Preface
1. Charlie Cobb poem quoted in The New York Times, April 25, 1969, p. 94. Peniel E. Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour: A Narrative History of Black Power in America (New York: Henry Holt, paperback, 2007), pp. 149–73.
2. Mumia Abu-Jamal, “Foreword,” Stokely Speaks: From Black Power to Pan-Africanism (1971; Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books, 2007), p. vii.
3. Stokely Carmichael with Ekwueme Michael Thelwell, Ready for Revolution: The Life and Struggles of Stokely Carmichael (Kwame Ture) (New York: Scribner, 2003), p. 759.
4. John Edgar Wideman, “Introduction,” Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 9.
Prologue
1. Taylor Branch, At Canaan’s Edge: America in the King Years, 1965–1968 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006), p. 486.
2. Barack Obama, Dreams from My Father: A Story of Race and Inheritance (New York: Crown, 2004), p. 140.
Chapter One: The Chocolate Fred Astaire
1. FBIKT 100–446080–1975, “Stokely Carmichael,” September 17, 1968, p. 4.
2. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 34.
3. Ibid., pp. 29–31.
4. Ibid., p. 37.
5. May Charles Carmichael quoted in Göran Hugo Olsson, The Black Power Mixtape 1967–1975 (IFC Films, 2011). FBIKT 100–446080–27, “Stokely Carmichael,” September 26, 1966, p. 1; The Black Power Mixtape.
6. FBIKT 100–446080–23, “Airtel to Director Hoover,” September 22, 1966, p. 1. Mabel Carmichael quoted in The Black Power Mixtape. London Observer Review, July 23, 1967, p. 17.
7. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 50–57, 58, 49.
8. Ibid., p. 64. FBIKT 100–446080–24, “Stokely Carmichael: Airtel to Director Hoover from WFO SAC,” September 22, 1966, pp. 1–2.
9. Isabel Wilkerson, “Soul Survivor: From Stokely Carmichael to Kwame Ture, Still Ready for Revolution,” Essence, May 1998, p. 184.
10. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 66–74. Also see Simeon Wright with Herb Boyd, Simeon’s Story: An Eyewitness Account of the Kidnapping of Emmett Till (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2010).
11. London Observer Review, July 23, 1967, p. 17; Mayble Craig Interview, pp. 2–3.
12. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 106–107.
13. Robert Penn Warren Interview with Stokely Carmichael, 1964, Robert Penn Warren Papers, pp. 7–8, Folder 3628, Typescripts of interviews: Stokely Carmichael. Beinecke Library, Yale University.
14. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 92–93, 94.
15. Ibid., pp. 92–93.
16. John D’Emilio, Lost Prophet: The Life and Times of Bayard Rustin (New York: The Free Press, 2003), pp. 66–67. Devon W. Carbado and Donald Weise, eds., Time on Two Crosses: The Collected Writings of Bayard Rustin (San Francisco: Cleis Press, 2003), pp. x–xx. Jervis Anderson, Bayard Rustin: Troubles I’ve Seen (New York: Harper Collins, 1997), pp. 187–196.
17. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 95.
18. Miriam Makeba, Makeba: My Story (New York: New American Library, 1987), pp. 89–99; Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 651–652.
19. Makeba, Makeba, pp. 81–88. Anderson, Bayard Rustin, pp. 95–99.
20. Odd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), pp. 89–90.
21. Milton Viorst, Fire in the Streets: America in the 1960s (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1979), p. 350. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 93; Peniel Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour (New York: Henry Holt, 2006), p. 20.
22. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 100–105.
23. Peggy Trotter Dammond Preacely, “It Was Simply in My Blood,” in Faith S. Holsaert, Martha Prescod Norman Noonan, Judy Richardson, Betty Garman Robinson, Jean Smith Young, and Dorothy M. Zellner, eds., Hands on the Freedom Plow: Personal Accounts by Women in SNCC (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2010), pp. 165–166. Robert Penn Warren Carmichael Interview, pp. 15–16. Robert Penn Warren, Who Speaks for the Negro? (New York: Random House, 1965), p. 392.
24. Robert Penn Warren Carmichael Interview, p. 22; Grace Elizabeth Hale, A Nation of Outsiders: How the White Middle Class Fell in Love with Rebellion in Postwar America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011). Gordon Parks, “Whip of Black Power,” Life, May 19, 1967, p. 79. Robert Penn Warren, Carmichael Interview, pp. 18–20.
Chapter Two: Howard and NAG
1. William H. Chafe, Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black Struggle for Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), pp. 71–101; Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 9–11.
