acetic acid organic acid formed by bacterial and fungal fermentation of sugars. Vinegar contains diluted acetic acid.
adenosine triphosphate (adenosine-5’-triphosphate, ATP) polynucleotide that is the biochemical source of energy production in living cells. Among other substances, it can be transformed into the 5’-ribonucleotides inosinate, adenylate, and guanylate, which are associated with synergistic umami.
adenylate adenosine-5’-monophosphate (AMP), a salt of the nucleic acid adenylic acid; synergizes with glutamate to enhance umami; found especially in fish, shellfish, squid, and tomatoes.
adenylic acid nucleic acid; its salts, adenylates, are a source of umami synergy.
Ajinomoto international Japanese company that was founded in 1908 by the Japanese chemist who identified umami, Kikunae Ikeda, together with the entrepreneur Saburosuke Suzuki. Its primary product is MSG, which is used worldwide as a taste enhancer.
alanine amino acid with a sweetish taste.
alapyridaine tasteless chemical substance found in beef stock; enhances umami.
alkaloid one of a group of basic chemical compounds that are rich in nitrogen. The bitter-tasting substances caffeine and quinine are alkaloids.
allec type of fermented fish paste; made from the dregs left over from the production of the classic fish sauce garum.
allostery biochemical expression for the condition in which a substance can regulate the function of a protein by binding to it on a site different from the main active site. Simultaneous binding of glutamate and 5’-ribonucleotides to the umami receptor and the resulting synergy in stimulating the receptor is an example of allostery.
amino acid small molecule made up of between ten and forty atoms; in addition to carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, it always contains an amino group. Amino acids are the fundamental building blocks of proteins. Examples include glycine, glutamic acid, alanine, proline, and arginine. Nature makes use of twenty different specific amino acids to construct proteins, which are chains of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds. Short chains are called polypeptides and long ones proteins. In food, amino acids are often found bound together in proteins and also as free amino acids that can have an effect on taste. An example is glutamic acid, which is the basis of umami. Of the twenty natural amino acids, there are nine, known as the essential amino acids, that cannot be produced by the human body and that we must therefore obtain from our food (valine, leucine, lysine, histidine, isoleucine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, and tryptophan). Amino acids are chiral molecules, meaning that they are found in two versions that are chemically identical but are mirror images of each other. They are referred to as left-turning (L-amino acids) and right-turning (D-amino acids). Their tastes can vary depending on which way they turn.
ankimo Japanese expression for liver from monk-fish (ankō, Lophius piscatorius).
ao-nori species of green alga that is similar to sea lettuce.
Apicius, Marcus Gavius legendary Roman gourmet who lived in the first century CE, to whom authorship of the comprehensive ancient work on the culinary arts De re coquinaria is popularly attributed. The extensive use of an umami-rich ingredient, garum (q.v.), in this collection of recipes is evidence of an early intuitive awareness of the fifth taste in Western cuisine.
arginine amino acid with a bitter taste.
aspartic acid amino acid; its salt, aspartate, imparts a little umami, about 8 percent as much as glutamate.
aspartame artificial sweetener, not based on sugars (saccharides). It is a dipeptide made up of two amino acids, namely, aspartic acid and phenylalanine, and is 150–200 times as sweet as sugar.
aspartate a salt of the amino acid aspartic acid; for example, monosodium aspartate (MSA), which imparts a small amount of umami. Large quantities of free aspartate are found in konbu and extracted into dashi.
Aspergillus oryzae mold species; an ingredient in the fermentation medium kōji, used for the production of soy sauce (shōyu), miso, mirin, and sake.
astringency a mechanical sensory impression that is possibly linked to the taste cells in the mouth; commonly associated with the taste of tea or red wine. Both contain tannins, which react with proteins in the mucus on the surface of the tongue and saliva, causing sensations of sharpness, dryness, and friction. Depending on context, astringency can be registered as pleasant or unpleasant.
ATP see adenosine triphosphate.
autolysis special case of hydrolysis, also known as self-digestion, in which the cell is broken down by its own enzymes. An example is the hydrolysis of yeast to make yeast extract.
azuki small red or green beans (Phaseolus angularis). The red variety tastes sweet and is used in the form of a paste in Japanese cakes, desserts, and confections.
bacalao Spanish term for salted and dried cod that is a traditional food item in Galicia in northern Spain and in Portugal.
bagna càuda regional specialty from Piedmont, Italy, eaten as a sort of fondue or warm dip; made with olive oil, garlic, cream or milk, and many anchovy fillets.
bakasang fermented fish sauce from Indonesia.
Bayonne ham salted, air-dried French country ham, a product of the region around Bayonne in southern France.
biga Italian expression for a dry, yeasty dough (not sourdough) used in many kinds of Italian breads; for example, pizza dough and ciabatta.
biltong dried, vinegar-marinated, and salted meat, originally from South Africa, made, for example, from beef or emu. Often prepared with a variety of spices. Similar to jerky, but cut into thicker slices.
bisque shellfish soup with wine, vegetables, and herbs, thickened with cream.
Bloody Mary vodka cocktail that is rich in umami due to tomato juice and Worcestershire sauce.
Bolognese sauce Italian meat sauce with tomato; used on pasta.
botargo (bottarga) dried fish roe from tuna, cod, or gray mullet; considered a major delicacy in Spain (botargo) and Italy (bottarga).
bouillabaisse thick fish and shellfish soup, often with vegetables and eggs; originally from Provence in France.
bouillon (Fr. bouilli: cooked) clear soup or stock, based, for example, on meat, poultry, or fish.
