refused to recuse himself from the case because of a possible conflict of interest caused by his status as a highly placed officer in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (the Mormon Church), which had publicly and actively opposed the Equal Rights Amendment. Idaho v. Freeman, 478 F. Supp. 33 (D. Idaho 1979).
18. Allison L. Held, Sheryl L. Herndon, and Danielle M. Stager, “The Equal Rights Amendment: Why the ERA Remains Legally Viable and Properly Before the States.” William and Mary Journal of Women and the Law 3, no. 1 (Spring 1997).
19. See VoteERA.org.
20. Alaska, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Hawaii, Illinois, Iowa, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Montana, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Texas, Utah, Virginia, Washington, and Wyoming.
21. See Linda J. Wharton, “State Equal Rights Amendments Revisited: Evaluating Their Effectiveness in Advancing Protection against Sex Discrimination,” Rutgers Law Journal 36, no. 4 (2005).
22. Ibid., 1248–49.