2. New York Times, March 6, 1960, p. 45.
3. Ibid., March 17, p. 1. Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–1963 (New York: Touchstone, 1988), p. 314.
4. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 139–140; Lerone Bennett, “Stokely Carmichael: Architect of Black Power,” SNCC Pamphlet. Reprinted from Ebony, July 1966 profile, p. 6. Stokely Carmichael–Lorna D. Smith papers, Stanford University (hereafter SCLDS).
5. Branch, Parting the Waters, pp. 272–284. See also Wesley Hogan, Many Minds, One Heart: SNCC’s Dream for a New America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009). New York Times Sunday Magazine, May 1, 1960, p. 11, and New York Times, May 30, 1960, p. 9.
6. Barbara Ransby, Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement: A Radical Democratic Vision (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), p. 240, pp. 13–63. Jeanne Theoharis, The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks (Boston: Beacon Press, 2013), pp. 25–26.
7. Ransby, Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement, pp. 290–291.
8. Ibid.
9. Branch, Parting the Waters, pp. 290–293; Carson, In Struggle, pp. 23–25; Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 140–141. New York Times, April 18, 1960, p. 21; Branch, Parting the Waters, pp. 291–292.
10. Andrew B. Lewis, The Shadows of Youth: The Remarkable Journey of the Civil Rights Generation (New York: Hill and Wang, 2009), pp. 79–80. Tom Hayden Interview.
11. Following the HUAC hearings in the nation’s capital, Stokely went to Virginia and joined his first sit-in. Robert Penn Warren Carmichael Interview, pp. 14–15.
12. Ibid., p. 26.
13. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 113, 132.
14. Milton Viorst, “Howard University: Campus and Cause,” Harper’s Magazine, November 1961, p. 59.
15. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 114.
16. Ibid., pp. 120, 115–116.
17. The Hilltop, November 3, 1961, pp. 1–2.
18. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 133–135; Ekwueme Michael Thelwell, “The Professor and the Activists: A Memoir of Sterling Brown,” Massachusetts Review, vol. 40, no. 4, Winter 1999/2000, pp. 617–638; excerpts reprinted in After Winter: The Art and Life of Sterling A. Brown, eds., John Edgar Tidwell and Steven C. Tracy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 257 and John Edgar Tidwell, “Clarifying Philosophy: Sterling A. Brown and the Nonviolent Action Group,” in After Winter, pp. 384–385; Lawrence Jackson, The Indignant Generation: A Narrative History of African American Writers and Critics, 1934–1960 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011), pp. 36–41.
19. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 127–131.
20. Ibid., p. 136. Ed Brown Interview, pp. 1–5. Thelwell Interview, 12–16–1999, pp. 1–4; Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 160. Thelwell Interview, 11–16–2002, pp. 2–3; Thelwell, “The Professor and the Activists,” p. 624.
21. Courtland Cox Interview, 08–19–08, pp. 7–8.
22. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 136–145.
23. Devon W. Carbado and Donald Weise, eds., Time on Two Crosses: The Collected Writings of Bayard Rustin (San Francisco: Cleis Press, 2003), p. 10.
24. Ibid., p. 124.
25. D’Emilio, Lost Prophet, pp. 296–301, 323–325.
26. Branch, Parting the Waters, p. 418; Nick Bryant, The Bystander: John F. Kennedy and the Struggle for Black Equality (New York: Basic Books, 2006), pp. 263–264; Diane McWhorter, Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama: The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2013).
27. Bryant, The Bystander, pp. 263–266.
28. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 188–189 Robert Penn Warren Carmichael Interview, p. 27.
29. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 189; Robert Penn Warren Carmichael Interview, p. 28.
30. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 192; Stokely Carmichael Interview, May 5, 1986, p. 2: Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library, Emory University: hereafter cited as EU; Robert Penn Warren Carmichael Interview, p. 29.
31. Joan Trumpauer Mulholland, “Diary of a Freedom Rider,” in Holsaert et al., eds., Hands on the Freedom Plow, pp. 67–70. “Breach of Peace: Portraits of the 1961 Mississippi Freedom Riders,” http://breachofpeace.com/blog/?p=278. Stokely Carmichael Interview, May 5, 1986, p. 3, EU. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 193, 195–198. Holsaert et al., eds., Hands on the Freedom Plow, p. 73.
32. Parks, “Whip of Black Power,” p. 79; Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 247; Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, pp. 124–127.