Bovril beef extract, popular in England, developed in the 1870s; now also available as a chicken or a yeast extract; widely used in soups and gravies or to make a simple hot broth.
braising method of cooking meat, often the less tender cuts. Meat is first seared and then slow-cooked with only a little liquid; the combined effect results in more umami and a richer taste.
brandade dried salt cod that has been soaked in water, then blended with olive oil, garlic, cooked potatoes, or softened bread crumbs. It is a specialty of southern France and other areas around the Mediterranean and was originally eaten as Lenten food.
Brillat-Savarin, Jean Anthelme (1755–1826) French lawyer, politician, and judge, whose most famous work, The Physiology of Taste, was published in 1825 and has not been out of print since. He is considered one of the fathers of gastronomy.
brioche light bread made with a yeast dough that is rich in butter and eggs; can be served with a savory stuffing or as a sweet dessert.
brunoise mixture of finely diced braised vegetables used as a foundation for stuffing, sauces, and soups.
budu Malaysian fermented fish sauce.
caffeine bitter, naturally occurring substance (alkaloid), found in coffee, tea, and some other plants.
capsaicin organic substance responsible for the strong, astringent taste of chile peppers.
Carême, Marie-Antoine (1783–1833) French chef and writer, considered the greatest exponent of haute cuisine.
carpaccio originally very thin slices of raw beef and veal. The term is now also used for other very thin slices of foods such as fish.
casein protein in milk.
cassoulet slow-cooked casserole originating in Languedoc made from white beans and various meats, such as sausage and duck.
catalyst substance that modifies or accelerates a chemical reaction without itself being consumed in the process. Enzymes function as catalysts in biochemical reactions; for example, in the breakdown of proteins to free amino acids.
cell membrane the thin layer of material that surrounds a cell; made up of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates.
Cenovis Swiss-made yeast extract spread that resembles Marmite and Vegemite.
chemesthesis technical term used in sensory science to describe the sensitivity of the skin and mucus membranes to the chemical stimulation of the nerve endings of the trigeminal nerve. This can lead to irritation, which may be an indication that the stimulus may be harmful. An example of chemesthesis is the painful sensation on the tongue caused by various substances in chile pepper (capsaicin), black pepper (piperine), and mustard (isothiocyanate), which is associated with a piquant taste. The special tingling in the mouth and nose from carbonated drinks is another example. Sensations of warmth and cold, which are also registered in the nerve endings in the mouth, are related to chemesthesis.
‘Chinese restaurant syndrome’ a complex, vaguely defined condition characterized by symptoms such as a flushing, sensitivity in the throat, headache, general weakness, heart palpitations, and tightness of the chest (MSG symptom complex). Some have attributed this to the ingestion of MSG. The best well-documented clinical investigations have, however, been unable to demonstrate any negative effects of MSG.
chorizo air-dried, fermented Spanish sausage.
confit a prepared food that is cooked and preserved in a medium, usually oil or fat. Examples include confit of salted goose or duck.
corned beef beef that has been pickled in a spiced brine and then cooked; corn refers to the coarse grains of salt used in the process.
cranial nerves nerves that emerge directly from the cerebrum or the brain stem. Some cranial nerves ensure that sensory perceptions are registered in the brain. The trigeminal nerve is a cranial nerve that communicates mouthfeel to the brain; it is independent from the facial nerves that convey taste impressions. The vagus nerve is a cranial nerve that connects some parts of the stomach with the brain.
crouton very small piece of bread that has been toasted in butter or oil.
daikon Japanese expression for a large white radish (Raphanus sativus), also called Chinese radish.
dashi Japanese expression meaning cooked extract; a stock made from, for example, seaweed (konbu) and bonito fish flakes (katsuobushi). First dashi (ichiban dashi) and second dashi (niban dashi) refer to the first and second extract, respectively. Konbu dashi is based solely on the seaweed; niboshi dashi makes use of small dried fish, niboshi, instead of katsuobushi. shōjin dashi is a purely vegetarian stock in which shiitake mushrooms are substituted for katsuobushi. Dashi powder (Hon-dashi) is dehydrated dashi, used as a soup powder.
deoxyribonucleic acid see DNA.
DNA deoxyribonucleic acid; polynucleotide consisting of a long chain of nucleotides (q.v.) formed from the sugar group deoxyribose and the bases adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine. In DNA there are normally two polynucleotide chains which spiral around each other in a double helix. DNA is the basis for the genetic information encoded in the genome and in genetic material.
donko highly prized shiitake mushroom with a small, dark cap; in dried form it contains a great deal of umami.
douchi Chinese expression for fermented, salted black soybeans used to make seasoning sauces and pastes.
dulse the red alga Palmaria palmata.
enokitake winter mushroom (Flammulina velutipes) that grows in a cluster; has long, thin white stalks and a small cap.
enzyme protein that functions as a catalyst in a chemical or a biochemical reaction. Proteolytic enzymes can split proteins into small peptides or free amino acids.
estofado Spanish word for a casserole dish or stew made, for example, with beef.
fermentation process in which microorganisms (yeast or bacteria) or enzymes convert carbohydrates into alcohols or acids. For example, yeast cells convert sugars to alcohol or to vinegar.
