Notes

Chapter 1

1. 1. Brian Connolly and Marisa Fuentes, “Introduction: From Archives of Slavery to Liberated Futures?,” History of the Present 6, no. 2 (2016): 105.

2. 2. Anna Arabindan-Kesson, Black Bodies, White Gold: Art, Cotton, and Commerce in the Atlantic World (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2021); Jennifer L. Morgan, Reckoning with Slavery: Gender, Kinship, and Capitalism in the Early Black Atlantic (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2021).

3. 3. Geraldine Biddle-Perry, ed., A Cultural History of Hair, 6 vols. (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2019).

4. 4. Aileen Ribeiro, Facing Beauty: Painted Women and Cosmetic Art (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011); Susan J. Vincent, Hair: An Illustrated History (London: Bloomsbury Visual Arts, 2018); Victoria Sherrow, Encyclopedia of Hair: A Cultural History (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2006); Caroline Cox, Good Hair Days: A History of British Hairstyling (London: Quartet Books, 1999).

5. 5. “Hair,” ed. Bernadette Fort, special issue, Eighteenth-Century Studies 38, no. 1 (Fall 2004).

6. 6. Richard Corson, Fashions in Hair: The First Five Thousand Years, 6th ed. (London: P. Owens, 1980), first published 1965 by Hastings House (New York).

7. 7. Neil R. Storey and Fiona Kay, Victorian Fashions for Women (Havertown, PA: Pen & Sword History, 2022).

8. 8. Steven Zdatny, “Fashion and Class Struggle: The Case of Coiffure,” Social History 18, no. 1 (1993): 53–72; Steven Zdatny, Hairstyles and Fashion: A Hairdresser’s History of Paris, 1910–1920 (Oxford: Berg, 1999); Steven Zdatny, Fashion, Work, and Politics in Modern France (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015).

9. 9. Galia Ofek, Representations of Hair in Victorian Literature and Culture (Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2009); Carol de Dobay Rifelj, Coiffures: Hair in Nineteenth-Century French Literature and Culture (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 2010). See also Elisabeth G. Gitter, “The Power of Women’s Hair in the Victorian Imagination,” Publications of the Modern Language Association of America 99, no. 5 (October 1984): 936–954; Royce Mahawatte, “Hair and Fashioned Femininity in Two Nineteenth-Century Novels,” in Hair: Styling, Culture and Fashion, ed. Geraldine Biddle-Perry and Sarah Cheang (Oxford: Berg, 2008), 193–204.

10. 10. Jasmine Nichole Cobb, New Growth: The Art and Texture of Black Hair (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2022), 27.

11. 11. Tameka N. Ellington, Joseph L. Underwood, and Sarah Rogers-Lafferty, eds., Textures: The History and Art of Black Hair (Kent, OH: Kent State University Museum, 2020).

12. 12. Shane White and Graham White, “Slave Hair and African American Culture in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries,” Journal of Southern History 61, no. 1 (February 1995): 45–76; Shane White and Graham White, Stylin’: African American Expressive Culture from Its Beginnings to the Zoot Suit (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998), 39–62, 169–172; Paul Dash, “Black Hair Culture, Politics and Change,” International Journal of Inclusive Education 10, no. 1 (2006): 27–37.

13. 13. Tameka N. Ellington, ed., Black Hair in a White World (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 2023).

14. 14. Lyzette Wanzer, ed., Trauma, Tresses, and Truth: Untangling Our Hair through Personal Narratives (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2023).

15. 15. Noliwe M. Rooks, Hair Raising: Beauty, Culture, and African American Women (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1996); Julie A. Willett, Permanent Waves: The Making of the American Beauty Shop (New York: New York University Press, 2000). For example, Ayana D.Byrd and Lori L. Tharp, Hair Story: Untangling the Roots of Black Hair in America, rev. ed. (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2014), first published 2001; Tiffany M. Gill, Beauty Shop Politics: African American Women’s Activism in the Beauty Industry (Champaign: University of Illinois Press 2010); Tabora A. Johnson and Teiahsha Bankhead, “Hair It Is: Examining the Experiences of Black Women with Natural Hair,” Open Journal of Social Sciences 2, no. 1 (January 2014): 86–100; Cheryl Thompson, “Black Women, Beauty, and Hair as a Matter of Being,” Women’s Studies 38, no. 8 (October 15, 2009): 831–856.

16. 16. Kobena Mercer, “Black Hair/Style Politics,” in Out There: Marginalization and Contemporary Cultures, ed. Russell Ferguson, Martha Gever, Trinh T. Minh-ha, and Cornel West (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990), 247–264.

17. 17. Anna-Mari Almila, “What Is ‘Space’ for Dress? Theoretical Considerations of a Spatial Turn for Fashion Studies,” International Journal of Fashion Studies 8, no. 1 (April 2021): 7.

18. 18. Alla Myzelev and John Potvin, Fashion, Interior Design and the Contours of Modern Identity (Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2010), 4.

19. 19. Heidi Brevik-Zender, Fashioning Spaces: Mode and Modernity in Late-Nineteenth-Century Paris (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2015); John Potvin, ed., The Places and Spaces of Fashion, 1800–2007 (New York: Routledge, 2009), 5.

20. 20. Brevik-Zender, Fashioning Spaces: 205; Elizabeth L. Block, Dressing Up: The Women Who Influenced French Fashion (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2021), 135–168.

21. 21. Louise Crewe, The Geographies of Fashion: Consumption, Space, and Value (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2017), 2.

22. 22. Sarah Cheang and Geraldine Biddle-Perry, “Conclusion: Hair and Human Identity,” in Hair: Styling, Culture and Fashion, ed. Geraldine Biddle-Perry and Sarah Cheang (Oxford: Berg, 2008), 252.

23. 23. Kim Smith, “From Style to Place: The Emergence of the Ladies’ Hair Salon in the Twentieth Century,” in Hair: Styling, Culture and Fashion, ed. Geraldine Biddle-Perry and Sarah Cheang (Oxford: Berg, 2008), 55.

24. 24. Ruth Holliday and John Hassard, eds., Contested Bodies (London: Routledge, 2001), 147–149; Kim Smith, “From Style to Place: The Emergence of the Ladies’ Hair Salon in the Twentieth Century,” in Hair: Styling, Culture and Fashion, ed. Geraldine Biddle-Perry and Sarah Cheang (Oxford: Berg, 2008), 55–65.

25. 25. Yi-Fu Tuan, Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977), 164–165.

26. 26. Tuan, Space and Place, 136.

27. 27. Tuan, Space and Place, 4.

28. 28. Tuan, Space and Place, 184.

29. 29. Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space (Oxford: Blackwell, 1991), 154.

30. 30. Tuan, Space and Place, 4.

31. 31. Nigel Thrift, “Space,” Theory, Culture & Society 23, no. 2/3 (2006): 139–146.

32. 32. Thrift, “Space,” 139–146.

33. 33. Kevin Hannam, Mimi Sheller, and John Urry, “Editorial: Mobilities, Immobilities and Moorings,” Mobilities 1, no. 1 (March 1, 2006): 1, 9–10.

34. 34. Michel Foucault, Security, Territory, Population: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1977–78, ed. Michel Senellart, trans. Graham Burchell (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014).

35. 35. Setha M. Low, “Spatializing Culture: An Engaged Anthropological Approach to Space and Place,” in The People, Space and Place Reader, ed. Jack Gieseking, William Mangold, Cindi Katz, Setha Low, and Susan Saegert (London: Routledge, 2014), 37; Setha M. Low, Spatializing Culture: The Ethnography of Space and Place (London: Routledge, 2017), 128.

36. 36. Low, Spatializing Culture, 95.

37. 37. Helen Sheumaker, Love Entwined: The Curious History of Hairwork in America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007).

38. 38. Rebecca M. Herzig, Plucked: A History of Hair Removal (New York: New York University Press, 2015).

39. 39. Michael Kwass, “Big Hair: A Wig History of Consumption in Eighteenth-Century France,” American Historical Review 111, no. 3 (2006): 634; Margaret K. Powell and Joseph Roach, “Big Hair,” Eighteenth-Century Studies 38, no. 1 (Fall 2004): 80.

40. 40. Karin Calvert, “The Function of Fashion in Eighteenth-Century America,” in Of Consuming Interests: The Style of Life in the Eighteenth Century, ed. Cary Carson, Ronald Hoffman, and Peter J. Albert (Charlottesville: Published for the United States Capitol Historical Society by the University Press of Virginia, 1994), 263–270; Lynn Festa, “Fashion and Adornment,” in A Cultural History of Hair in the Age of Enlightenment, ed. Margaret K. Powell and Joseph Roach (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2019), 58; Lynn Festa, “Personal Effects: Wigs and Possessive Individualism in the Long Eighteenth Century,” Eighteenth-Century Life 29, no. 2 (April 1, 2005): 69.

41. 41. Marcia R. Pointon, Hanging the Head: Portraiture and Social Formation in Eighteenth-Century England (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993), 46, 54.

42. 42. Kwass, “Big Hair,” 635–641.

43. 43. Pointon, Hanging the Head, 121; Festa, “Personal Effects,” 59.

44. 44. Kwass, “Big Hair,” 644–647.

45. 45. Kwass, “Big Hair,” 648; Pointon, Hanging the Head, 117–120.

46. 46. Carolyn L. White, “The Fall of Big Hair: Hair Curlers as Evidence of Changing Fashions,” in The Importance of British Material Culture to Historical Archaeologies of the Nineteenth Century, ed. Alasdair Brooks (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2015), 178; Pointon, Hanging the Head, 107–111.

47. 47. See Kate Haulman, The Politics of Fashion in Eighteenth-Century America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011), 47–80.

48. 48. Laura J. Galke, “Tressed for Success: Male Hair Care and Wig Hair Curlers at George Washington’s Childhood Home,” Winterthur Portfolio 52, no. 2/3 (June 1, 2018): 86.

49. 49. Galke, “Tressed for Success,” 99–100.

50. 50. Douglas W. Bristol Jr., Knights of the Razor: Black Barbers in Slavery and Freedom (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009), 16; White and White, “Slave Hair and African American Culture in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries,” 62–63, 66; White and White, Stylin’, 51–52.

51. 51. See Louisa Cross, “Fashionable Hair in the Eighteenth Century: Theatricality and Display,” in Hair: Styling, Culture and Fashion, ed. Geraldine Biddle-Perry and Sarah Cheang (Oxford: Berg, 2008), 18–23; Harriet Stroomberg, High Heads: Spotprenten Over Haarmode in De Achttiende Eeuw (Enschede: Rijksmuseum Twenthe, 1999).

52. 52. Aileen Ribeiro, Dress in Eighteenth-Century Europe, 1715–1789 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002), 211; see also Amelia Rauser, “Hair, Authenticity, and the Self-Made Macaroni,” Eighteenth-Century Studies 38, no. 1 (Fall 2004): 101–117.

53. 53. Festa, “Fashion and Adornment,” 75–78.

54. 54. John Potvin, “The Velvet Masquerade: Fashion, Interior Design and the Furnished Body,” in Fashion, Interior Design and the Contours of Modern Identity, ed. Alla Myzelev and John Potvin (Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2010), 10.

55. 55. Powell and Roach, “Big Hair,” 87–93; Rauser, “Hair, Authenticity, and the Self-Made Macaroni,” 101–117, 103; Ribeiro, Dress in Eighteenth-Century Europe, 236.

56. 56. The Vis-a-vis Bisected, or the Ladies Coop, 1776. Print. Published by Matthias Darly. The British Museum, London, J,5.128.

57. 57. Peter McNeil, “Ideology, Fashion and the Darlys’ ‘Macaroni’ Prints,” in Dress and Ideology: Fashioning Identity from Antiquity to the Present, ed. Shoshana-Rose Marzel and Guy D. Stiebel (London: Bloomsbury, 2014), 111–136.

58. 58. Susan J. Vincent, The Anatomy of Fashion: Dressing the Body from the Renaissance to Today (Oxford: Berg, 2009), 1–34.

59. 59. See Kimberly Chrisman-Campbell, Fashion Victims: Dress at the Court of Louis XVI and Marie-Antoinette (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015), 20–31; Caroline Weber, Queen of Fashion (New York: Henry Holt, 2006), 94–130.

60. 60. Rauser, “Hair, Authenticity, and the Self-Made Macaroni,” 114.

61. 61. Morag Martin, Selling Beauty: Cosmetics, Commerce, and French Society, 1750–1830 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009), 155–173.

62. 62. Martin, Selling Beauty, 1–2.

63. 63. Festa, “Personal Effects,” 74.

64. 64. Festa, “Personal Effects,” 79; Martin, Selling Beauty, 156–160.

65. 65. Richard Wrigley, “Mistaken Identities: Disguise, Surveillance, and the Legibility of Appearances,” in The Politics of Appearances: Representations of Dress in Revolutionary France (Oxford: Berg, 2002), 229–258.

66. 66. Festa, “Personal Effects,” 79–82.

67. 67. Martin, Selling Beauty, 170–171.

68. 68. Bristol, Knights of the Razor, 12–13; Cross, “Fashionable Hair in the Eighteenth Century,” 20; Vincent, The Anatomy of Fashion, 1–34.

69. 69. Bristol, Knights of the Razor, 26.

70. 70. Corson, Fashions in Hair, 361–362.

Chapter 2

1. 1. Nigel Thrift, “Space,” Theory, Culture & Society 23, no. 2/3 (2006): 141; Yi-Fu Tuan, Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977), 183.

2. 2. See Kevin Hannam, Mimi Sheller, and John Urry, “Editorial: Mobilities, Immobilities and Moorings,” Mobilities 1, no. 1 (March 1, 2006): 13.

3. 3. Thrift, “Space,” 142.

4. 4. Ellen M. Plante, Women at Home in Victorian America: A Social History (New York: Facts on File, 1997), 133–134; Caroline Cox, Good Hair Days: A History of British Hairstyling (London: Quartet Books, 1999), 17; Victoria Sherrow, Encyclopedia of Hair: A Cultural History (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2006), 386; Kim Smith, “From Style to Place: The Emergence of the Ladies’ Hair Salon in the Twentieth Century,” in Hair: Styling, Culture and Fashion, ed. Geraldine Biddle-Perry and Sarah Cheang (Oxford: Berg, 2008), 57.

5. 5. The liquid was comprised of 97 percent alcohol, 1.5 percent castor oil, and 1 percent tincture of catharides (Spanish fly). Sherrow, Encyclopedia of Hair, 175.

6. 6. See [Rear view of woman, possibly Martha Matilda Harper, with hair reaching down near her ankles], ca. 1914. Photographic print. Library of Congress, LC-USZ62–76323; Jane R. Plitt, Martha Matilda Harper and the American Dream: How One Woman Changed the Face of Modern Business (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2000), 48–50.

7. 7. Historian Ferdinand Meyer V has documented that the seven daughters of Fletcher and Mary Sutherland—Sarah, Victoria, Isabella, Grace, Naomi, Dora, and Mary—were born between 1851 and 1865. Ferdinand Meyer V, “The Amazing 7 Sutherland Sisters,” Peachridge Glass, February 10, 2013, https://www.peachridgeglass.com/2013/02/the-amazing-7-sutherland-sisters.

8. 8. [Seven women], 1890. Photograph. Maine Historical Society, no. 413-67.

9. 9. Fashion plates, Godey’s Lady’s Book, September 1858, 259.

10. 10. Bessie [Elizabeth D.] Wood [Kane] ALS to Bessie [Elizabeth Kane], May 12, 1852, Kane family papers, William L. Clements Library, University of Michigan.

11. 11. Jennie [last name unknown] to Mattie Tackitt, Buffalo, New York, December 10, 1867, Women’s History Collection, William L. Clements Library, The University of Michigan.

12. 12. Royce Mahawatte, “Hair and Fashioned Femininity in Two Nineteenth-Century Novels,” in Hair: Styling, Culture and Fashion, ed. Geraldine Biddle-Perry and Sarah Cheang (Oxford: Berg, 2008), 195; Vincent, Hair, 62–64.

13. 13. “The Modern Coiffure an Art,” Evening World (New York), July 16, 1894: 2.

14. 14. “First-Class Help, Females,” The Sun (New York), February 5, 1899, 1, 11; “Situations Wanted,” Evening World, July 16, 1894, 2.

15. 15. See, for example, Franz Hanfstaengl, after Caspar Netscher, A Woman with a Dog on Her Knee Having Her Hair Dressed by a Female Assistant, between 1800 and 1899. Lithograph. Wellcome Collection, London, Wellcome Library no. 31202i.

16. 16. The longevity of this theme is evidenced by the late date of the steel engraving. Although the print was made toward the end of the century, the scene is a nostalgic view of the 1860s.

17. 17. For a period image of a bedroom, see [Boudoir], undated. Stereograph. Library of Congress, Washington, DC, LC-DIG-stereo-1s08180.

18. 18. Gail Caskey Winkler and Roger W. Moss, Victorian Interior Decoration: American Interiors, 1830–1900 (New York: H. Holt, 1986), 138–139.

19. 19. Hans Heinrich (Henry) Bebie (Swiss, 1824–1888). The Toilette, undated. Probably oil on canvas. Location unknown. See https://americangallery.wordpress.com/2010/12/15/henry-bebie-1824-1888.

20. 20. See Joanna Pitman, On Blondes (London: Bloomsbury, 2003), 144–145.

21. 21. For example, Edgar Degas. Toilette of a Woman, 1889. Pastel and charcoal. State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, OP-43788.

22. 22. Edmond de Goncourt and Jules de Goncourt, Journal: Mémoires de la vie littéraire, vol. 4 (Paris: Fasquelle, Flammarion, 1956), 674.

23. 23. For example, Edgar Degas. Young Woman at Her Toilet, undated. Etching. Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris, 924913 (Reed-Shapiro 28–1); Edgar Degas. Woman Having Her Hair Combed, ca. 1886–1888. Pastel on light green woven paper. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, H. O. Havemeyer Collection, Bequest of Mrs. H. O. Havemeyer, 1929, 29.100.35.

24. 24. For example, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec. Combing Their Hair, 1896. Lithograph printed in two colors. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Bequest of Scofield Thayer, 1982, 1984.1203.170.

25. 25. For example, James Carroll Beckwith. Woman Seated at Vanity, Braiding Her Hair, 1890s. Graphite, watercolor, pastel, and crayon on ivory paper. New-York Historical Society, 1935.85.3.132; George Bellows. Girl Fixing Her Hair, 1923–1924. Lithograph. Columbus Museum of Art, Museum Purchase with funds provided by Eloise Bragdon, by exchange, 2012.022.

26. 26. Griselda Pollock, “Modernity and the Spaces of Femininity,” in Vision and Difference: Femininity, Feminism, and Histories of Art (London: Routledge, 1988), 56–66.

27. 27. Gib Prettyman. “The Serial Illustrations of A Hazard of New Fortunes,” Resources for American Literary Study 27, no. 2 (2001): 179–195.

28. 28. For the European context, see Vincent, Hair, 66.

29. 29. Will Bashor, Marie Antoinette’s Head: The Royal Hairdresser, the Queen, and the Revolution (Guilford, CT: Lyons Press, 2013), 5; Cox, Good Hair Days, 66; Sherrow, Encyclopedia of Hair, 163; Smith, “From Style to Place,” 55; Zdatny, Fashion, Work, and Politics in Modern France, 1.

30. 30. “Hairdressing,” Vogue, June 22, 1899, ii; Byron Company, Hotel Martin, 1896. Photograph. Museum of the City of New York, 93.1.1.6400.

31. 31. Zdatny, Hairstyles and Fashion, 20–22.

32. 32. Sherrow, Encyclopedia of Hair, 162.

33. 33. Arlene Alpert, Margrit Altenburg, Diane Carol Bailey, Letha Barnes, and Lisha Barnes, Milady’s Standard Cosmetology (Boston: Cengage Learning, 2007), 9.

34. 34. Geraldine Biddle-Perry and Sarah Cheang, “Introduction: Thinking about Hair,” in Hair: Styling, Culture and Fashion, ed. Geraldine Biddle-Perry and Sarah Cheang (Oxford: Berg, 2008), 6; Smith, “From Style to Place,” 56; Sherrow, Encyclopedia of Hair, 201. For a humorous British etching, see A Woman Having Her Hair Cut by a Male Hair-Dresser, undated. Wellcome Collection, London, Wellcome Library no. 31384i.

35. 35. Cecil Beaton, The Glass of Fashion (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1954), 44–45.

36. 36. Louisa May Alcott, Little Women: or, Meg, Jo, Beth, and Amy (Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1890), 183.

37. 37. Louisa May Alcott, Little Women: or, Meg, Jo, Beth, and Amy (Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1880), 203. The same illustration is shown in Louisa May Alcott, Little Women: or, Meg, Jo, Beth, and Amy (Boston: Little, Brown, 1896), 203.

38. 38. Louisa May Alcott, Little Women: A Story for Girls (London: Religious Tract Society, 1912), between pp. 224–225. I thank Abby Yochelson for her assistance locating this volume.

39. 39. Louisa May Alcott, Little Women: or, Meg, Jo, Beth, and Amy (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1918), 205.

40. 40. Alcott, Little Women (1880), 32.

41. 41. Virginia Penny, The Employments of Women: A Cyclopaedia of Woman’s Work (Boston: Walker, Wise & Co., 1863), 278–280.

42. 42. Penny, The Employments of Women, 278–279.

43. 43. Penny, The Employments of Women, 279.

44. 44. I thank Natalie Burclaff, Library of Congress, for her research assistance.

45. 45. Wilson’s Business Directory of New York City (New York: Trow City Directory Company, 1867), 255–256.

46. 46. Boyd’s Business Directory of the State of Maryland (Washington, DC: William H. Boyd, 1875), 195, 241.

47. 47. For example, Hugh P. Wood of Boston: “Centerdale,” Olneyville Times (Providence, RI), April 26, 1895, 5.

48. 48. Eliza Frances Andrews diary, 1870–1872, August 15, 1870, Andrews Family Papers, University of Tennessee at Chattanooga Special Collections, MS-004-02-08.

49. 49. Nora C. Usher, “Some Things I Learnt in America,” Work and Leisure: A Magazine Devoted to the Interests of Women, August 1, 1892, 218–220.

50. 50. Vincent, Hair, 72–73. See also, for example, Gertrude G. de Aguirre, Women in the Business World; or, Hints and Helps to Prosperity (Boston: Arena Publishing Co., 1894), 185–186; “Detroit’s Pretty Barber,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, November 21, 1877, 3.

51. 51. “Women Make Good Barbers,” American Hairdresser, February 1896, 28; “The New Woman’s Newest Idea,” American Hairdresser, December 1896, 12.

52. 52. Juliet E. K. Walker, ed., Encyclopedia of African American Business History (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1999), 282.

53. 53. Quincy T. Mills, Cutting along the Color Line: Black Barbers and Barber Shops in America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013), 23; Juliet E. K. Walker, The History of Black Business in America: Capitalism, Race, Entrepreneurship (New York: Macmillan, 1998), 109.

54. 54. Mills, Cutting along the Color Line, 23.

55. 55. Mills, Cutting along the Color Line, 25, 53.

56. 56. Douglas W. Bristol Jr., Knights of the Razor: Black Barbers in Slavery and Freedom (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009), 8–70.

57. 57. Penny, The Employments of Women, 279.

58. 58. Penny, The Employments of Women, 279–280.

59. 59. Frances E. Willard Journals, May 25, 1870, Journal 42, 14, Frances E. Willard Journal Transcription, https://willard.historyit.com/public-sites/home/transcripts.

60. 60. Xiomara Santamarina, Belabored Professions: Narratives of African American Working Womanhood (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 109–115; Eliza Potter, A Hairdresser’s Experience in High Life (Cincinnati, OH: Privately printed, 1859), 73.

61. 61. Lawrence Graham, The Senator and the Socialite: The True Story of America’s First Black Dynasty (New York: Harper Perennial, 2007), 369.

62. 62. Trade card, Hawx’s Hair Cutting Rooms, Hotel St. Stephens (sic), New York, undated. Museum of the City of New York, F2012.99.555.

63. 63. Stanley Turkel, Built to Last: 100+ Year-Old Hotels in New York (Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2011), 9–18; Anthony W. Robins, “Hotel Albert” (New York City), http://thehotelalbert.com/photos.html.

64. 64. Elizabeth L. Block, Dressing Up: The Women Who Influenced French Fashion (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2021), 40–47, 52–60.

65. 65. K. C. Spier, Universal Exposition Paris, 1889: J. C. Conolly’s Illustrated Guide for the Use of English and American Visitors (Liverpool, UK: J. C. Conolly, 1889), passim.

66. 66. “The Bradley Martin Fete,” New York Times, February 10, 1897, 7.

67. 67. Penny, The Employments of Women, 278.

68. 68. Collection of the author.

69. 69. The Providence, Rhode Island, City Directory (Polk City Directories) for 1910 lists it under “barbers.”

70. 70. For more on mixed-gender barbershops, see Mills, Cutting along the Color Line, 26.

71. 71. For example, Wards’s “Bargain Column,” Herald and Review (Decatur, IL), May 14, 1896, 7.

72. 72. Frank C. Bridgeford, Barber Instructor and Toilet Manual (Kansas City, MO: Frank C. Bridgeford, 1900), unpaginated.

73. 73. “French Ideas about Hairdressing,” The Sun (New York), October 15, 1899, 4; “Shampooing in the American and French Styles,” New York Herald (Paris ed.), December 21, 1893.

74. 74. Jessica P. Clark, The Business of Beauty: Gender and the Body in Modern London (London: Bloomsbury Visual Arts, 2020), 112, 118n35.

75. 75. For example, “Formulary,” Pharmaceutical Era 5 (April 1, 1891): 206; “Wash for the Hair,” Evening Star (Washington, DC), March 23, 1895, 16.

76. 76. L. Howard Jones, The Barbers’ Manual (McComb, OH: Gospel Way and Food Print, 1898), 52.

77. 77. Theodore A. Kochs, Price List and Barbers’ Purchasing Guide of Barbers’ Chairs, Furniture, and Barbers’ Supplies (Chicago: Skeen & Stuart Stationery Co., 1884), 36–39.

78. 78. Hiram Streitenberger, Streitenberger’s Manual and Barbers’ Hand Book of Formulas (Chillicothe, OH: Hiram Streitenberger, 1887), 21.

79. 79. Evelyn Welch, “Art on the Edge: Hair and Hands in Renaissance Italy,” Renaissance Studies 23, no. 3 (2009): 244.

80. 80. Steven Zdatny, Hairstyles and Fashion: A Hairdresser’s History of Paris, 1910–1920 (Oxford: Berg, 1999), 19; Caroline Cox, Good Hair Days: A History of British Hairstyling (London: Quartet Books, 1999), 32–34; “The Dangers of Hairdressing,” The Hospital: A Journal of the Medical Sciences and Hospital Administration 22, no. 566 (July 31, 1897): 295–296.

81. 81. For instructions on singeing, see Jones, The Barbers’ Manual, 56–57. For an illustration, see Arthur Bass Moler, The Manual on Barbering, Hairdressing, Manicuring, Facial Massage, Electrolysis and Chiropody as Taught in the Moler System of Colleges (New York: Arthur Bass Moler, 1906), 53. See “Dry Shampoo,” Sterling Standard (Sterling, IL), August 13, 1896, 1; Kochs, Price List and Barbers’ Purchasing Guide, 85.

82. 82. “A Queer Place to Drown,” Evening Times (Washington, DC), November 18, 1897, 4.

83. 83. Kochs, Price List and Barbers’ Purchasing Guide, 20–21.

84. 84. Kochs, Price List and Barbers’ Purchasing Guide, 8–9.

85. 85. Kochs, Price List and Barbers’ Purchasing Guide, 8.

86. 86. Katherine C. Grier, Culture and Comfort: Parlor Making and Middle-Class Identity, 1850–1930 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1997), 32–43.

87. 87. Grier, Culture and Comfort, 33–38.

88. 88. See “Hard Times Token” from Phalon’s Hair Cutting, 1837. Copper. New-York Historical Society, INV.13767.

89. 89. “Phalon’s Saloon,” Gleason’s Pictorial Drawing-Room Companion, February 12, 1853, 112. For more on Phalon, see Manuel J. Vieira, Tonsorial Art Pamphlet (Indianapolis: Press of the Publishing House, 1877), 10–12.

90. 90. Lyman H. Low, “Hard Times Tokens,” American Journal of Numismatics (July 1899): 20.

91. 91. See Phalon’s Bower of Perfume, in the Crystal Palace, New York, 1853. Photograph. New York Public Library Digital Collections, The Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints and Photographs: Picture Collection, The New York Public Library.

92. 92. “Phalon and Son’s Cocoine,” Harper’s Weekly, February 12, 1859, 112; “Phalon’s Cocin” (sic), Harper’s Weekly, December 31, 1859, 842; “The ‘Cocoaine’ Trade-mark Case,” New York Times, October 24, 1860, 2.

93. 93. The Ladies Guide and City Directory for Shopping, Travel, Amusements, etc., in the City of New York (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1885), 119.

94. 94. For example, Gustav Knecht Manufacturing Co., Price List and Barbers’ Reference Book of Gust. Knecht M’f’g Co. (Chicago: Goes & Quensel, 1888–1889), 32.

95. 95. [Interior view of E. J. Dutra’s Barber Shop, 1210 Market Street, Oakland, California], undated. Photograph. Oakland Museum of California, H69.196.3; [Beehive Barber Shop, Rochester, Minnesota], ca. 1896. Photograph. Olmsted County Historical Society, 1952.771.0019. For barbershop interiors, see Bristol, Knights of the Razor, 61–63.

96. 96. Gustav Knecht Manufacturing Co., Price List and Barbers’ Reference Book.

97. 97. For example, [Dick Russell Barber Shop in Rochester, Minnesota], 1890. Photograph. Olmsted County Historical Society, 1976.082.0011; [Lemuel W. Tozier Hairdresser room], ca. 1888. Photographic print. New Hampshire Historical Society; gift of May Nutter, 1974.045.

98. 98. Kochs, Price List and Barbers’ Purchasing Guide, 95.

99. 99. “Go to G. H. Henderson’s Lady Barber Shop,” State Capital (Springfield, IL), June 6, 1891, 4.

100. 100. Claire Zalc, “Trading on Origins: Signs and Windows of Foreign Shopkeepers in Interwar Paris,” History Workshop Journal 70 (Autumn 2010): 133.

101. 101. [View of Eastport and vicinity], ca. 1880. Photographic print. Maine Historical Society, Maine Memory Network, item 1214.

102. 102. “Business Woman Taken by Death,” Detroit Free Press, January 22, 1911, A10; “Mrs. Richard W. Allen,” Detroit Free Press, January 22, 1911, A10

103. 103. [Mrs. R. W. Allen’s Wig Making and Hair Goods, at 175 Woodward Avenue]. Sepia-toned photograph. Detroit Historical Society, 1953.067.039.

104. 104. [Sarah Jane Allen’s Hair Dressing Store at 175 Woodward Avenue]. Mounted sepia-toned photograph. Detroit Historical Society, 1953.067.025.

105. 105. Advertisement, American Hairdresser, February 1896), 1–2.

106. 106. “The Real Estate Record: A Good Average Week for the Season,” Detroit Free Press, January 29, 1893, 19.

107. 107. “Trade Notes,” American Perfumer (February 1922): 537. Note that Mrs. S. A. Allen of New York, manufacturer of Mrs. S. A. Allen’s World’s Hair Restorer since at least 1840 and of Mrs. S. A. Allen’s Zylobalsamum, appears to be unrelated to the Mrs. R. W. Allen businesses of Detroit.

108. 108. Trade card, Alfred Greenwood & Co., 303 Canal St., New York, Joseph Downs Collection of Manuscripts and Printed Ephemera, Winterthur Library, Winterthur, Delaware, no. 72x218.

109. 109. [Schmoele and Company, 1204 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia]. Photograph. Free Library of Philadelphia, pdct00156.

110. 110. Bay Bottles, “Mike’s Glass Bottle Collection and Their History,” https://baybottles.com/tag/l-shaw.

111. 111. Bay Bottles, “Mike’s Glass Bottle Collection and Their History”; L. Shaw advertisement, Munsey’s Magazine, March 1905, advertising section, unpaginated; Trow’s New York City Directory (New York: Trow City Directory Co., 1876), 1252.

112. 112. J. W. Schwartz, “Mrs. L. Shaw,” Printer’s Ink, October 25, 1899, 3–5.

113. 113. Schwartz, “Mrs. L. Shaw,” 3–5.

114. 114. Schwartz, “Mrs. L. Shaw,” 3–5.

115. 115. Bay Bottles, “Mike’s Glass Bottle Collection and Their History.”

116. 116. “Miss M. C. Rooney,” Olneyville Times (Providence, RI), October 9, 1891, 2.

117. 117. For example, Annie Jenness Miller, Physical Beauty: How to Obtain and How to Preserve It (New York: C. L. Webster & Co., 1892), 110; Philip G. Hubert Jr. et al, The Woman’s Book, Dealing Practically with the Modern Conditions of Home-Life, Self-Support, Education, Opportunities, and Every-Day Problems, vol. 2 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1894), 352.

118. 118. Frank G. Carpenter, Carp’s Washington (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960), 101–102.

119. 119. See, for example, “Well-Paying Work,” Olneyville Times (Providence, RI), June 30, 1888, 4.

120. 120. Olivia Gruber Florek, “‘I Am a Slave to My Hair’: Empress Elisabeth of Austria, Fetishism, and Nineteenth-Century Austrian Sexuality,” Modern Austrian Literature 42, no. 2 (June 2009): 8.

121. 121. For example: Dressing jacket. U.S., 1885–1890. Silk, cotton. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Brooklyn Museum Costume Collection at The Metropolitan Museum of Art; gift of the Brooklyn Museum, 2009; gift of Lillian E. Glenn Peirce, 1946, 2009.300.121.

122. 122. “Combing Cape,” Godey’s Lady’s Book, August 1890, 168.

123. 123. Frances Ann Kemble, Records of a Girlhood, 2nd ed. (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1883), 132; Frances Ann Kemble, Further Records 1848–1883: A Series of Letters by Frances Ann Kemble (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1891), 247.

124. 124. May Bragdon Diaries, April 23, 1893, Rare Books, Special Collections and Preservation Rush Rhees Library, University of Rochester, New York.

125. 125. May Bragdon Diaries, April 16, 1893.

126. 126. May Bragdon Diaries, June 4, 1895.

127. 127. May Bragdon Diaries, June 17, 1893.

128. 128. May Bragdon Diaries, June 17, 1893.

129. 129. May Bragdon Diaries, January 31, 1897.

130. 130. May Bragdon Diaries, February 2, 1896.

131. 131. May Bragdon Diaries, June 14, 1897.

132. 132. Mme Hygeia, “Beauty Talks: The Care of the Hair,” San Francisco Call, February 12, 1899, 27; A. T. W., “What to Do with Oily Hair,” Good Housekeeping, October 12, 1889, 283; see “A Sun Bath after a Shampoo with Packer’s Tar Soap,” The Chautauquan, October 1899, 107.

133. 133. “Shampoo Parties,” Abbeville Press and Banner (Abbeville, SC), October 8, 1890, 11.

134. 134. “Shampoo Parties,” 11.

135. 135. Sarah Heaton, “Introduction: Empires of Hair and Their Afterlives,” in A Cultural History of Hair in the Age of Empire, ed. Sarah Heaton (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2019), 15; Walter Barlow Stevens, St. Louis, the Fourth City, 1764–1909 (Chicago: S. J. Clarke Publishing Co., 1909), 560.

136. 136. See Elizabeth L. Block, Dressing Up: The Women Who Influenced French Fashion (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2021), fig. 3.4, for an 1893 example on wheels.

137. 137. “Hair Dressing Parlor,” Deadwood Evening Independent, June 1, 1897, 3.

138. 138. For example, “Hairdressing Parlors,” Emporia Daily Republican (Emporia, KS), October 28, 1898, 4; “Ingersoll’s Mechanical Brush,” Scientific American, June 15, 1861, 384.

Chapter 3

1. 1. Yi-Fu Tuan, Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977), 8–11.

2. 2. Nigel Thrift, “Space,” Theory, Culture & Society 23 (no. 2/3) (2006): 144.

3. 3. James Dabney McCabe, Lights and Shadows of New York Life; or, The Sights and Sensations of the Great City. A Work Descriptive of the City of New York in All Its Various Phases . . . (Philadelphia: National Publishing Co., 1872), 573.

4. 4. Aileen Ribeiro, Facing Beauty: Painted Women & Cosmetic Art (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011), 247.

5. 5. Frances E. Willard, Glimpses of Fifty Years: The Autobiography of an American Woman (Chicago: Woman’s Temperance Publication Association, 1889), 69.

6. 6. See Florence Hartley, The Ladies’ Book of Etiquette, and Manual of Politeness (Boston: G. W. Cottrell, 1860), 28.

7. 7. C. S. Snyder, Decorum: A Practical Treatise on Etiquette and Dress of the Best American Society (Chicago: J. A. Ruth & Co., 1877), 270.

8. 8. Hartley, The Ladies’ Book of Etiquette, 152.

9. 9. Hartley, The Ladies’ Book of Etiquette, 167.

10. 10. Hartley, The Ladies’ Book of Etiquette, 47.

11. 11. Emily Edson Briggs, The Olivia Letters (New York: Neale Publishing Co., 1906), 392.

12. 12. Frank G. Carpenter, Carp’s Washington (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960), 101.

13. 13. “Forget-Me-Notes,” Sunday Herald and Weekly National Intelligencer (Washington, DC), August 24, 1890, 4.

14. 14. “‘Diana’ Knots and Mauve Gowns,” Hocking Sentinel (Logan, OH), November 1, 1894, 1.

15. 15. “Concerning Back Hair,” Arizona Republican, September 18, 1891, 3.

16. 16. “Concerning Back Hair,” 3. See Fernand Paillet (French, 1850–1918), Amy Bend, 1889, watercolor on ivory, New-York Historical Society; gift of the Estate of Peter Marié, 1905.18.

17. 17. Carol Rifelj, Coiffures: Hair in Nineteenth-Century French Literature and Culture (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 2010), 63–66, 91–92.

18. 18. Rifelj, Coiffures, 58–59.

19. 19. “A Modern Masquerade,” Munsey’s Magazine, April–September 1897, 195–196; “Periwigs and Guinea Pigs,” New-York Tribune, November 23, 1897, 5.

20. 20. John Singer Sargent. Ellen Terry as Lady Macbeth, 1889. Oil on canvas. Tate Britain, N02053.

21. 21. “How Women Wear Their Hair,” Wichita Eagle, January 3, 1890, 8; Katharine De Forest, “Our Paris Letter,” Harper’s Bazar, June 27, 1896, 542; “Sarah Bernhardt’s Hair,” American Hairdresser, August 1896, 15.

22. 22. “How Women Wear Their Hair,” 8.

23. 23. Théobald Chartran. Sarah Bernhardt in “Gismonda,” after 1896. Oil on canvas. Musée Carnavalet, Paris, P2697.

24. 24. “A New Coiffure: The Gismonda,” Evening World (New York), February 2, 1900, 6.

25. 25. See Sarony. Maude Adams as Juliet in “Romeo and Juliet,” 1899. Cabinet photograph. Museum of the City of New York, 63.148.1.

26. 26. Alphonse Mucha. Maude Adams as Joan of Arc, 1909. Oil on canvas. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; gift of A. J. Kobler, 1920, 20.33.

27. 27. “False Hair,” St. Louis Republic, September 15, 1901, magazine section, 47.

28. 28. “A Chapter on Actresses,” Abbeville Press and Banner (Abbeville, SC), January 18, 1893, 2.

29. 29. “Missing Links,” Mineral Point Tribune (Mineral Point, WI), April 1, 1886, 5.

30. 30. “Current Notes,” Lippincott’s Monthly Magazine, November 1890, 727.

31. 31. Michael Cooper, “Overlooked No More: Sissieretta Jones, a Soprano Who Shattered Racial Barriers,” New York Times, August 15, 2018, D8.

32. 32. Addison N. Scurlock, Sissieretta Jones, ca. 1911. Photograph. H. Lawrence Freeman Collection, Rare Book & Manuscript Library, Columbia University, no accession number.

33. 33. All photographs are in the Costume Ball Photograph Collection, PR 223, Department of Prints, Photographs, and Architectural Collections, New-York Historical Society.

34. 34. “The Color of Their Tresses,” Morning Call (San Francisco), January 17, 1892, 11.

35. 35. Jessie M. Wood, “The Actress,” Life, March 26, 1896, 233.

36. 36. McCabe, Lights and Shadows of New York Life, 794.

37. 37. Joanna Pitman, On Blondes (London: Bloomsbury, 2003), 139, 143–144.

38. 38. Edith Snook, “Beautiful Hair, Health, and Privilege in Early Modern England,” Journal for Early Modern Cultural Studies 15, no. 4 (Fall 2015): 25.

39. 39. Rifelj, Coiffures, 136–138.

40. 40. “The Coming Bleach,” Scientific American, May 14, 1881, 314.

41. 41. See American Antiquarian Society, Worcester, Massachusetts, records 149187, 149443, and 149217.

42. 42. Snyder, Decorum, 293.

43. 43. Rifelj, Coiffures, 129–135; Marion Roach, The Roots of Desire: The Myth, Meaning, and Sexual Power of Red Hair (New York: Bloomsbury, 2005), 22–24, 176.

44. 44. Willard, Glimpses of Fifty Years, 11–12.

45. 45. Willard, Glimpses of Fifty Years, 12.

46. 46. Ruth Mellinkoff, “Judas’s Red Hair and the Jews,” Journal of Jewish Art 9 (1982): 46; Penny Howell Jolly, Hair: Untangling a Social History (Saratoga Springs, NY: Frances Young Tang Teaching Museum and Art Gallery at Skidmore College, 2004), 8, 56, 60.

47. 47. Ribeiro, Facing Beauty, 270.

48. 48. Albert Herter (U.S., 1871–1950). Woman with Red Hair, 1894. Oil on canvas. Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, DC; gift of Laura Dreyfus Barney and Natalie Clifford Barney in memory of their mother, Alice Pike Barney, 1959.15.

49. 49. Mellinkoff, “Judas’s Red Hair and the Jews,” 31; Michel Pastoureau, Red: The History of a Color (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017), 102–105.

50. 50. Kathy Lee Peiss, Hope in a Jar: The Making of America’s Beauty Culture (New York: Metropolitan Books, 1998), 39.

51. 51. The Manners That Win (Minneapolis, MN: Buckeye Publishing Co., 1886), 388.

52. 52. Eliza Frances Andrews, The War-Time Journal of a Georgia Girl, 1864–1865, ed. Spencer B. King Jr. (New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1908), 133–134.

53. 53. Andrews, The War-Time Journal of a Georgia Girl, 299.

54. 54. Andrews, The War-Time Journal of a Georgia Girl, 299.

55. 55. Andrews, The War-Time Journal of a Georgia Girl, 87, 216, 93.

56. 56. See advertisements for Ayer’s hair vigor produced by Dr. J. C. Ayer and Co., Lowell, Massachusetts: Library of Congress call no. PGA-Ayer (J. C.)-Ayer’s hair vigor; and Baker Library Special Collections, Harvard Business School, Cambridge, Massachusetts, TC6246.0009:6246.

57. 57. For example, Harper’s Bazar, April 7, 1894, 273.

58. 58. “Beautiful New York Women,” Yakima Herald (Yakima, WA), June 9, 1892, 5.

59. 59. “Mrs. Belmont Younger,” Topeka State Journal, November 26, 1897, 4.

60. 60. Steven Zdatny, Hairstyles and Fashion: A Hairdresser’s History of Paris, 1910–1920 (Oxford: Berg, 1999), 17.

61. 61. “Hair Doctress,” The Liberator, April 4, 1856, 3 (emphasis in the original).

62. 62. “A Few Words with Our Correspondents,” Godey’s Lady’s Book, October 1864, 354.

63. 63. Frank C. Bridgeford, Barber Instructor and Toilet Manual (Kansas City, MO: Frank C. Bridgeford, 1900), unpaginated; Victoria Sherrow, Encyclopedia of Hair: A Cultural History (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2006), 156.

64. 64. Mrs. John A. Logan, The Home Manual: Everybody’s Guide in Social, Domestic and Business Life (Philadelphia: Standard Publishing Co., 1889), 130–132; McCabe, Lights and Shadows of New York Life, 808.

65. 65. Charles Henri Leonard, The Hair: Its Growth, Care, Diseases and Treatment (Detroit: C. Henri Leonard, Medical Book Publisher, 1881), 158–171; J. R. Stitson (pseud. for Joseph Scott Stillwell), The Human Hair, Its Care and Preservation (New York: Maple Publishing Co., 1900), 189–193.

66. 66. Stitson, The Human Hair, 196–197.

67. 67. “The Dangers of Hairdressing,” The Hospital: A Journal of the Medical Sciences and Hospital Administration 22, no. 566 (July 31, 1897): 295–296; Bernarr Macfadden, Macfadden’s New Hair Culture: Rational, Natural Methods for Cultivating Strength and Luxuriance of the Hair (New York: Physical Culture Pub. Co., 1899), 130–131.

68. 68. Zdatny, Hairstyles and Fashion, 17–18.

69. 69. “With Hair Combed High,” Morning Times (Washington, DC), August 16, 1896, 20.

70. 70. Richard Ormond and Elaine Kilmurray, John Singer Sargent: The Later Portraits (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003), 102–104.

71. 71. “The Modern Juggernaut,” Christian Union (New York), December 15, 1887, 667.

72. 72. Mia Fineman, Faking It: Manipulated Photography before Photoshop (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, distributed by Yale University Press, 2012), 206; Matthew Fox-Amato, Exposing Slavery: Photography, Human Bondage, and the Birth of Modern Visual Politics in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 33, 252n52, 252–253n53.

73. 73. Jasmine Nichole Cobb, Picture Freedom: Remaking Black Visuality in the Early Nineteenth Century (New York: New York University Press, 2015), 1.

74. 74. See “America and the Tintype,” International Center of Photography, https://www.icp.org/browse/archive/collections/america-and-the-tintype-september-19-2008-january-14-2009?page=2.

75. 75. Tina Brown, “Painted Backgrounds for Turn of the Century Photographers,” Unbound, Smithsonian Libraries and Archives, https://blog.library.si.edu/blog/2018/07/19/painted-backgrounds-for-turn-of-the-century-photographers/#.YkiSI27MJhE.

76. 76. “Accessories, Backgrounds, Drapery, and Hair,” Photographic Times and American Photographer 9, no. 102 (December 1879): 275.

77. 77. “Accessories, Backgrounds, Drapery, and Hair,” 275.

78. 78. Joseph Wake, “The Art of Painting on the Photographic Image,” British Journal of Photography 24, no. 908 (September 28, 1877): 461.

Chapter 4

1. 1. The term “mobile labor” is also useful here; see Cristiana Bastos, Andre Novoa, and Noel B. Salazar, “Mobile Labour: An Introduction,” Mobilities 16, no. 2 (March 4, 2021): 155–163.

2. 2. Setha M. Low, “Spatializing Culture: An Engaged Anthropological Approach to Space and Place,” in The People, Space and Place Reader, ed. Jack Gieseking, William Mangold, Cindi Katz, Setha Low, and Susan Saegert (London: Routledge, 2014), 37.

3. 3. Anne O’Hagan, “Behind the Scenes in the Big Stores,” Munsey’s Magazine, January 1900, 528–537.

4. 4. Robert W. Twyman, History of Marshall Field & Co., 1852–1906 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1954), 80.

5. 5. “Saleswomen’s Appearance,” Dry Goods Economist, November 20, 1909, 44.

6. 6. Lawrence Graham, The Senator and the Socialite: The True Story of America’s First Black Dynasty (New York: Harper Perennial, 2007), 368–369, 451–452.

7. 7. Compare to “Ladies’ and Children’s Wear Street and House Suits,” Harper’s Bazar, November 15, 1873, 728–729.

8. 8. “Mrs. Josephine B. Bruce,” Washington Bee, September 24, 1892, 1; “A Power at Tuskegee,” Colored American, March 24, 1900, 1.

9. 9. Faye E. Dudden, Serving Women: Household Service in Nineteenth-Century America (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press; Scranton, PA: distributed by Harper & Row, 1983), 51; Renée Huggett, Hair-Styles and Head Dresses (London: Batsford Academic and Educational, 1982), 51. For illustrations of hairstyles for servants in 1842 and 1844, see Richard Corson, Fashions in Hair: The First Five Thousand Years (New York: Hastings House, 1965), 519; Elizabeth L. O’Leary, At Beck and Call: The Representation of Domestic Servants in Nineteenth-Century American Painting (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1996), 167–168.

10. 10. Dominique Cocuzza, “Stella Blum Grant Report: The Dress of Free Women of Color in New Orleans, 1780–1840,” Dress 27, no. 1 (January 1, 2000): 80–82.

11. 11. Louis Antoine Collas (French, 1775–1856). Free Woman of Color Wearing a Tignon, 1829. Oil on canvas, 44 × 36 in. (111.7 × 91.4 cm). New Orleans Museum of Art; Kai Mercel, “Tignon,” The Fashion and Race Database; https://fashionandrace.org/database/tignon; Noliwe M. Rooks, “Black Hair, Self-Creation, and the Meaning of Freedom,” in Connecting Afro Futures: Fashion × Hair × Design. ed. Claudia Banz et al. (Bielefeld, Germany: Kerber Verlag, 2019), 16; Jonathan Michael Square, “Culture, Power, and the Appropriation of Creolized Aesthetics in the Revolutionary French Atlantic,” SX Salon 36, February 2021, http://smallaxe.net/sxsalon/discussions/culture-power-and-appropriation-creolized-aesthetics-revolutionary-french.

12. 12. Anna Arabindan-Kesson, “Dressed Up and Laying Bare: Fashion in the Shadow of the Market,” Vestoj 9 (undated): unpaginated.

13. 13. Jonathan Square cites the following example worn by a white woman in the Ludlow family of New York: Evening turban, U.S., ca. 1823. Cotton. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Bequest of Maria P. James, 1910, 11.60.248. Square, “Culture, Power, and the Appropriation of Creolized Aesthetics.” See also Jonathan Square, “Fashioning the Self,” Instagram post, September 21, 2022.

14. 14. Matthew Fox-Amato, Exposing Slavery: Photography, Human Bondage, and the Birth of Modern Visual Politics in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 35–42.

15. 15. Fox-Amato, Exposing Slavery, 38–41.

16. 16. Juliette Bowles, “Natural Hair Styling: A Symbol and Function of African-American Women’s Self-Creation” (Master’s thesis, College of William and Mary, 1990), 26–27; Deborah Willis and Carla Williams, The Black Female Body: A Photographic History (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2002), 128–137.

17. 17. Arabindan-Kesson, “Dressed Up and Laying Bare,” unpaginated; Shane White and Graham White, Stylin’: African American Expressive Culture from Its Beginnings to the Zoot Suit (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998), 56–57.

18. 18. Barbara Heath, “Space and Place within Plantation Quarters in Virginia, 1700–1825,” in Cabin, Quarter, Plantation: Architecture and Landscapes of North American Slavery, ed. Clifton Ellis and Rebecca Ginsburg (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010), 156–176; Esther C. White, “The Landscape of Enslavement: His Space, Their Places,” in Lives Bound Together: Slavery at George Washington’s Mount Vernon, ed. Susan Prendergast Schoelwer (Mount Vernon, VA: Mount Vernon Ladies Association, 2016), 89.

19. 19. Stephanie M. H Camp, Closer to Freedom: Enslaved Women and Everyday Resistance in the Plantation South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 28.

20. 20. Nigel Thrift, “Space,” Theory, Culture & Society 23 (2–3) (2006): 140.

21. 21. Thrift, “Space,” 143–144.

22. 22. Whitney Nell Stewart, “A Protected Place: The Material Culture of Home-Making for Stagville’s Enslaved Residents,” Winterthur Portfolio 54, no. 4 (December 2020): 248.

23. 23. Frances Ann Kemble, Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838–39 (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1863), 32.

24. 24. Eliza Ripley, Social Life in Old New Orleans, Being Recollections of My Girlhood (New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1912), 257.

25. 25. Saidiya Hartman, “Venus in Two Acts,” Small Axe 26 (June 2008): 11.

26. 26. Helen Bradley Foster, “New Raiments of Self”: African American Clothing in the Antebellum South (Oxford: Berg, 1997), 85–96, 110–124; Katie Knowles, “The Fabric of Fast Fashion: Enslaved Wearers and Makers as Designers in the American Fashion System,” in Black Designers in American Fashion, ed. Elizabeth Way (London: Bloomsbury Visual Arts, 2021), 22–23; Jonathan Michael Square, “Slavery’s Warp, Freedom’s Weft: A Look at the Work of Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Enslaved Fashion Makers and Their Legacies,” in Black Designers in American Fashion, ed. Elizabeth Way (London: Bloomsbury Visual Arts, 2021), 32–37.

27. 27. For example, “For Sale–A Negro Girl, well-qualified for pastry cooking, washer and ironer, and warranted to be a first-rate seamstress,” Nashville Union, January 7, 1853, 3.

28. 28. Tom Costa et al., “The Geography of Slavery in Virginia,” University of Virginia, http://www2.vcdh.virginia.edu/gos/essays.html.

29. 29. Jasmine Nichole Cobb, Picture Freedom: Remaking Black Visuality in the Early Nineteenth Century (New York: New York University Press, 2015), 118–119.

30. 30. Elizabeth Keckley, Behind the Scenes: or, Thirty Years a Slave, and Four Years in the White House (New York: G. W. Carleton & Co., 1868), 88, 101, 203.

31. 31. Born in Slavery: Slave Narratives from the Federal Writers’ Project, 1936–1938, https://www.loc.gov/collections/slave-narratives-from-the-federal-writers-project-1936-to-1938; Works Progress Administration, Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States from Interviews with Former Slaves (17 vols.) (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1941).

32. 32. Sharon Ann Musher, “The Other Slave Narratives: The Works Progress Administration Interviews,” in The Oxford Handbook of the African American Slave Narrative, ed. John Ernest (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 101–118.

33. 33. Juliette Harris, “Hair and Hairstyles,” in World of a Slave: Encyclopedia of the Material Life of Slaves in the United States, ed. Martha B. Katz-Hyman and Kym S. Rice (Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood, 2011), 265–271. For more on the use of bandanas, see White and White, Stylin’, 58–61.

34. 34. Federal Writers’ Project: Slave Narrative Project, vol. 4, Georgia, pt. 2, Garey-Jones, 1936, Manuscript/Mixed Material, Library of Congress. For a measured analysis in favor of using the materials in the Federal Writers’ Project: Slave Narrative Project as primary sources, see Stephanie E. Jones-Rogers, They Were Her Property: White Women as Slave Owners in the American South (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2019), xviii–xix.

35. 35. Federal Writers’ Project: Slave Narrative Project, vol. 4, Georgia, pt. 2, Garey-Jones, 1936, Manuscript/Mixed Material, Library of Congress; Federal Writers’ Project: Slave Narrative Project, vol. 2, Arkansas, pt. 7, Vaden-Young, 1936, Manuscript/Mixed Material, Library of Congress.

36. 36. Foster, “New Raiments of Self,” 252; White and White, Stylin’, 57.

37. 37. Foster, “New Raiments of Self,” 250–251; Federal Writers’ Project: Slave Narrative Project, vol. 4, Georgia, pt. 4, Telfair-Young with combined interviews of others, 1936, Manuscript/Mixed Material, Library of Congress.

38. 38. Foster, “New Raiments of Self,” 250–252.

39. 39. William H. Robinson, From Log Cabin to the Pulpit, or, Fifteen Years in Slavery (Eau Clair, WI: James H. Tifft, 1913), 45–46.

40. 40. Federal Writers’ Project: Slave Narrative Project, vol. 2, Arkansas, pt. 2, Cannon-Evans, 1936, Manuscript/Mixed Material, Library of Congress.

41. 41. Yi-Fu Tuan, Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977), 8–11; Thrift, “Space,” 143–144.

42. 42. [Portrait of a woman wearing a hat], 1860s. Photograph. Stephan Loewentheil Photograph Collection, #8043, Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library, SL_AFAM_0608_007.

43. 43. For example: [Unidentified freedwoman], ca. 1865. Tintype. International Center of Photography, New York, 67.2004; [Woman], ca. 1860. Ambrotype. Stephan Loewentheil Photograph Collection, #8043, Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library; [Woman wearing a bonnet], ca. 1850. Daguerreotype, Stephan Loewentheil Photograph Collection, #8043. Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library.

44. 44. Thomas H. Lindsey, [Small log cabin on the grounds of Biltmore House, with men, women, and children doing various jobs], 1897. Photograph. Robert Langmuir African American Photograph Collection, Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library.

45. 45. Cobb, Picture Freedom, 4–6.

46. 46. Cobb, Picture Freedom, 119–121.

47. 47. The Library Company of Philadelphia, P.9719. According to a note in the catalogue: “This caricature is similar in content to the prints from the series, ‘Life in Philadelphia’ (London Set), and has been catalogued as a part of the series.”

48. 48. Kimberlé Crenshaw, Defending the C.R.O.W.N.: Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Nappyness, Intersectionality Matters with Kimberlé Crenshaw (podcast), https://soundcloud.com/intersectionality-matters/ep-7-defending-the-crown-life-liberty-and-the-pursuit-of-nappyness.

49. 49. John Campbell, Negro-Mania: Being an Examination of the Falsely Assumed Equality of the Various Races of Men (Philadelphia: Campbell & Powers, 1851), passim; Peter Arrell Browne, The Classification of Mankind, by the Hair and Wool of Their Heads: With the Nomenclature of Human Hybrids (Philadelphia: J. H. Jones, 1852), passim.

50. 50. Federal Writers’ Project: Slave Narrative Project, vol. 4, Georgia, pt. 2, Garey-Jones, 1936, Manuscript/Mixed Material, Library of Congress; Federal Writers’ Project: Slave Narrative Project, vol. 2, Arkansas, pt. 3, Gadson-Isom, 1936, Manuscript/Mixed Material, Library of Congress.

51. 51. Edith Snook, “Beautiful Hair, Health, and Privilege in Early Modern England,” Journal for Early Modern Cultural Studies 15, no. 4 (Fall 2015): 38.

52. 52. Heather V. Vermeulen, “Race and Ethnicity: Mortal Coils and Hair-Raising Revolutions, Styling ‘Race’ in the Age of Enlightenment,” in A Cultural History of Hair in the Age of Enlightenment, ed. Margaret K. Powell and Joseph Roach (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2021), 136.

53. 53. Snook, “Beautiful Hair, Health, and Privilege in Early Modern England,” 38.

54. 54. Sharon Block, Colonial Complexions: Race and Bodies in Eighteenth-Century America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018), 77.

55. 55. Mathelinda Nabugodi, “Afro Hair in the Time of Slavery,” Studies in Romanticism 61, no. 1 (2022): 81–82.

56. 56. Peter A. Browne, Trichologia Mammalium; or, A Treatise on the Organization, Properties and Uses of Hair and Wool Together with an Essay upon the Raising and Breeding of Sheep (Philadelphia: J. H. Jones, 1853), 65–67.

57. 57. For example, “The Hair,” Scientific American, April 3, 1852, 229. See Sarah Cheang, “Roots: Hair and Race,” in Hair: Styling, Culture and Fashion, ed. Geraldine Biddle-Perry and Sarah Cheang (Oxford: Berg, 2008), 27–42.

58. 58. For example, Federal Writers’ Project: Slave Narrative Project, vol. 2, Arkansas, pt. 3, Gadson-Isom, 1936, Manuscript/Mixed Material, Library of Congress.

59. 59. Foster, “New Raiments of Self,” 253.

60. 60. Noliwe M. Rooks, Hair Raising: Beauty, Culture, and African American Women (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1996), 25.

61. 61. The term mulatto often referred to people of mixed European, African, and Native American descent. See A. B. Wilkinson, Blurring the Lines of Race and Freedom: Mulattoes and Mixed Bloods in English Colonial America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2020), 16–18.

62. 62. White and White, Stylin’, 47.

63. 63. Low, “Spatializing Culture,” 37.

64. 64. Louisa Picquet and Hiram Mattison, Louisa Picquet, the Octoroon: or, Inside Views of Southern Domestic Life (New York: Hiram Mattison, 1861), 17.

65. 65. Jones-Rogers, They Were Her Property, 97.

66. 66. Harriet A. Jacobs, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl (Boston: Published for the author, 1861), 118.

67. 67. Last Seen: Finding Family after Slavery, Villanova University, Villanova, PA, http://informationwanted.org.

68. 68. For descriptions of hair in missing person advertisements, see White and White, Stylin’, 41–45.

69. 69. Quotation from Sharon Block, “Creating Race on Colonial American Bodies,” virtual webinar, LeHigh University, March 5, 2021. See also Block, Colonial Complexions, 60–83.

70. 70. Block, Colonial Complexions, 65.

71. 71. “The Great African Hair Unkinker,” New York Times, February 9, 1859, 8.

72. 72. Martin H. Freeman, “The Educational Wants of the Free Colored People,” Anglo-African Magazine, January 1859, 116–117.

73. 73. Sojourner Truth, Olive Gilbert, and Frances W. Titus, Narrative of Sojourner Truth . . . (Battle Creek, MI: For the author, 1878), vii.

74. 74. “Value of Your Hair,” Washington Bee, November 17, 1888, 1.

75. 75. “The Negro His Own Enemy,” Washington Bee, April 28, 1894, 2.

76. 76. “Shall We Continue in the Old Ruts?,” State Capital (Springfield, IL), September 5, 1891, 1.

77. 77. Advertisements: Washington Bee, September 18, 1897, 7 (Kinkara, Hairoline); Washington Bee, December 31, 1898, 4 (Angeline); Washington Bee, July 22, 1899, 8 (Lee’s Take-Out Kink); “Beauty Conquers All,” Richmond Planet, December 10, 1898, 2 (Osiline); Richmond Planet, October 27, 1900, 2 (Straightine).

78. 78. Tiffany M. Gill, Beauty Shop Politics: African American Women’s Activism in the Beauty Industry (Champaign: University of Illinois Press 2010), 18.

79. 79. For example, “Hair-Dressing,” State Capital (Springfield, IL), August 29, 1891, 3, reprinted from New York Ledger.

80. 80. “Fashion Notes,” Washington Bee, April 16, 1892, 3; “It Is Fashionable,” Washington Bee, December 7, 1895, 8.

81. 81. “Imperial Hair Coloring,” Washington Bee, December 20, 1890, 4.

82. 82. Beverly Lowry, Her Dream of Dreams: The Rise and Triumph of Madam C. J. Walker (New York: Knopf Doubleday, 2011), 119–120. See “Rebecca E. Elliott,” The Freeman (Indianapolis), May 24, 1890, 7.

83. 83. “Mrs. George Birdsong Is the Agent for Mrs. Rebecca Elliott’s Hair Pomade and Hair Grower,” State Capital (Springfield, IL), June 6, 1891, 4.

84. 84. “Boston Chemical Company,” Colored American, October 1900, 332.

85. 85. “Hartona Remedy Company,” Colored American, November 1901, 82. Noliwe M. Rooks analyzes a similar advertisement by Crane and Company, Richmond, Virginia in Rooks, Hair Raising, 27–29.

86. 86. “Hartona Remedy Company,” Colored American, January 1903, 242.

87. 87. “Madame Delmore’s Hair Vigor,” Colored American, November 1901, 1.

88. 88. Dessilin Carteaux’s death year is unknown, but he is not listed with Christiana Carteaux in the 1850 Census.

89. 89. “Improvement in Champooing (sic) and Hair Dyeing, ‘Without Smutting,’” The Liberator, December 19, 1862, 3.

90. 90. “Hair Doctress,” Boston Evening Transcript, July 23, 1885, 6.

91. 91. T. Thomas Fortune, “Artist Bannister,” Providence News, November 10, 1896, 2.

92. 92. Juanita Holland, “‘Co-Workers in the Kingdom of Culture’: Edward Mitchell Bannister and the Boston Community of African-American Artists, 1848–1901” (PhD diss., New York, Columbia University, 1998), 14n4, 257, 345, chronology in appendix.

93. 93. William Wells Brown, The Black Man: His Antecedents, His Genius, and His Achievements (New York: Thomas Hamilton, 1863), 216; Holland, “‘Co-Workers in the Kingdom of Culture,’” 164; Juanita Holland, “To Be Free, Gifted, and Black: African American Artist Edward Mitchell Bannister,” International Review of African American Art 12, no. 1 (1995): 4–25, 12; Aston Gonzalez, Visualizing Equality: African American Rights and Visual Culture in the Nineteenth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2020), 183.

94. 94. George W. Forbes, “E. M. Bannister with Sketch of Earlier Artists,” 8, Edward Mitchell Bannister and George W. Forbes letters and manuscripts, Rare Books and Manuscripts Division, Boston Public Library.

95. 95. Edward Mitchell Bannister. Portrait of Christiana Carteaux Bannister, ca. 1860. Oil on panel. RISD Museum, Providence, Rhode Island; gift of the Edward M. Bannister Foundation, 2016.38.1. Sculptor Pablo Eduardo based his bust-length clay portrait (2002; Rhode Island State House) of her on the painting.

96. 96. “Improved Method of Champooing and Hair-Dyeing,” The Liberator, February 3, 1854, 4.

97. 97. “Champooing and Hair-Dyeing Saloon,” The Liberator, November 30, 1855, 4.

98. 98. E. M. Bannister probably to C. H. Brainerd, April 8, 1880, Boston Public Library, Rare Books and Manuscripts Division, Ch.F.6.77.

99. 99. “Hair Doctress, Madame Carteaux,” Boston Evening Transcript, January 12, 1874, 6; “Hair Doctress, Mme Carteaux,” Boston Evening Transcript, July 31, 1875, 3.

100. 100. “Madam (sic) Carteaux,” Boston Evening Transcript, April 21, 1883, 5.

101. 101. “Madame Carteaux,” Providence Journal, April 10, 1879, n.p.

102. 102. Forbes, “E. M. Bannister with Sketch of Earlier Artists”; “Oberlin Rescuers; Meeting of Colored Citizens of Boston,” The Liberator, June 10, 1859, 2. See also Naurice Frank Woods Jr., Insuperable Obstacles: The Impact of Racism on the Creative and Personal Development of Four Nineteenth-Century African-American Artists (Cincinnati, OH: Union Institute, 1993), 149; Martin Henry Blatt, Donald Yacovone, and Thomas J. Brown, eds., Hope and Glory: Essays on the Legacy of the Fifty-Fourth Massachusetts Regiment (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2001), 98; Gonzalez, Visualizing Equality, 184.

103. 103. Gonzalez, Visualizing Equality, 184.

104. 104. “Emancipation Day,” The Liberator, December 25, 1863, 3. See also Gonzalez, Visualizing Equality, 184–185.

105. 105. Sarah Josepha Hale to Christiana Carteaux, Philadelphia, January 13, 1852, Rare Books and Manuscripts Division, Ms. Am. 516, Boston Public Library.

106. 106. Untitled, The Liberator, January 20, 1860, 11.

107. 107. Barbara McCaskill and Caroline Gebhard, eds., Post-Bellum, Pre-Harlem: African American Literature and Culture, 1877–1919 (New York: New York University Press, 2006), 64; “Sanitary Fair of Colored Ladies,” The Liberator, October 21, 1864, 3–4, Edward Mitchell Bannister Papers, Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution.

108. 108. Jane Lancaster, “I Would Have Made Out Very Poorly Had It Not Been for Her,” Rhode Island History 59, no. 4 (2001): 107; Jane Lancaster, “At Long Last, A Tribute to Bannister,” Providence Journal, 2002, G1, 8; Aston Gonzalez, Visualizing Equality: African American Rights and Visual Culture in the Nineteenth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2020), 185.

109. 109. Forbes, “E. M. Bannister with Sketch of Earlier Artists,” 8.

110. 110. For the increase in women’s salons in the 1920s, see Kim Smith, “From Style to Place: The Emergence of the Ladies’ Hair Salon in the Twentieth Century,” in Hair: Styling, Culture and Fashion, ed. Geraldine Biddle-Perry and Sarah Cheang (Oxford: Berg, 2008), 55–65.

111. 111. “Bannister House (93 Benevolent Street),” Art in Ruins, https://artinruins.com/property/bannister-house-pvd.

112. 112. JerriAnne Boggis, Eve Allegra Raimon, and Barbara A. White, eds., Harriet Wilson’s New England: Race, Writing, and Region (Durham, NH: University of New Hampshire Press and Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 2007), 131; Karsonya Wise Whitehead, “Sarah Parker Remond,” in Encyclopedia of African American History, ed. Leslie M. Alexander and Walter C. Rucker, vol. 1 (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2010), 512–514; Ayana D. Byrd and Lori L. Tharps, Hair Story: Untangling the Roots of Black Hair in America (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2014, first published 2001), 75–76.

113. 113. Byrd and Tharps, Hair Story, 75–76.

114. 114. For example, see Untitled, The Liberator, June 10, 1859, 91; Ruth Bogin, “Sarah Parker Remond: Black Abolitionist from Salem,” Essex Institute Historical Collections 110, no. 22 (April 1974): 120–150; Dorothy Sterling, ed., We Are Your Sisters: Black Women in the Nineteenth Century (New York: W. W. Norton, 1984), 175–180.

115. 115. Ruth Bogin also notes that Caroline Remond Putnam was listed in the Salem Directory as a partner with “Mrs. C. Babcock” as “hairwork manufacturer.” Bogin, “Sarah Parker Remond: Black Abolitionist from Salem,” 148. The Remond Family papers are located at the Phillips Library at the Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, Massachusetts, MSS 271. According to the finding aid, the papers contain no mention of Carteaux Bannister or Bannister.

116. 116. “Madame Carteaux’s Nieces,” Boston Evening Transcript, July 14, 1885, 6.

117. 117. “Madame Carteaux’s Root & Herb Hair Preparation,” Providence Journal, June 17, 1901, n.p.

118. 118. “Madame Carteaux Bannister’s Niece,” Boston Evening Transcript, February 14, 1903, 24.

119. 119. P. Gabrielle Foreman and Katherine Flynn, “Mrs. H. E. Wilson, Mogul?,” Boston Globe, February 15, 2009, n.p.

120. 120. P. Gabrielle Foreman, “Recovered Autobiographies and the Marketplace: Our Nig’s Generic Genealogies and Harriet Wilson’s Entrepreneurial Enterprise,” in Harriet Wilson’s New England, ed. JerriAnne Boggis, Eve Allegra Raimon, and Barbara A. White (Durham: NH: University of New Hampshire Press and Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 2007), 128–130; “Use Mrs. Wilson’s Hair Regenerator and Hair Dressing,” Methodist Quarterly 20 (1860), unpaginated (approx. p. 715).

121. 121. Harriet E. Wilson, Our Nig: or, Sketches from the Life of a Free Black in a Two-Story White House, North (Boston: G. C. Rand & Avery, 1859), 72.

122. 122. Foreman, “Recovered Autobiographies and the Marketplace,” 128–130.

123. 123. Foreman and Flynn, “Mrs. H. E. Wilson, Mogul?”

124. 124. Foreman and Flynn, “Mrs. H. E. Wilson, Mogul?”

125. 125. Davarian L. Baldwin, Chicago’s New Negroes: Modernity, the Great Migration, and Black Urban Life (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), 56–57.

126. 126. Rooks, Hair Raising, 42–50.

127. 127. A’Lelia Perry Bundles, On Her Own Ground: The Life and Times of Madam C. J. Walker (New York: Scribner, 2001), 67.

128. 128. “Poro College,” Annie Malone Historical Society, https://www.anniemalonehistoricalsociety.org/poro-college.html.

129. 129. Baldwin, Chicago’s New Negroes, 69–70. For the interrelated histories of Malone’s and Walker’s businesses, see Gill, Beauty Shop Politics, 18–31.

130. 130. Baldwin, Chicago’s New Negroes, 75.

131. 131. Baldwin, Chicago’s New Negroes, 76–77.

Chapter 5

1. 1. Yi-Fu Tuan, Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977), 183.

2. 2. Kevin Hannam, Mimi Sheller, and John Urry, “Editorial: Mobilities, Immobilities and Moorings,” Mobilities 1, no. 1 (March 1, 2006): 13.

3. 3. The term “dwellings-in-motion” is from Hannam, Sheller, and Urry, “Editorial: Mobilities, Immobilities and Moorings,” 13.

4. 4. George R. Lawrence Co., “Dressing Child in Compartment,” ca. 1905. Photograph. Library of Congress, reproduction no. LC-USZ62–33524.

5. 5. For example, Byron Company, “Erie R.R. Car Interior,” 1899. Silver gelatin print. Museum of the City of New York, 93.1.1.4068.

6. 6. Mia Bay, Traveling Black: A Story of Race and Resistance (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2021), 42, 44, 113–118, 146.

7. 7. Mia Bay, To Tell the Truth Freely: The Life of Ida B. Wells (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2010), 45–54.

8. 8. “An American Steamship Line,” Patriot, April 15, 1891, 3; F. Chadwick, J. Kelley, Ridgely Hunt, John H. Gould, William H. Rideing, and A. E. Seaton, Ocean Steamships: A Popular Account of Their Construction, Development, Management and Appliances (New York: C. Scribner’s Sons, 1891); Philip Sutton, “Maury and the Menu: A Brief History of the Cunard Steamship Company,” New York Public Library Blog, June 30, 2011, https://www.nypl.org/blog/2011/06/30/maury-menu-brief-history-cunard-steamship-company.

9. 9. Kate Virginia Peyton, “My Blonde Wig,” Peterson’s Magazine, November 1876, 318.

10. 10. Jonathan Stafford, “Home on the Waves: Domesticity and Discomfort Aboard the Overland Route Steamship, 1842–1862,” Mobilities 14, no. 5 (September 3, 2019): 578–595.

11. 11. See Elizabeth L. Block, “Winslow Homer and Women’s Bathing Practices in Eagle Head, Manchester, Massachusetts (High Tide),” American Art 32, no. 2 (June 2018): 100–115.

12. 12. Mrs. C. Thompson, ed., Mrs. C. Thompson, Importer and Manufacturer of Wigs, Hair Jewelry, Ornamental Hair Work . . . (New York: Mrs. C. Thompson, 1883), 7, 10–11.

13. 13. Illustration, Harper’s Weekly, September 18, 1858, 608.

14. 14. W. B. Davidson, After the Bath, ca. 1898. Photograph. Library of Congress, reproduction no. LC-USZ62–70876.

15. 15. Margaret Guroff, The Mechanical Horse: How the Bicycle Reshaped American Life (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2016), 35–39; Einav Rabinovitch-Fox, Dressed for Freedom: The Fashionable Politics of American Feminism (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2021), 35.

16. 16. Guroff, The Mechanical Horse, 40; Rabinovitch-Fox, Dressed for Freedom, 39.

17. 17. Maud C. Cooke, Social Life: or, The Manners and Customs of Polite Society, Containing the Rules of Etiquette for All Occasions (Philadelphia: Co-operative Publishing Co., 1896), 349.

18. 18. Eve Kahn, Forever Seeing New Beauties: The Forgotten Impressionist Mary Rogers Williams, 1857–1907 (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2019), 86–87, 108–109.

19. 19. Kat Jungnickel, Bikes and Bloomers: Victorian Women Inventors and Their Extraordinary Cycle Wear (London: Goldsmiths Press, 2018), 96–114; “To Keep the Skirts and Trousers in Trim,” The Herald (Los Angeles), June 2, 1895, 7.

20. 20. Etiquette for Americans by a Woman of Fashion (Chicago: H. S. Stone and Co., 1898), 188.

21. 21. Rabinovitch-Fox, Dressed for Freedom, 37–38.

22. 22. Rabinovitch-Fox, Dressed for Freedom, 38.

23. 23. For example, Guroff, The Mechanical Horse, 43–44; Jungnickel, Bikes and Bloomers, 31–54; Rabinovitch-Fox, Dressed for Freedom, 37.

24. 24. “The Bloomer Girl’s Wedding,” May 21, 1896. Drawing. William H. Walker Cartoon Collection, MC068, Public Policy Papers, Department of Special Collections, Princeton University Library.

25. 25. “Wheelmen and Their Wheels,” Evening Star (Washington, DC), August 28, 1897, 19.

26. 26. Jungnickel, Bikes and Bloomers, 41.

27. 27. Frances E. Willard, A Wheel within a Wheel: How I Learned to Ride the Bicycle, with Some Reflections by the Way (New York: F. H. Revell Co., 1895), 74.

28. 28. John Wesley Hanson, Etiquette and Bicycling, for 1896 (Chicago: American Publishing House, 1896), 366.

29. 29. Etiquette for Americans by a Woman of Fashion, 187. For an example, see Sailor hat, 1883, straw and silk, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Brooklyn Museum Costume Collection at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 2009.300.2091.

30. 30. “Bicycle Girls and Their Summer Road Gowns,” San Francisco Call, May 29, 1898, 27.

31. 31. “Thousands Were in Line,” Referee and Cycle Trade Journal, May 31, 1895, unpaginated.

32. 32. Maria E. Ward, The Common Sense of Bicycling: Bicycling for Ladies (New York: Brentano’s, 1896), 97.

33. 33. May Bragdon, May Bragdon Diaries, Rare Books, Special Collections and Preservation, Rush Rhees Library, University of Rochester, https://maybragdon.lib.rochester.edu/about.

34. 34. For example, Alice Austen, [Daisy Elliott on a bicycle], ca. 1895. Photograph. Alice Austen Photograph Collection, Historic Richmond Town, 50.015.2513. See Bonnie Yochelson, Miss Alice Austen and Staten Island’s Gilded Age: A Biography in Photographs, digital exhibit, 2021, Gotham Center for New York City History, https://www.gothamcenter.org/exhibits/alice-austen.