33. Bill Mahoney, “Sadism in a Southern Prison,” The Hilltop, October 27, 1961, pp. 2, 6; Branch, Parting the Waters, p. 483; Lewis, The Shadows of Youth, pp. 102–103; John Lewis with Michael D’Orso, Walking with the Wind: A Memoir of the Movement (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998), p. 171. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 203. James Farmer, Lay Bare the Heart: An Autobiography of the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Arbor House, 1985), p. 23.
34. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 202–204; David Oshinsky, Worse Than Slavery: Parchman Farm and the Ordeal of Jim Crow Justice (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997), pp. 235–236.
35. Farmer, Lay Bare the Heart, pp. 23–25.
36. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 208, 210. Lewis, Walking with the Wind, p. 173.
Chapter Three: Finding a Way in New Worlds
1. All quotes from this paragraph, Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 210–211.
2. Robert Penn Warren Carmichael Interview, pp. 36–38.
3. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 214. Makeba, Makeba, p. 81. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 213–15.
4. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 152–153, 217, 223.
5. Winston A. Grady-Willis, Challenging U.S. Apartheid: Atlanta and Black Struggles for Human Rights, 1960–1977 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2006), pp. 4–6; Lewis, The Shadows of Youth, pp. 75–77.
6. Cynthia Griggs Fleming, Soon We Will Not Cry: The Liberation of Ruby Doris Smith Robinson (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998), pp. 1–100.
7. Branch, Parting the Waters.
8. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 241–242; FBIKT-100–446080–2X, “Stokely Carmichael,” July 13, 1966, p. 1. See also Stokely Carmichael to Wyatt Walker, October 22, 1961, pp. 1–2, SCLC, part 2, Reel 4, frame 42.
9. The Hilltop, October 6, 1961, p. 2. Stokely Carmichael, “We’ve Got Red Blood . . . and Heart,” The Hilltop, October 6, 1961, p. 4.
10. Charlie Cobb Interview, December 17, 2002, pp. 1–10.
11. Ibid., p. 6.
12. Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, pp. 15–18; Peniel Joseph, Dark Days, Bright Nights: From Black Power to Barack Obama (New York: Basic Books, 2010), pp. 35–38; Manning Marable, Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention (New York: Viking, 2011).
13. Stokely Carmichael Interview, November 7, 1988, p. 5. Southern Regional Council (SRC), “Will the Circle Be Unbroken?” Jervis Anderson, Bayard Rustin: Troubles I’ve Seen (New York: Harper Collins, 1997), p. 237; Marable, Malcolm X, pp. 185–186.
14. The Hilltop, October 27, 1961, p. 6. Anderson, Bayard Rustin, pp. 236–237.
15. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 260–261. The Hilltop, November 10, 1961, pp. 4, 3.
16. Baltimore Afro-American, November 11, 1961, p. 8. Stokely Carmichael Interview, November 7, 1988, p. 4. SRC, “Will the Circle Be Unbroken?”
17. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 259. The Chicago Defender, November 11, 1961, p. 8. The Hilltop, November 10, 1961, p. 2.
18. Cox Interview, p. 6.
19. The major protest was called off after the Maryland Commission of Interracial Problems and Relations announced that almost three-dozen eating establishments would serve blacks starting on November 22. The Hilltop, November 17, 1961, p. 4.
20. The Chicago Defender, October 14, 1961, p. 2.
21. The New York Times, October 21, 1961, p. 24. Cleveland Sellers with Robert Terrell, The River of No Return: The Autobiography of a Black Militant and the Life and Death of SNCC (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1990), pp. 52–53.
22. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 242–243; The Hilltop, December 1, 1961, pp. 3–4.
Chapter Four: “The Movement Was My Fate”
1. All quotes in paragraph, Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 246.
2. Ibid., pp. 246–249. The Hilltop, March 23, 1962, pp. 1, 3; Baltimore Afro-American, March 24, 1962, p. 1.
3. Stokely Carmichael, “We Shall Not Be Moved,” The Hilltop, March 23, 1962, pp. 2–3.
4. The Hilltop, May 18, 1962, p. 2.
5. FBIKT 100–446080–2X, “Stokely Carmichael,” July 13, 1966, p. 278. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 310. Stokely lauded Moses as the man who “taught me a lot of philosophy” that went beyond purely intellectual pursuits. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 311; Bob Moses Interview, pp. 5–6.
6. Cobb Interview Part 1, pp. 15–18. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 278–280.
7. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 281.
8. Ibid., p. 283.
9. John Dittmer, Local People: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Mississippi (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1995), p. 127. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 283.