fish sauce sauce made from fish or shellfish, usually by salting and fermenting them either whole or else the parts that would otherwise be discarded, such as blood and innards. Some are made with fresh fish, others with ones that have been dried first; anchovies are included in most of the sauces. Fermentation takes place using the enzymes found in the animal products, releasing an abundance of free amino acids, especially alanine and glutamate. Garum made in ancient Greece and Rome is the oldest example of a fish sauce in Western cuisine, and a whole range of fish sauces are commonly used in Asian cuisine.
flavor collective term for the sensory impression made by a food, both its taste and smell (its aroma substances), as well as its mouthfeel and chemesthesis.
folic acid vitamin B9.
fricassee stew usually made with meat and vegetables in a light sauce, such as veal or poultry in a white sauce or lamb with an egg and lemon sauce.
fu Japanese expression for kneaded wheat gluten, also known in Chinese as seitan; in raw form, it is nama fu, and roasted or dried, yaki fu.
fundic glands glands located in the stomach that secrete certain enzymes (proteases) that break down proteins.
furu (or sufu) Chinese expression for fermented tofu. If it has been fermented for a long time, it is also called ‘stinky’ tofu.
fushi Japanese expression for fish that is preserved by cooking, drying, salting, smoking, and fermenting. Katsuobushi and magurobushi are types of fushi.
garon (garos or garus) see garum.
garum (garon, liquamen) brownish liquid that seeps out when salted small fish and fish innards of, for example, mackerel and tuna are crushed and fermented for a long time. Garum production was an important industry in Rome and Greece in antiquity. Oxygarum is garum mixed with wine vinegar and meligarum with honey. Garum is similar to East Asian fish sauces.
glucose sugar; a monosaccharide that is the most important carbohydrate in plants and animals. In plants and algae, it is formed by photosynthesis.
glutamate salt of the amino acid glutamic acid; for example, monosodium glutamate (MSG, C5H8-NO4Na). In water, glutamate splits into sodium ions and glutamate ions, the latter being the main source of umami.
glutamic acid amino acid. It was identified in 1866 by the German chemist Karl Heinrich Leopold Ritthausen, who was studying proteins in wheat, but he seems to have taken little interest in his discovery. In the early 1900s, the chemist Emil Fischer studied different amino acids and noted that glutamic acid has an insipid and slightly sweet taste. The salts from glutamic acid are called glutamates (q.v.).
glutathione tripeptide that can be synthesized in the body from the three amino acids cysteine, glutamic acid, and glycine. Can act as an antioxidant and is one of the peptide compounds that stimulate the kokumi taste.
gluten certain proteins (especially gliadin and glutenin) found in wheat. Fu and seitan are concentrated gluten.
glycine amino acid with a sweetish taste.
G-protein-coupled receptor transmembrane protein with seven segments that pass through the cell membrane. It also has a large extracellular part that sticks out of and away from the cell membrane; on taste receptors it captures and identifies taste molecules.
guanylate guanosine-5’-monophosphate (GMP), guanylic acid salt; interacts synergistically with glutamate to enhance umami. Disodium, dipotassium, and calcium guanylates are used as food additives.
guanylic acid nucleic acid discovered in 1898 by the Norwegian physician Ivar Bang, who was studying the nucleic acids in the pancreas.
gunkan-maki sushi made by enclosing rice with a piece of nori and placing the fill on top (battleship sushi).
gustducin G-protein that can bind to the taste receptors T1R and T2R.
gyokuro Japanese green tea of the very finest quality.
hishio forerunner of Japanese soy sauce (shōyu), known as early as the eighth century; made from fermented soybeans to which rice, salt, and sake were added.
histidine amino acid with a bitter taste.
homeostasis the equilibrium achieved when processes with opposite effects work together in a body to achieve a form of internal self-regulation and stability.
HP sauce thick brown sauce made from vinegar and spices; used to enhance umami.
hydrolysis (Gr. hydro: water, lysis: splitting) chemical process by which a molecule is split into smaller parts by absorption of water. An example is hydrolysis of animal or vegetable protein to release a free amino acid, such as glutamate. Autolysis is a special case of hydrolysis, which takes place without any external means; for example, the hydrolysis of yeast proteins to produce yeast extract with the help of the yeast's own enzymes.
hydrolyzed protein food product containing amino acids; for example, glutamate, made by hydrolyzing proteins from vegetables, animals, or fungi. It is not considered to be a food additive and is used as a taste enhancer to add umami; for example, in soup powders. Yeast extract is an example of hydrolyzed protein.
Ikeda, Kikunae (1864–1936) Japanese chemist who coined the word umami and was the first to use chemical methods to investigate it. Demonstrated that monosodium glutamate (MSG) is the substance in seaweeds (specifically, konbu) and, therefore, in dashi that imparts umami.
ikijime a 350-year-old Japanese technique for killing fish, which is intended to ensure that the fish has the best taste and suffers the least damage to, and discoloration of, the flesh. It works by delaying the onset of rigor mortis. The fish dies without being stressed, which releases more of the substances (especially inosinate) that are sources of umami.
inosinate inosine-5’-monophosphate (IMP), inosinic acid salt, commonly found in meat, fish, and shellfish; interacts synergistically with glutamate to enhance umami. Disodium, dipotassium, and calcium inosinates are used as food additives.
inosinic acid nucleic acid identified in 1847 by the German chemist Justus von Liebig (1803–1873), who isolated the acid from beef soup stock. Inosinic acid salts, inosinates, contribute to synergistic umami.
ion channel protein located in the cell membrane that functions as a channel that can, selectively, allow ions to pass through. Ion channels in the neural cells, for example, sensory cells, are involved in the generation of electrical signals that send information to the brain about a sensory impression, such as one due to a taste substance.
irori traditional Japanese fish sauce, katsuo-irori, made as a kind of paste by reducing the water in which bonito (katsuo) has been cooked. Irori is no longer made, but a similar product, senji, is still available on Kyushu, an island in the southern part of Japan.
irritant chemical substance that affects the nerve endings of the trigeminal nerve (chemesthesis). This leads to an irritation, which, in principle, is a warning signal indicating that mucus cells are in danger of being damaged. A well-known example is astringency.
ishiri (also known as ishiru) Japanese fermented fish sauce with a high glutamate content.
isothiocyanate chemical compound with the S=C=N– group. It has an pungent odor, which is formed, for example, when mustard seeds, cabbage, horseradish, or wasabi are crushed, and has an astringent taste.
jamón serrano (jamón iberico de bellota) air-dried mountain ham; Spanish and Portuguese specialty made from the meat of Landrace and wild pigs.
jerky dried, salted, and smoked meat; similar to biltong.
jiàng Chinese miso. Jiàng yóu is Chinese soy sauce. Majiàng is a type of fish paste with soybeans.
kabayaki Japanese expression for a dish with fish or shellfish, typically eel, which is filleted and dipped in a sweet soy-based sauce, such as teriyaki sauce, before being broiled.
kaiseki (cha-kaiseki) the formal meal served at a traditional Japanese tea ceremony.
katsuo Japanese fish, bonito or skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis), related to mackerel and tuna; it is widely used to make katsuobushi (arabushi and karebushi).
katsuobushi Japanese term for a hard fillet of katsuo (bonito) that has undergone an extensive process involving cooking, drying, salting, smoking, and sometimes fermenting. Katsuobushi is the ideal exemplar of an ingredient that has great quantities of inosinate, which interacts synergistically to elicit umami. There are two main types of katsuobushi: arabushi, which is not fermented and has a milder taste, and karebushi, which is fermented and harder. There are also two types of karebushi: On one the red side of the fillet is kept and on the other (chinuki katsuobushi) it is cut off. The second type has a milder, less bitter, and more delicate taste.
ketchup tomato purée made from sun-ripened tomatoes, to which may be added mushrooms, anchovies, vinegar, walnuts, pickled vegetables, and a number of spices.
kimchi fermented cabbage, considered a national dish in Korea.
Knorr, Carl Heinrich Theodor (1800–1875) German food products manufacturer. In the early 1870s, his company marketed the first commercially prepared soup powders.
kobujime Japanese technique combining fresh fish with konbu, e.g., for sashimi.
Kodama, Shintaro Japanese researcher who, in 1913, discovered that the substance in dried bonito (katsuobushi) that elicits umami is inosinate, the salt of a nucleic acid.
koe-chiap original Chinese expression for ketchup.
kōji Japanese expression for the fermentation medium made from cooked rice, soybeans, and wheat or barley to which is added a mold called Aspergillus orzae. Kōji is used in the production of soy sauce, miso, and sake; it contains a wide range of taste and aromatic substances, among them free amino acids and large quantities of glutamate.
kokumi taste or taste-enhancing effect that is claimed to be distinct from the five basic tastes. It combines three distinct elements: thickness—a rich complex interaction among the five basic tastes; continuity—the way in which long-lasting sensory effects grow over time or an increase in aftertaste; and mouthfeel—the reinforcement of a harmonious sensation throughout the whole mouth. Kokumi is evoked by the stimulus of certain calcium-sensitive channels on the tongue by small peptides such as glutathione and other gamma-glutamyl peptides, found in such foods as scallops, fish sauce, garlic, onions, and yeast extract. Kokumi substances have no taste of their own but can enhance saltiness, sweetness, and umami in addition to suppressing bitterness. The effect on sourness is still unclear.
konbu (kombu) species of large brown alga (Saccharina japonica) containing great quantities of glutamate; together with katsuobushi an essential ingredient in Japanese dashi. Of the many different variants of Japanese konbu, ma-konbu, Rausu-konbu, and Rishiri-konbu are considered to be the best bases for dashi and they yield a very light dashi with a mild and somewhat complex taste. A lower quality konbu is Hidaka-konbu. Oboro-konbu and tororo-konbu are dried konbu that have been marinated in rice vinegar and, after being dried partially, shaved or cut into paper-thin shavings. Konbu dashi is a water extract of konbu.
Kuninaka, Akira Japanese researcher who, in 1957, discovered that the 5’-ribonucleotide guanylate elicits umami. Subsequently a team of Japanese scientists found that dried shiitake mushrooms have large amounts of guanylate.
kuragakoi Japanese expression for the cellar aging of konbu to make it taste milder and increase its umami potential.
kusaya Japanese expression for horse mackerel or flying fish that are cleaned and deboned, then brined and allowed to ferment in the warmth of the sun.
lactisole taste-modifying substance that suppresses the taste of certain natural and artificial sweeteners.
lactose sugar found in milk.
Laminariales taxonomic order that encompasses the large brown algae, for example, konbu (Saccharina japonica).
laver see Porphyra.
lecithin fat (phospholipid) found in all cell membranes; can be extracted, for instance, from egg yolks and soybeans. It acts as an emulsifier that can bind oil and water in emulsions such as mayonnaise.
lenthionine cyclic organic molecule containing carbon and sulfur; enzymatic formation of lenthionine is responsible for the distinctive aroma of shiitake mushrooms.
Lentinus edodes shiitake mushrooms.
leucine bitter-tasting amino acid.
lipid fat that consists of a water soluble part and an oil soluble part, which is normally a fatty acid. Biological membranes are composed of lipids.
liquamen Latin word for fermented fish sauce; see garum.
lysine sweet-tasting amino acid.
maccha Japanese powdered green tea.
Maggi, Julius (1846–1912) Swiss miller and industrial food pioneer who was the first to introduce concentrated umami, in the form of soup powders, to the European market.
magurobushi dried and fermented tuna, produced in the same manner as katsuobushi.
Maillard reactions class of chemical reactions that are typically associated with nonenzymatic browning occurring, for example, during frying, baking, or grilling. In the course of these reactions, carbohydrates bind with amino acids from proteins and, after a series of intermediate steps, form a number of poorly characterized brown pigments and aromatic substances collectively known as melanoids. These substances give rise to a broad spectrum of taste and smell sensations ranging from the flower- and plant-like to the meat- and earth-like.
Manganji pepper a Japanese pepper speciality from Kyoto; related to American bell pepper.
mannitol sugar alcohol found, for example, in large brown algae, among them, konbu and sugar kelp; it imparts a characteristic sweet taste.
Marmite trade name for a yeast extract that is a sticky, dark brown paste with an extremely salty taste. Contains large quantities of glutamate and vitamin B, especially folic acid (B9) and B12; used as a taste enhancer to bring out umami. The name is based on the French word for a large, covered earthenware cooking pot.
matsutake (Tricholoma matsu) edible pine mushroom; much sought after in Japan.
McGee, Harold American author who writes about the chemistry of food and cooking; his works include On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen.
medisterpølse traditional Danish sausage made from ground pork, pork fat, and spices; normally cooked in water and then fried.
metabolism the physical and chemical processes in an organism that are required to maintain life; for example, the digestion of foodstuffs.
metallic taste not a true taste; actually the taste of oxidized products that are often formed when fats (lipids) come in contact with metals.
methionine amino acid with a bitter, sulfurous taste.
mGluR1 glutamate receptor in the brain.
mGluR4 metabotropic glutamate receptor in the brain. It is a G-protein-coupled receptor, which is not itself an ion channel but whose action is indirectly coupled to an ion channel in the cell membrane.
Micrococcus glutamicus microorganism that grows in an anaerobic culture medium of nutrients and minerals; abundantly synthesizes and exudes glutamic acid onto its surface; the glutamic acid is released into the medium, from which it can be separated out and converted to MSG.
microvilli tiny hair-like protrusions extending from the membranes of some cells and organelles. In the case of the taste receptor cells, they are bundled together like the segments of an orange so that they form a pore on the surface of the tongue. Taste substances must pass through the pore in order to be detected. The receptors that biochemically identify the taste substances are located in the cell membranes.
mirin sweet rice wine with about 14 percent alcohol; made from steamed rice mixed with kōji to which rice brandy is added. Mirin is not intended to be drunk and is used as a taste additive to impart sweetness and umami.
miso Japanese fermented soybean paste made with kōji. Typically, miso paste contains 14 percent protein and large amounts of free amino acids, especially glutamate. The salt content varies from 5–15 percent. Shiro miso and Shinshū miso are white miso made with rice and soybeans, aka miso is red soybean miso, and genmai miso is made from brown rice. Some types of miso are made with barley (mugi miso), and a very dark, expensive variety is made with soybeans only (Hatchō miso). Vegetables pickled in miso are called miso-zuke, an example being nasu-miso made with eggplant. Miso soup is a soup made with dashi and miso.
mojama Spanish word for salted, air-dried tuna fillet.
molasses viscous, concentrated syrup that is a byproduct of the refining of sugar cane or sugar beets.
monosodium aspartate see aspartate.
monosodium glutamate see glutamate.
moromi solid mass of fermented soybeans; one of the stages in the production of Japanese soy sauce.
MSA monosodium aspartate; the sodium salt of aspartic acid, which has a faint umami taste. See aspartate.
MSG monosodium glutamate; the sodium salt of glutamic acid; the most important source of umami. See glutamate.
mouthfeel collective term for sensory perceptions that are neither taste nor aroma but that interact very closely with them; influenced by the structure, texture, and morphological complexity of a food item. It is, to a very large extent, responsible for our overall impression of the food and can involve physical and mechanical impressions such as chewiness, viscosity, mouthcoating, and crunchiness.
muria Latin word for fermented fish sauce made with tuna.
mycelium branched filament that makes up the root mat of a fungus.
nabe (nabemono) Japanese fondue; vegetables, meat, mushrooms, and fish are cooked in a soup stock, such as dashi.
nam-pa Laotian expression for fermented fish sauce.
nam-pla Thai expression for fermented fish sauce.
nasu dengaku traditional Japanese dish made with deep-fried eggplant and miso.
nattō whole, small soybeans fermented to form a stringy, viscous mass with a distinctive flavor, a strong aroma, and an intense umami taste. Very protein-rich foodstuff with a good quantity of vitamin K. In contrast to many other fermented soybean products, it has only a little salt.
neurotransmitter chemical substance that carries the signals between the neural cells. Glutamate is a neurotransmitter, which binds to the glutamate receptor in the membranes of the neural cells.
New Nordic Cuisine widespread, gastronomically inspired movement launched in 2004. It focuses on the development of a distinctive Nordic cuisine, built on traditional methods and the use of regional and seasonal raw ingredients of the highest quality, all with a view to enhancing deliciousness and promoting wellness.
ngapi fermented shrimp paste from Myanmar.
niboshi cooked and sun-dried small fish, such as anchovies and sardines, or the young fish of larger fish, such as flying fish, some species of mackerel, and dorade. In some cases, the fish are also smoked or grilled (yakiboshi), which results in a stronger taste. Niboshi have both glutamate and inosinate, which interact synergistically to impart umami.
nimono Japanese expression for slow-cooked dishes.
nojime Japanese expression for fish that is aged before being eaten.
nori paper-thin sheets made from the blades of the red alga Porphyra, which are chopped, dried, pressed, and sometimes toasted. Among other uses, they are essential for making sushi rolls (maki-zushi).
nucleic acid chain of nucleotides (polynucleotide); for example, DNA and RNA.
nucleoside chemical compound consisting of a heterocyclic base bound to a sugar group. The base can be either a purine (adenine and guanine) or a pyrimidine (cytosine in RNA and DNA, as well as thymine in DNA and uracil in RNA). Nucleosides form part of DNA and RNA, where the sugar groups are deoxyribose and ribose, respectively.
nucleotide a nucleoside that has been phosphorylated; that is, it is made up of a base, a sugar group, and one or more phosphate groups. Phosphorylation typically takes place at the 5’-position, which is why these nucleotides are also called 5’-nucleotides. Nucleotides can polymerize to form a long chain, a polynucleotide; for example, DNA and RNA. IMP, GMP, AMP, and ATP are known as ribonucleotides (5’-ribonucleotides), as their sugar group is ribose.
nutritional yeast deactivated, dried baker’s yeast or brewer’s yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) sold in the form of flakes. It is different from yeast extract and is an excellent source of vitamin B and umami.
orthonasal refers to the sensory perception of odor substances that enter the nose from the external environment.
osmazôme old chemical expression coined by the French chemist Louis Jacques Thénard in 1806 (Gr. osmē: odor, zomos: soup) to describe the tasty bouillon resulting from boiling meat in water. Transliterated as osmazome in English.
osso buco dish made with beef or veal shanks braised in wine or broth, typically with vegetables, tomatoes, and herbs.
Ostwald, Friedrich Wilhelm (1853–1932) German chemist who was awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1909 for his work on chemical equilibria and catalysis. He is regarded as one of the founders of physical chemistry.
Palmaria palmata the red alga dulse.
pancetta Italian specialty; pork belly meat that is salted, spiced, and cured, then rolled up into a sausage shape; often used like bacon.
panko dried white Japanese bread crumbs.
Parmigiano-Reggiano the original Italian Parmesan cheese; hard, dry, aged cheese with a substantial glutamate content.
pata negra dried ham from black-foot pigs; a type of jamón serrano..
patis Philippine fermented fish sauce.
Penicillium roqueforti fungus used for the production of blue cheeses; for example, Roquefort, Stilton, Gorgonzola, and Danish blue.
pepperoni type of very thin, dried, spiced sausage.
peptide chemical compound made up of amino acids bound together in a chain with peptide bonds; long peptides are called polypeptides or proteins.
phenylalanine amino acid with a bitter taste.
pickling culinary technique of preserving food products, such as vegetables, fungus, fish, or eggs, by aging them in a vinegar solution or a brine.
piperine organic substance that imparts the strong taste in black pepper.
Porphyra (laver) red alga genus made up of about 70 distinct species; used for the production of nori.
presynaptic cell cell that plays a role in the transmission of nerve signals, for example, in the taste buds. In contrast to the taste receptor cells, the presynaptic cells can respond to several different types of tastes, given that they receive signals from several different taste receptor cells.
proline amino acid with a sweetish taste.
Promite trade name for a yeast extract similar to Marmite and Vegemite.
prosciutto crudo (Parma ham) air-dried ham, originally from central and northern Italy, made from pork. Prosciutto, like the Portuguese presunto, means something that has been dried thoroughly. Prosciutto di cavallo is made from horse meat.
protein polypeptide, that is, a long chain of amino acids bound together by peptide bonds. Receptors, which receive chemical signals and identify sensory impressions such as taste and smell, are proteins. Enzymes are a particular class of proteins, whose function is to ensure that chemical reactions take place under controlled circumstances. Proteins lose their functional ability (denature) and their physical properties change when they are heated, exposed to salt and acid (for example, when cooked, salted, or marinated), or degraded by enzymes during fermentation. When proteins are broken down, smaller peptides and free amino acids, for example, glutamic acid, are formed.
proteolytic enzyme (protease) enzyme that can break down proteins to peptides and free amino acids.
quinine natural, bitter-tasting substance (alkaloid) derived from the bark of the cinchona tree.
ragout stew made from meat, poultry, or game with vegetables and seasonings.
rakfisk Norwegian specialty made from salted fermented trout, whitefish, char, or, occasionally, perch that are caught in the early autumn.
ratatouille very filling dish made from vegetables, such as tomatoes, eggplant, onions, and celeriac, which are simmered in olive oil.
receptor protein molecule that has a special ability to recognize and bind to a particular substance; for example, a smell or taste molecule. Receptors are found in all membranes, especially those of nerve cells. A G-protein-coupled receptor is a receptor that binds a G-protein in a signaling process; for example, in connection with the transmission from a taste cell.
rennet liquid containing proteases (viz. enzymes) that can break down the milk protein casein into smaller peptides and free amino acids; used in cheese production because it causes milk to coagulate.
retronasal term used to designate the perception of odor substances that are released in the oral cavity and from there move up into the nose.
ribonucleotide see nucleotide.
rikakuru fermented fish extract from the Maldives.
risotto dish made with special varieties of round medium- or short-grain rice that is sautéed in butter or oil and cooked in stock and/or wine, to which many other ingredients can be added. The rice absorbs the liquid and becomes soft, without losing the shape of the individual kernels.
RNA (ribonucleic acid) polynucleotide that, like DNA, is made up of four bases, but with uracil instead of thiamine and the sugar group ribose instead of deoxyribose.
rouille Provençal sauce made with olive oil, chile pepper, garlic, saffron, and, possibly, egg yolk.
Saccharina japonica Japanese species of large brown alga, konbu, which is the organism that contains the most free glutamate, typically 2.000–3.000 mg/100 g, depending on the variety.
saccharine artificial sweetener that is 300–400 times sweeter than ordinary sugar (sucrose) but that has a bitter, metallic aftertaste.
sake rice wine made from polished rice that is cooked and then fermented with the help of a fermentation medium, kōji, which contains enzymes that can break starch down to sugar and proteins to free amino acids. A yeast culture converts the sugar to alcohol.
sake kasu lees left over from fermentation of sake.
salsa verde cold green sauce, usually made from parsley, capers, onions, garlic, anchovies, and olive oil; sometimes mustard is added.
salt cod dried salted cod that can be used, among other dishes, to make bacalao or brandade.
sanshō type of Japanese pepper, similar to Chinese Sichuan pepper.
sashimi Japanese expression for specially prepared raw fish or shellfish that is sliced crosswise into small pieces.
sauté panfry something quickly at high heat with only a little fat.
sea lettuce type of green alga (Ulva lactuca).
seitan Chinese expression for fu, a concentrated solid of kneaded wheat gluten.
sencha high-quality Japanese green tea.
sensory science science related to human sensory perceptions, especially with regard to flavor (taste, smell, texture, mouthfeel, and chemesthesis).
shichimi Japanese spice mixture with seven different types of tastes chosen from the list: sanshō pepper, white and black sesame seeds, toasted or dried ground chile pepper with mustard, dried ginger, ao-nori (type of green alga that resembles sea lettuce), dried shiso leaves, dried peel of citrus fruits, and hemp seeds. Nama-shichimi is a mixture of fresh herbs, not necessarily the same as those already listed.
shiitake the mushroom Lentinus edodes; in dried form it contains large quantities of guanylate, a source of synergistic umami.
shiokara Korean and Japanese expression for salted fish or mollusks fermented in their own viscera. A classical Japanese dish is ika no shiokara, whole small squid that are fermented using the enzymes in their entrails.
shōchū brandy distilled from sake.
shōjin dashi strictly vegetarian soup stock that is an extract of konbu and dried shiitake mushrooms. It can also be prepared with dried daikon and eaten, for example, with salted or dried tofu.
shōjin ryōri the very specialized vegetarian temple cuisine, originally brought to Japan in the sixth century with the spread of Buddhism and refined by the Zen monks in the 1300s. shōjin is a Buddhist expression meaning devotion to the esthetic striving for spiritual awakening.
shōyu Japanese soy sauce; if made according to the traditional method, fermentation takes place over a two-year period.
sodium aspartate see MSA.
sodium chloride NaCl, table salt.
sodium glutamate see MSG.
sorbet frozen dessert made with fruit juice and sugar but no cream or egg yolks.
soufflé fluffy, light dish made with beaten eggs; can be either savory or sweet.
soumbala West African food made with fermented néré (Parkia biglobosa) seeds; similar to miso paste.
soy sauce seasoning liquid made from cooked soybeans fermented in a saline solution.
stew dish made with a variety of ingredients, such as meat and vegetables, cut into uniform-size pieces. Ragout and fricassee are also types of stew.
stock a clear soup base or bouillon. A light stock is made from white meats and vegetables. A dark stock is based on bones, meat, and herbs that are browned first. The Japanese dashi is also a type of stock made from an extract of konbu and katsuobushi.
Stroganoff beef Stroganoff; dish made with thin slices of beef glacéed with a sauce of white wine, sour cream, and stock, to which sautéed onions and mushrooms are added.
succinic acid organic acid that can impart a taste reminiscent of umami; found, for example, in sake and shellfish.
sucrose ordinary sugar, a disaccharide made up of glucose and fructose (fruit sugar).
suimono clear soup made from the first dashi (ichiban dashi).
surströmming Swedish specialty made with small Baltic herring that are salted and fermented.
sushi Japanese specialty consisting of cooked vinegared rice, a variety of toppings (such as fish, shellfish, omelette, and vegetables) and, in some cases, seaweeds. Nare-zushi (fermented sushi) is fermented fish, the original form of sushi. Namazushi (raw sushi) is modern sushi, made with fresh and usually raw fish. Maki-zushi is rolled sushi, with a sheet of nori either on the outside or the inside. Gunkan-zushi is in the form of a little boat.
Tabasco sauce hot, spicy sauce made with Tabasco peppers, vinegar, and salt.
table salt ordinary cooking salt, NaCl.
tamari Japanese expression (‘accumulated liquid’) that originally referred to the liquid that seeped out of the fermented soybean mass used to make soy sauce and miso paste. At that point, tamari was a by-product from the production of miso. Tamari is now a product in its own right, like soy sauce, but made from soybeans only, with no wheat.
tamarind (Tamarindus indica) tropical tree whose pod-shaped fruit is used as a spice in Indian cuisine; also used in the production of Worcestershire sauce.
tang Chinese expression for both soup and soup stock, normally made with bones or chicken. Di tang is the expression that is closest to ‘stock.’ Xiang tang means ‘delicious soup’ and is probably the Chinese expression that most closely describes a soup or stock with a strong umami taste.
tannin (tannic acid) umbrella term for a variety of polyphenolic compounds, which are bitter taste substances; found in young red wine, black tea, and smoked products, among others.
taste physiologically based perception of taste substances, which can bind to particular taste receptors in the taste buds on the tongue. It is generally acknowledged that there are five basic tastes, sour, salt, sweet, bitter, and umami, which can be combined to make up all other tastes. See also flavor.
taste buds onion-shaped clusters of 50–150 taste receptor cells embedded in tiny protrusions located primarily on top of the tongue, but also distributed over the soft palate, pharynx, epiglottis, and the entrance to the esophagus.
taste enhancer (flavor enhancer, food additive) substance, which often has little or no taste itself, that can intensify another taste substance. Glutamate, inosinate, guanylate, and glutathione are typical taste enhancers. Yeast extract and hydrolyzed protein are used as taste enhancers but are considered foodstuffs.
taste-mGluR4 glutamate receptor in the taste cells of the oral cavity. It is a truncated and much less sensitive form of the glutamate receptor mGluR4, which is found in the neural cells of the brain.
taste receptor cells sensory cells in the taste buds that contain the receptors that can identify taste substances.
tempeh fermented soybean product, originally from Java, that is very rich in vitamin B.
tempura Japanese expression for deep-fried fish, shellfish, or vegetables.
teriyaki Japanese expression for fish, meat, fowl, or vegetables that are grilled and basted with a marinade of soy sauce, mirin, sake, sugar, and, optionally, spices, leaving their surfaces with a lustrous sheen.
teuk trei fermented fish sauce from Cambodia.
texture in sensory physiological terms defined as the sensory and functional manifestation of structural, mechanical, and surface properties of a foodstuff.
theanine amino acid that makes up more than half of the free amino acid content of green tea leaves; imparts umami.
third spice monosodium glutamate (MSG).
This, Hervé French chemistry professor, who is considered one of the fathers of molecular gastronomy.
thrush small songbird that is caught for food in some areas around the Mediterranean.
tofu coagulated, protein-rich solid made from soy milk. ‘Stinky’ tofu is fermented tofu.
trigeminal nerve see cranial nerves.
trimethylamine foul-smelling organic substance (tertiary amine) produced, for example, by bacterial decomposition of trimethylaminoxide in dead seaweeds and fish.
tsuyu mixture of mirin, soy sauce, and sake to make a sauce that is rich in umami; used for dipping tempura and noodles.
T1R family of G-protein-coupled taste receptors (for example, T1R1, T1R2, and T1R3) that are activated by substances that have sweet and umami tastes.
T2R (also known as TAS2R) family of G-proteincoupled taste receptors that are activated by bitter taste substances.
umami Japanese expression for ‘the fifth taste’; coined by the Japanese chemist Kikunae Ikeda in 1909 in connection with the identification of glutamate in dashi.
vagus nerve see also cranial nerves. The vagus nerve can send signals to the brain that the fundic glands in the stomach need to secrete certain enzymes (proteases) to break down proteins.
vegan vegetarian who neither eats nor uses any products derived from animals.
Vegemite trade name for an Australian yeast extract similar to Marmite; contains large quantities of free glutamate and, consequently, has umami.
vitamin one of a group of different essential organic substances that the body itself can produce only in very limited quantities and that are, therefore, primarily derived from the diet. Examples are vitamins A, B, C, D, E, and K. Yeast extract contains very large quantities of vitamin B, especially folic acid (vitamin B9) and vitamin B12.
von Liebig, Justus (1803–1873) German chemist who was a pioneer in the application of chemical methods to the study of nutrition. In 1847, he isolated inosinate from beef stock, based on which he founded a company that produced bouillon cubes, later trademarked as Oxo. It is said that von Liebig remarked that hydrolyzed protein tastes good and meaty.
Walton, Izaak (1593–1683) author of The Compleat Angler, first published in 1653.
wasabi Japanese horseradish (Wasabia japonica).
Worcestershire sauce a type of fermented anchovy sauce, related to the classical Roman fish sauce garum. It can be made from anchovies, wine vinegar, molasses, salt, sugar, tamarind paste, soy sauce, cloves, lemons, pickles, pepper, onions, and garlic. In Western cuisine, the condiment most widely used to enhance umami is Worcestershire sauce.
xanthosine-5’-monophosphate (xmp) nucleotide derived from the nucleic acid xanthosinic acid. Interacts synergistically with glutamate to enhance umami taste; found, for example, in mushrooms.
xian-wei Chinese expression for deliciousness; has almost the same meaning as umami in Japanese.
yeast extract hydrolyzed protein, different from nutritional yeast; produced by the autolysis of yeast cells. Marmite and Bovril are made from yeast extract.
yeast flakes see nutritional yeast.
yuba the skin that forms on heated soybean milk.
yu-lu Chinese fermented fish sauce.
yuzu small Japanese lemon (Citrus junus); used, for example, to make the dressing ponzu, which is a mixture of soy sauce, dashi, and yuzu juice, possibly also with a dash of mirin.