35. 35. See Alice Austen, E.A.A. & Bicycle, 1893–1897. Glass plate negative. Historic Richmond Town, 50.015.5197.

36. 36. Alice Austen, Trude & I Masked, Short Skirts, 1891. Glass plate negative. Historic Richmond Town, 50.015.5462.

37. 37. See Yochelson, “Alice Austen, Satirist,” in Miss Alice Austen and Staten Island’s Gilded Age, https://www.gothamcenter.org/exhibits/alice-austen/alice-austen-satirist.

38. 38. See Yochelson, “Alice Austen, Satirist.”

39. 39. May Bragdon Diaries, December 17, 1896.

40. 40. May Bragdon Diaries, August 28, 1893.

41. 41. May Bragdon Diaries, July 22, 1896.

42. 42. May Bragdon Diaries, August 3, 1900.

43. 43. Andrew Ritchie, “The League of American Wheelmen, Major Taylor and the ‘Color Question’ in the United States in the 1890s,” Culture, Sport, Society 6, no. 2/3 (June 1, 2003): 25.

44. 44. Anya Jabour, “How Bicycles Liberated Women in Victorian America,” Commonplace, fig. 3, accessed May 10, 2022, http://commonplace.online/article/how-bicycles-liberated-women-in-victorian-america.

45. 45. For example, Hatch Lith. Co. Velocipede Tobacco, ca. 1874. Photograph. Library of Congress (call. no. LOT 10618-30 [P&P]); Velocipede Hair Oil, ca. 1869. Photograph. Library of Congress, call. no. LOT 10632–3 [item] [P&P].

46. 46. “Bicycle Girls and Their Summer Road Gowns,” San Francisco Call, May 29, 1898, 27.

47. 47. The Bicycle Rest. Vogue, March 12, 1896, 190–191 (illus.).

48. 48. “Remington Bicycles,” Vogue, March 12, 1896, xiv.

49. 49. Sally Ledger, “The New Woman and Feminist Fictions,” in The Cambridge Companion to the Fin de Siècle, ed. Gail Marshall (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 153.

50. 50. Carolyn L. Kitch, The Girl on the Magazine Cover: The Origins of Visual Stereotypes in American Mass Media (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 37–46; Rabinovitch-Fox, Dressed for Freedom, 13–21.

51. 51. Dolores Mitchell, “The ‘New Woman’ as Prometheus: Women Artists Depict Women Smoking,” Woman’s Art Journal 12, no. 1 (Spring/Summer 1991): 3.

52. 52. Rabinovitch-Fox, Dressed for Freedom, 15–16.

53. 53. “Imperial Whitener,” Richmond Planet, June 9, 1900, 8.

54. 54. Rabinovitch-Fox, Dressed for Freedom, 22–25.

55. 55. Juliette Harris and Pamela Johnson, eds., Tenderheaded: A Comb-Bending Collection of Hair Stories (New York: Pocket Books, 2001), 154.

56. 56. Rabinovitch-Fox, Dressed for Freedom, 22–25.

57. 57. Patricia Marks, Bicycles, Bangs, and Bloomers: The New Woman in the Popular Press (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1990), 147.

58. 58. Ledger, “The New Woman and Feminist Fictions,” 154; Marks, Bicycles, Bangs, and Bloomers, 147.

59. 59. For example, “A Pointer on the Side,” Washington Bee, March 28, 1896, 7.

60. 60. Tracy J. R. Collins, “Athletic Fashion, ‘Punch,’ and the Creation of the New Woman,” Victorian Periodicals Review 43, no. 3 (2010): 309–335; Marks, Bicycles, Bangs, and Bloomers, 165–166.

61. 61. Keystone View Company. The New Woman—Wash Day, ca. 1901. Photograph. Library Company of Philadelphia, P.9998; Sew on Your Own Buttons, I’m Going for a Ride, ca. 1899. Photograph. Library Company of Philadelphia, P.9897.

62. 62. William Herman Rau, The New Woman Barber, ca. 1897. Photograph. The Library Company of Philadelphia, P.2008.9.

63. 63. Victoria Sherrow, Encyclopedia of Hair: A Cultural History (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2006), 138.

64. 64. William A. Woodbury, Hair Dressing and Tinting: A Text-Book of the Fundamental Principles Showing the Ready Adaptability of the Ever Changing Mode of Wearing the Hair, for Professional and Private Use (New York: G. W. Dillingham Co., 1915), 13.

65. 65. Bay, To Tell the Truth Freely, 76.

66. 66. Bay, To Tell the Truth Freely, 82–108.

67. 67. Leigh Raiford, “Ida B. Wells and the Shadow Archive,” in Pictures and Progress: Early Photography and the Making of African American Identity, ed. Maurice O. Wallace and Shawn Michelle Smith (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2012), 303–310.

68. 68. Ida B. Wells, Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in All Its Phases (New York: The New York Age Print, 1892).

69. 69. Raiford, “Ida B. Wells and the Shadow Archive,” 314.

70. 70. Ida B. Wells, The Reason Why the Colored American Is Not in the World’s Columbian Exposition (Chicago: Ida B. Wells, 1893).

71. 71. See Ida B. Wells-Barnett with Her Four Children, 1909. Photograph. Hanna Holborn Gray Special Collections Research Center, University of Chicago Library.

72. 72. Minnie Fiske in “Magda.” Photograph. National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, 234377.

73. 73. Fred Holland Day, Minnie Maddern Fiske, 1898. Photograph. Library of Congress, Washington, DC, PH-Day (F.H.), no. 686 (A size) [P&P].

74. 74. Mrs. Fiske: Tess of the d’Urbervilles, ca. 1898. Lithograph by Strobridge Lithographing Co., after photograph by Napoleon Sarony. Jay T. Last Collection, The Huntington Library, San Marino, California.

75. 75. House of Worth, Paris, “Wheat Dress,” 1901. National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC; gift of Olive Kooken, 234377.

76. 76. See Ernest Haskell (U.S., 1876–1925). Fiske, 1900. Drawing by Haskell. Color lithograph by J. Ottmann Lithographing Company, Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, DC, digital ID var 0422 (no reproduction number), http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/var.0422.

77. 77. William Merritt Chase (U.S. 1849–1916). Minnie Maddern Fiske, 1910. Oil on canvas. Museum of the City of New York, Bequest of Daniel Frohman, Esq., 41.50.1325.

Chapter 6

1. 1. Nigel Thrift, “Space,” Theory, Culture & Society 23, no. 2/3 (2006): 143–144; Michel Foucault, Security, Territory, Population: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1977–78, ed. Michel Senellart, trans. Graham Burchell (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), passim.

2. 2. See, for example, Norm Bolotin and Christine Laing, The World’s Columbian Exposition: The Chicago World’s Fair of 1893 (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2002); Christopher Robert Reed, All the World Is Here! The Black Presence at White City (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002); Rachel Boyle, “Types and Beauties: Evaluating and Exoticizing Women on the Midway Plaisance at the 1893 Columbian Exposition,” Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 108, no. 1 (2015): 18–19.

3. 3. Carolyn Schiller Johnson, “Public Anthropology ‘at the Fair’: 1893 Origins, 21st-Century Opportunities,” American Anthropologist 113, no. 4 (2011): 644–646.

4. 4. Judith K. Brodsky and Ferris Olin, Junctures in Women’s Leadership: The Arts (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2018), 1–21; Paul Greenhalgh, Ephemeral Vistas: The Expositions Universelles, Great Exhibitions, and World’s Fairs, 1851–1939 (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1988), 178.

5. 5. Anna R. Paddon and Sally Turner, “African Americans and the World’s Columbian Exposition,” Illinois Historical Journal 88, no. 1 (1995): 19–36; John McCluskey, “Journey to Frederick Douglass’s Chicago Jubilee: Colored American Day, August 25, 1893,” in Roots of the Black Chicago Renaissance: New Negro Writers, Artists, and Intellectuals, 1893–1930, ed. Richard A. Courage and Christopher Robert Reed (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2021), 42–56.

6. 6. Julie K. Brown, “Missing Persons: Identity Photography and Workers at the 1893 Chicago World’s Columbian Exposition,” History of Photography 44, no. 1 (November 2020): 36–49.

7. 7. Timothy J. Gilfoyle, “White Cities, Linguistic Turns, and Disneylands: The New Paradigms of Urban History,” Reviews in American History 26, no. 1 (1998): 175.

8. 8. For example, J. W. Buel, The Magic City: A Massive Portfolio of Original Photographic Views of the Great World’s Fair and Its Treasures of Art, Including a Vivid Representation of the Famous Midway Plaisance (St. Louis, MO: Historical Publishing Co., 1894), passim; Teresa Dean, White City Chips (Chicago: Warren Publishing Co., 1895), passim.

9. 9. Benjamin Cummings Truman, History of the World’s Fair, Being a Complete and Authentic Description of the Columbian Exposition from Its Inception (New York: E. B. Treat, 1893), 553.

10. 10. Report of the President to the Board of Directors of the World’s Columbian Exposition: Chicago, 1892–1893 (Chicago: Rand, McNally & Co., 1898), 485. There does not appear to have been a hairdresser for women on the fairgrounds.

11. 11. Moses P. Handy, The Official Directory of the World’s Columbian Exposition (Chicago: W. B. Conkey Co., 1893), 234; Willard A. Smith, ed., World’s Columbian Exposition, 1893: Official Catalogue, Part VII. Transportation Exhibits Building, Annex, Special Building and the Lagoon (Chicago: W. B. Conkey Co., 1893), 39. There do not appear to be any extant images of the display of hair work, coiffures, and accessories of the toilet in the Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building.

12. 12. Catalogue of Tiffany & Co’s Exhibit (New York: Tiffany & Co., 1893), 16–17; John Loring, Tiffany Jewels (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1999), 122–143.

13. 13. Truman, History of the World’s Fair, 219.

14. 14. For types of functional and ornamental combs, see Jen Cruse, The Comb: Its History and Development a Book by Jen Cruse (London: Robert Hale & Co., 2007).

15. 15. World’s Columbian Exposition 1893. Official Catalogue: Exhibition of the German Empire (Berlin: Imperial Commission, 1893), 200–201.

16. 16. “Austria on Display at the Chicago World’s Columbian Exposition, 1893: A Collection of Sources,” Journal of Austrian-American History 1, no. 2 (July 2017): 117–127; Untitled, American Hairdresser, June 1896, 14.

17. 17. Ellen D. Bacon, “Hair,” in Report of the Committee on Awards of the World’s Columbian Commission (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1901), 742; Trumbull White and William Igleheart, The World’s Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893 (St. Louis: P. W. Ziegler & Co., 1893), 19.

18. 18. Bacon, “Hair,” 737–738. Mr. E. Burnham, owner of a large firm in Chicago, was the winner for the United States.

19. 19. World’s Columbian Exposition Illustrated, April 1893, xiv.

20. 20. Richard J. Murphy, Authentic Visitors’ Guide to the World’s Columbian Exposition and Chicago. (Chicago: Union News Co., 1893), 13, 62, 63.

21. 21. “The Hair Trade: Making Merchandise of the Glory of Woman,” New York Times, May 15, 1870: 8; “Substitute for Hair,” Houston Daily Union, November 18, 1870. “A Few Objections to the Use of False Hair,” Manufacturer and Builder: A Practical Journal, 1873, 163.

22. 22. Broadside for C. S. Dyer and Son, Cincinnati, Ohio, fall 1872. Cincinnati Museum (no accession number); “Imitation of Human Hair,” The Sun (New York), February 8, 1871.

23. 23. United States Bureau of the Census, The Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1891/1892), lxii. The calculation: all hair imports (human and nonhuman) $2,408,733; subtracted $159,184 for only human hair.

24. 24. “A Brooklyn Industry,” Brooklyn Eagle, July 4, 1886, 13; George S. Cole, A Complete Dictionary of Dry Goods and History of Silk, Cotton, Linen, Wool and Other Fibrous Substances (Chicago: W. B. Conkey Co., 1892), 173.

25. 25. “Wigs and Wigmakers,” Otsego Farmer (Otsego, NY), June 30, 1888, 7.

26. 26. White and Igleheart, The World’s Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893, 171, 191–205.

27. 27. Helen Cowie, Victims of Fashion: Animal Commodities in Victorian Britain (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2022), 170–173; “Pomades and Oils,” Scientific American, June 13, 1868, 370.

28. 28. “Pomades and Oils,” 370.

29. 29. Halsey Cooley Ives, The Government Collection of Original Views of the World’s Columbian Exposition (Chicago: Preston Publishing Co., 1895), unpaginated; Mrs. Potter Palmer (Bertha Palmer) et al., Rand, McNally & Co.’s Handbook of the World’s Columbian Exposition (Chicago: Rand, McNally & Co., 1893), 212.

30. 30. Ives, The Government Collection of Original Views of the World’s Columbian Exposition, unpaginated.

31. 31. For example, Tudor Jenks, The Century World’s Fair Book for Boys and Girls; Being the Adventures of Harry and Philip with Their Tutor, Mr. Douglass, at the World’s Columbian Exposition (New York: Century Co., 1893).

32. 32. Mary Kavanaugh Oldham Eagle, ed., The Congress of Women Held in the Woman’s Building, World Columbian Exposition, Chicago, U.S.A., 1893 with Portraits, Biographies, and Addresses (Philadelphia: S. I. Bell, 1894), 518, 558, 592, 598.

33. 33. Boyle, “Types and Beauties,” 12–13.

34. 34. “Human Hair,” Eclectic Magazine of Foreign Literature, June 1853, 207.

35. 35. Celia Thaxter to Elizabeth D. Pierce, March 11, 1873, in Celia Thaxter, Letters of Celia Thaxter, ed. Annie Fields and Rose Lamb (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1895), 45.

36. 36. John Joseph Flinn, The Best Things to Be Seen at the World’s Fair (Chicago: Columbia Guide Co., 1893), 65, 143–144.

37. 37. C. D. Arnold and H. D. Higinbotham, Official Views of the World’s Columbian Exposition (Chicago: Press Chicago Photo-gravure Co., 1893), plate 92.

38. 38. John Joseph Flinn, Official Guide to Midway Plaisance (Chicago: Columbian Guide Co., 1893), 6–8.

39. 39. “A Harvest of Human Hair,” Walker Lake Bulletin (Hawthorne, NV), October 13, 1897, 1.

40. 40. Aimé Bouis, “Cheveux et postiches,” Le livre d’or de Marseille, de son commerce et de ses industries (Marseille: A. Ged, 1907), 256.

41. 41. Johanna Wassholm and Anna Sundelin, “Gendered Encounters in Mobile Trade: Human Hair as a Commodity in the Nordics, 1870–1914,” History of Retailing and Consumption 6, no. 2 (May 2020): 123.

42. 42. Helen Sheumaker, Love Entwined: The Curious History of Hairwork in America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007), 97–99.

43. 43. “False Hair: Where It Comes From,” London Review, September 23, 1865, 328–330, reprinted in “False Hair, and Where It Comes From,” Godey’s Lady’s Book and Magazine, June 1866, 510.

44. 44. Mark Campbell, Self-Instructor in the Art of Hair Work: Dressing Hair, Making Curls, Switches, Braids, and Hair Jewelry of Every Description (New York: M. Campbell, 1867), 261.

45. 45. Campbell, Self-Instructor, 261.

46. 46. United States Bureau of the Census, The Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1866/1867), 116.

47. 47. The United States reexported a small amount of uncleaned hair ($1,823 worth) to Bremen, Germany, and to England. United States Bureau of the Census, The Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States (1866/1867), 100.

48. 48. “Human Hair Trade,” Brooklyn Daily Eagle, May 18, 1866, 12; “The Trade in Human Hair,” Scientific American, March 27, 1869, 198; “The Trade in Locks,” Brooklyn Daily Eagle, June 21, 1869, 12.

49. 49. “The Trade in Human Hair,” New York Times, May 6, 1877, 9.

50. 50. Zdatny, Fashion, Work, and Politics in Modern France, 7.

51. 51. Zdatny, Fashion, Work, and Politics in Modern France, 7.

52. 52. “The Trade in Human Hair,” New York Times, May 6, 1877, 9.

53. 53. “The Trade in Human Hair,” New York Times, December 13, 1880, 2.

54. 54. “The Human Hair Industry in Paris,” Scientific American, April 28, 1894, 259.

55. 55. Report of the Committee on Awards of the World’s Columbian Commission (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1901), 731–737.

56. 56. Report of the Committee on Awards of the World’s Columbian Commission, 738–740.

57. 57. Report of the Committee on Awards of the World’s Columbian Commission, 739.

58. 58. United States Bureau of the Census, The Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States (1891/1892), lxii, 732. I thank Gulnar Nagashybayeva for assistance with this information.

59. 59. “Human Hair,” 207; “A Harvest of Human Hair,” Walker Lake Bulletin (Hawthorne, NV), October 13, 1897: 1.

60. 60. Doggett’s New-York City Directory (New York: J. Doggett Jr., 1845/1846), passim. See, for example, “Human Hair,” Perrysburg Journal (Perrysburg, OH), May 20, 1854, 1.

61. 61. Alexander Rowland, The Human Hair, Popularly and Physiologically Considered with Special Reference to Its Preservation, Improvement and Adornment, and the Various Modes of Its Decoration in All Countries (London: Piper Brothers Co., 1853), 158.

62. 62. “Human Hair as an Article of Trade,” Southern Planter, February 1859, 107.

63. 63. “The Trade in Human Hair,” 198.

64. 64. “Home and Foreign Trade,” New York Times, August 16, 1875, 5.

65. 65. United States Bureau of the Census, The Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1874/1875, published in 1876), 700.

66. 66. United States Bureau of the Census, The Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States, 739–740.

67. 67. United States Bureau of the Census, The Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States, 700.

68. 68. United States Bureau of the Census, The Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States.

69. 69. “A Few Objections to the Use of False Hair,” 163.

70. 70. United States Department of the Treasury, Bureau of Statistics. Annual Report and Statements of the Chief of the Bureau of Statistics on the Commerce and Navigation of the United States for the Fiscal Year Ended 1882 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1882), 58.

71. 71. Broadside for C. S. Dyer and Son, importers of human hair, 1872, Cincinnati Museum, no accession number.

72. 72. “Professions for Women,” Harper’s Bazar, October 8, 1870, 647.

73. 73. Campbell, Self-Instructor, 261; “False Hair, and Where It Comes From,” 508–510.

74. 74. James Greenwood, In Strange Company; Being the Experiences of a Roving Correspondent (London: Henry S. King & Co., 1873), 145.

75. 75. Charles Henri Leonard, The Hair: Its Growth, Care, Diseases and Treatment (Detroit, MI: C. Henri Leonard, Medical Book Publisher, 1881), 10.

76. 76. Campbell, Self-Instructor, 261.

77. 77. “Buying Human Hair,” Weekly Messenger (St. Martinsville, LA), March 23, 1895, 2; Campbell, Self-Instructor, 261.

78. 78. “False Hair: Where It Comes From,” London Review, September 23, 1865, 330; “Human Hair Trade,” Brooklyn Daily Eagle, May 18, 1866, 12; “Market for Human Hair,” Kootenai Herald (Kootenai, ID), July 25, 1891, 1; Rowland, The Human Hair, 158.

79. 79. Untitled, American Hairdresser, December 1896, 3.

80. 80. Osborne, Garrett, and Co., Hairdressers’ Weekly Journal, July 28, 1883, 491.

81. 81. Mrs. C. Thompson, ed., Mrs. C. Thompson, Importer and Manufacturer of Wigs, Hair Jewelry, Ornamental Hair Work . . . (New York: Mrs. C. Thompson, 1883), 42.

82. 82. “The Hair Trade:” Making Merchandise of the Glory of Woman,” New York Times, May 15, 1870: 8; Cole, A Complete Dictionary of Dry Goods and History of Silk, Cotton, Linen, Wool and Other Fibrous Substances, 174.

83. 83. Wassholm and Sundelin, “Gendered Encounters in Mobile Trade,” 118–136.

84. 84. Wassholm and Sundelin, “Gendered Encounters in Mobile Trade,” 123.

85. 85. Wassholm and Sundelin, “Gendered Encounters in Mobile Trade,” 123.

86. 86. Wassholm and Sundelin, “Gendered Encounters in Mobile Trade,” 120.

87. 87. Wassholm and Sundelin, “Gendered Encounters in Mobile Trade,” 121.

88. 88. Wassholm and Sundelin, “Gendered Encounters in Mobile Trade,” 123–124.

89. 89. For example, Monthly Report of the Deputy Special Commissioner of the Revenue, in Charge of the Bureau of Statistics, Treasury Department, September 1869, 134, Warshaw Collection of Business Americana, Category Commission Merchants box 3, folder 6, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution.

90. 90. Sheumaker, Love Entwined, 151–152; Wassholm and Sundelin, “Gendered Encounters in Mobile Trade,” 124–125.

91. 91. Emma Tarlo, Entanglement: The Secret Lives of Hair (London: Oneworld Publications, 2016), 42.

92. 92. Tarlo, Entanglement, 41.

93. 93. Sheumaker, Love Entwined, 154; Wassholm and Sundelin, “Gendered Encounters in Mobile Trade,” 126; Zdatny, Fashion, Work, and Politics in Modern France, 8.

94. 94. Tarlo, Entanglement, 50–51; Zdatny, Fashion, Work, and Politics in Modern France, 7–8.

95. 95. Wassholm and Sundelin, “Gendered Encounters in Mobile Trade,” 128.

96. 96. “The Hair Trade: Making Merchandise of the Glory of Woman,” 8.

97. 97. “Gleanings and Gossip,” Hartford Daily Courant, October 26, 1870.

98. 98. “Human Hair—A Trade and Its Tricks,” Phrenological Journal and Science of Health (June 1873): 56. I thank Kathy Woodrell for her assistance locating this article.

99. 99. “Human Hair Market,” Daily Independent (Elko, NV), November 16, 1889, 2.

100. 100. “Human Hair Market,” 2.

101. 101. Untitled, American Hairdresser, January 1896, 20–21.

102. 102. Greenwood, In Strange Company, 143–144.

103. 103. Rowland, The Human Hair, 159–160.

104. 104. “Mercantile Miscellanies: Economy and Liberality,” Merchants’ Magazine and Commercial Review, March 1, 1863, 267; “The Trade in Human Hair,” 198.; “Gathering Human Hair in France,” New York Times, August 25, 1882, 3.

105. 105. Charles Géniaux, “The Human Hair Harvest in Brittany,” Wide World Magazine, February 1900), 430–436.

106. 106. Campbell, Self-Instructor, 261–262; “False Hair: Where It Comes From,” 510; Alf Hiltebeitel and Barbara D. Miller, eds., Hair: Its Power and Meaning in Asian Cultures (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998), 144; “The Human Hair Industry in Paris,” 259.

107. 107. “A Few Objections to the Use of False Hair,” 163; Hiltebeitel and Miller, Hair, 145; “The Trade in Human Hair,” 198.

108. 108. “The Trade in Human Hair,” 198.

109. 109. Leonard, The Hair, 10.

110. 110. “Where False Hair Is Obtained,” Russellville Democrat (Russellville, AR), December 9, 1880, 1; “Human Hair from Canton,” New York Times, September 28, 1890, 17.

111. 111. “Where False Hair Is Obtained,” 1.

112. 112. “False Bangs,” Salt Lake Herald, April 24, 1883, 2.

113. 113. Tarlo, Entanglement, 56–59.

114. 114. “The Chinese Trade in Human Hair,” June 27, 1877, 5, in United States Bureau of the Census, The Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States (1874/1875), 78.

115. 115. “Chinese Hair in Puffs: Big Trade Grows Up under Demand of American Women,” New York Times, May 15, 1909, 7; “Decline of a Strange Trade,” New York Times, October 15, 1916, SM18.

116. 116. For coarse hair, “L. Shaw,” New York Herald, July 13, 1873, 1; for Mexican hair, “The Commerce in Human Hair,” Times (London), October 10, 1868, 4.

117. 117. “The Human Hair Industry in Paris,” 259.

118. 118. “Blonde Hair and Other,” New York Times, September 28, 1890, 8; “Human Hair Supplies,” Dodgeville Chronicle (Dodgeville, WI), January 15, 1875, 4; “The Trade in False Hair,” New York Times, July 19, 1882, 3.

119. 119. “Back Hair,” New York Times, October 9, 1884, 4.

120. 120. “Human Hair Supplies: An Impending Crisis in the Market,” New York Times, December 13, 1874, 4.

121. 121. “False Hair: Where It Comes From,” 329.

122. 122. “The Trade in Human Hair,” 198.

123. 123. Edwin Creer and Alfred M. Sutton, Boardwork; or, The Art of Wigmaking (London: R. Hovenden, 1903), 24–25.

124. 124. “Local Items,” Daily Phoenix (Columbia, SC), June 5, 1872, 2.

125. 125. For hairwork and jewelry, see Sheumaker, Love Entwined, passim.

126. 126. Addie L. Contrelli to Lenette E. Wilson, October 22, 1883, Addie L. Contrelli Letters, 1883–1884, The Newberry Library, Chicago.

127. 127. Addie L. Contrelli to Lenette E. Wilson, August 29, 1883.

128. 128. Addie L. Contrelli to Lenette E. Wilson, October 1, 1883.

129. 129. Addie L. Contrelli to Lenette E. Wilson, August 29, 1883.

130. 130. Addie L. Contrelli to Lenette E. Wilson, January 9, 1884.

131. 131. Kevin Hannam, Mimi Sheller, and John Urry, “Editorial: Mobilities, Immobilities and Moorings,” Mobilities 1, no. 1 (March 1, 2006): 5.

132. 132. Addie L. Contrelli to Lenette E. Wilson, August 29, 1883.

133. 133. James Faulconbridge and Allison Hui, “Traces of a Mobile Field: Ten Years of Mobilities Research,” Mobilities 11, no. 1 (January 1, 2016): 5; Hannam, Sheller, and Urry, “Editorial: Mobilities, Immobilities and Moorings,” 1.

Chapter 7

1. 1. Yi-Fu Tuan, Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977), 4.

2. 2. Aimé Bouis, “Cheveux et postiches,” Le livre d’or de Marseille, de son commerce et de ses industries (Marseille: A. Ged, 1907), 256.