10. Charles Payne, I’ve Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), pp. 127–131.
11. Dittmer, Local People, pp. 134–136; J. Todd Moye, Let the People Decide: Black Freedom and White Resistance Movements in Sunflower County, Mississippi, 1945–1986 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004).
12. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 277–286.
13. Cleve Sellers Interview, 12–14–09, pp. 6–7. Sellers, The River of No Return, pp. 57–61.
14. Sellers Interview; Faith S. Holsaert, “Resistance U,” in Holsaert et al., eds., Hands on the Freedom Plow, p. 184.
15. The Hilltop, February 22, 1963, pp. 1–2, 5.
16. All quotes in this paragraph are from ibid., March 8, 1963, p. 4 and March 16, 1963, pp. 1–2.
17. Ibid., March 22, 1963, pp. 1, 6.
18. The student council officially endorsed NAG’s application for recognition that spring. See ibid., March 16, 1963, p. 1 and April 1, 1963, p. 1.
19. Thomas J. Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (New York: Random House, 2008), pp. 290–296.
20. Ibid., p. 338. Sharon Harley, “The Chronicle of a Death Foretold: Gloria Richardson, the Cambridge Movement, and the Radical Black Activist Tradition,” in Bettye Collier-Thomas and V. P. Franklin, eds., Sisters in the Struggle: African American Women in the Civil Rights–Black Power Movement (New York: New York University Press, 2001). Peter B. Levy, Civil War on Race Street: The Civil Rights Movement in Cambridge, Maryland (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2003), pp. 87–88, 104. Lewis, Walking with the Wind, pp. 212–213.
21. For the group of Howard University students affiliated with SNCC, Cambridge represented “NAG’s local Mississippi.” Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 336. Warren, Who Speaks for the Negro?, p. 402.
22. Branch, Parting the Waters, p. 822. Bryant, The Bystander, pp. 422–424, 425; http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/jfkcivilrights.htm (accessed July 9, 2010). JFK Speech, June 11, 1963, YouTube (accessed July 8, 2010).
23. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 330, 323.
24. Dittmer, Local People, pp. 174, 200; Payne, I’ve Got the Light of Freedom, p. 295; William Chafe, Never Stop Running: Allard Lowenstein and the Struggle to Save American Liberalism (New York: Basic Books, 1995); Hogan, Many Minds, One Heart, p. 146. Clayborne Carson, Martin’s Dream: My Journey and the Legacy of Martin Luther King Jr. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013).
25. Hogan, Many Minds, One Heart, pp. 133–134, 144.
26. New York Times, June 11, 1963, p. 19; Branch, Parting the Waters, pp. 818–820.
27. All quotes in paragraph are from Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 320–321.
28. Stokely Carmichael, “Shotguns in Mississippi,” The Hilltop, September 20, 1963, pp. 3, 5.
29. Payne, I’ve Got the Light of Freedom, p. 291; Dittmer, Local People, p. 200. Branch, Pillar of Fire, pp. 128–129; Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 337. Carmichael, “Shotguns in Mississippi,” p. 5.
30. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 312–313.
31. Branch, Parting the Waters, p. 874; Boston Globe, August 18, 1963, p. 8.
32. Henry Hampton and Steve Fayer, Voices of Freedom: An Oral History of the Civil Rights Movement from the 1950s Through the 1980s (New York: Bantam reissue, 1991), p. 164. Branch, Parting the Waters, pp. 876–877.
33. New York Times, August 29, 1963, p. 21.
34. Lewis, Walking with the Wind, p. 224.
35. New York Times, August 29, 1963, p. 21.
36. Ibid.
37. http://www.usconstitution.net/dream.html; Branch, Parting the Waters, pp. 882–883.
Chapter Five: The Local Organizer
1. Baltimore Afro-American, September 7, 1963, p. 7.
2. The Hilltop, November 15, 1963, pp. 1, 4.
3. The Washington Post, November 7, 1963, p. D23.
4. The Hilltop, November 15, 1963, p. 1; November 22, 1963, p. 2; November 8, 1963, p. 2.
5. Carson, In Struggle, pp. 104–105.
6. New York Times, November 29, 1963, p. 25. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 328; Peniel E. Joseph, “Kennedy’s Finest Moment,” New York Times, June 11, 2013, p. A21.
7. Washington Post, November 30, 1963, p. A4. New York Times, November 30, 1963, p. 8.
8. New York Times, December 1, 1963, p. 50; Washington Post, December 1, 1963, p. A9.
9. Sellers, The River of No Return, p. 69; Joseph, Waiting Til’ the Midnight Hour, pp. 88–89. Carmichael, Ready for Revolution, pp. 340–344.
10. Mary Aickin Rothschild, A Case of Black and White: Northern Volunteers and the Southern Freedom Summers, 1964–1965 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1982), pp. 56–57; Branch, Pillar of Fire, p. 353. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 383.
11. WATS Report, June 24, 1964, SNCC Papers, Reel 15, frames 334, 335, 337, 339.
12. Stokely Carmichael Affidavit, June 25, 1964, SNCC Papers Reel 63, frame 400. Branch, Pillar of Fire, p. 372; SNCC WATS Report, June 26, 1964, Reel 15, frame 350.
13. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 377–380; WATS Report, June 29, 1964, Reel 15, frame 392.
14. Bob Zellner with Constance Curry, The Wrong Side of Murder Creek: A White Southerner in the Freedom Movement (Montgomery, AL: New South Books, 2008), p. 262. Mary King, Freedom Song: A Personal History of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement (New York: William Morrow, 1988), pp. 98–99; Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 377–378.
15. Stokely Carmichael Interview, May 5, 1986, pp. 12–15.
16. Sally Belfrage, Freedom Summer (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1990), pp. 39–40.
17. “Memorandum from Charlie Cobb Re: Summer Freedom Schools in Mississippi,” January 14, 1964, p. 2. SNCC Papers, Reel 63, frame 456. “What is Good English: A Class by Stokely Carmichael,” February–March 1965. Notes by Jane Stembridge. SNCC Papers, Reel 63, frame 403.
18. “What is Good English: A Class by Stokely Carmichael,” February–March 1965. Notes by Jane Stembridge. SNCC Papers, Reel 63, frame 403, p. 41.
19. Ibid., p. 55.
20. The Saturday Evening Post, July 25–August 1, 1964, SNCCP, Reel 20, frame 291. Elizabeth Martínez, Letters from Mississippi (Brookline, MA: Zephyr Press, 2002), pp. 207, 39.
21. Martínez, Letters from Mississippi, p. 185.
22. Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, pp. 408–409; Michael Beschloss, ed., Taking Charge: The Johnson White House Tapes, 1963–1964 (New York: Touchstone Books, 1998), pp. 459–462.
23. Wilkerson, “Soul Survivor,” p. 112.
24. WATS Report, August 4, 1964, SNCC Papers, Reel 15, frames 797 and 799. WATS Report, August 4, 1964, SNCCP, Reel 57, frame 166; Len Holt, The Summer That Didn’t End (New York; Da Capo Press, 1992), p. 230.
25. Holt, The Summer That Didn’t End, pp. 182–183.
26. Ibid., p. 45. Belfrage, Freedom Summer, p. 183.
Chapter Six: A Struggle for Democracy
1. Branch, Pillar of Fire, pp. 456–460; King, Freedom Song, pp. 343–345.
2. Washington Post, August 26, 1964, p. A2.
3. Forman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries, pp. 391–393.
4. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 409–410. Stokely Carmichael Interview, May 5, 1986, p. 27. EU.
5. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 415.
6. SNCC Press Release, August 29, 1964, JFP, Box 37, “Greenwood,” Folder.
7. Fleming, Soon We Will Not Cry, pp. 143–150.
8. Chicago Daily Defender, October 6, 1964, p. 4. Chicago Tribune, October 4, 1964. MDAH SCR#2–150–1-7–2-1–1; Chicago Daily Defender, September 23, 1964, p. 2.
9. Chicago Tribune, October 4, 1964. MDAH SCR#2–150–1-7–2-1–1; Chicago Daily Defender, September 23, 1964, p. 2.
10. Carson, In Struggle, pp. 147–148; Fleming, Soon We Will Not Cry, pp. 100–141.
11. King, Freedom Song, p. 452. Jean Smith Young, “Do Whatever You Are Big Enough to Do,” p. 249 and Martha Prescod Norman Noonan, “Captured by the Movement,” p. 500 in Hands on the Freedom Plow. Casey Hayden, “In the Attics of My Mind,” in Hands on the Freedom Plow, p. 385.
12. Cleveland Sellers to Jim Forman, November 22, 1964, pp. 1–2. JFP, Box 17, “Nov. 64 Corr.” LOC.
13. Ruby Doris Smith to Jim Forman, March 5, 1964, pp. 1–2. JFP, Box 17, “Nov. 64 Corr.” LOC.
14. WATS Reports, September 26 and December 9, 1964, SNCC Papers, