The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought

Ibn Sina, Abu ‘Ali (980–1037)

Known as Avicenna in the Christian West, Abu ‘Ali b. Sina is probably the most influential Muslim philosopher and the key figure of Islamic Aristotelianism. Political philosophy as part of practical wisdom (al-ḥikma al-‘amaliyya) appears to be a minor constituent of his thought, which is dominated by metaphysical issues. The final chapters (10:2–5) of his Kitab al-Shifa’ (The book of the cure) provide a summary account of his political teaching.

According to Ibn Sina, a human being cannot exist without companions and helpers who assist him in satisfying his needs. Human beings thus need to establish cities and live in communities. Companionship, in turn, leads to transactions (mu‘āmalāt), which must be conducted in accordance with the tradition of justice (sunnat al-‘adl). Such a tradition can be established only by a prophet, who is recognized through his miracles. The inhabitants of cities comprise three groups: governors (mudabbirūn), artisans (ṣunnā‘), and guardians (ḥafaẓa). Each group has its own hierarchy. Every man occupies a specific station and brings some particular benefit to the city. No one should exploit another or receive his subsistence without labor, except the sick and weak, who should be placed together with an appointed guardian.

The city should have at its disposal public funds raised by collecting a certain portion of the profit made through transactions and by confiscating the property of those who desert the tradition. These funds should be used for the common good and maintenance of guardians. Occupations that imply a transfer of property without mutual benefit (such as gambling), harm somebody (such as theft and solicitation), or intrude on public benefit (such as usury) should be forbidden. Likewise, pursuing objectives that contradict the fundamental principles of the city is forbidden. Examples are fornication and sodomy: they undermine the principle of marriage and family, upon which the survival of humankind depends.

The prophet, who founds the tradition, is succeeded by a vicegerent (khalīfa). Direct appointment of the vicegerent by his predecessor is preferable to his appointment by the unanimous decision of a group of elders, because such an appointment will prevent disagreement, division, and dissent among citizens. The vicegerent must be independent in his decisions; possess an innate intellect and noble character traits, such as courage and purity in act and thought; and have proper governing skills. Hence whoever has a more powerful intellect and nobler character traits and is better at governing is more deserving to be a vicegerent. The vicegerent also must know the law (shari‘a) better than anyone else. However, people must obey the vicegerent even if he has only some of the required qualifications (namely, if he does not possess an exceptionally powerful intellect, or if he possesses only few—but not all—noble character traits); in this case, he can be regarded as vicegerent only in some aspects. Those who refuse to recognize the vicegerent should be persuaded to do so by force or wealth (i.e., gifts). If this does not work, other citizens should fight and kill them; if they can fight these renegades but do not, they disobey God. After faith in the Prophet, allegiance to the victorious vicegerent by defending his right by every possible means is the next best way to be close to God.

The vicegerent’s duty is to perform the acts of worship (‘ibādāt), such as public prayers and festivals; perform transactions that support the pillars of the city; and create and lead public enterprises that prevent injustice and treachery (e.g., public executions of criminals). He also must prevent dangerous or risky transactions, thus defending the inhabitants of the city and their property. The vicegerent must be moderate in his appetites, temperament, and the way he governs, choosing the golden mean (the medium between extremes) whenever possible. He must achieve happiness by theoretical wisdom. If he possesses the aforementioned qualities and habits, then he truly can be regarded as the human lord (rabb insānī), the ruler of the Earth, and God’s vicegerent.

Ibn Sina’s political teaching, evidently influenced by Plato’s Republic and the Shi‘i doctrine of the imamate, has come down to us as a set of brief remarks on three interconnected issues: government of the city, prophecy, and vicegerency. Although Ibn Sina was deeply involved in practical politics, he never developed his seminal political ideas into an elaborate system, or if he did, he never put it into writing.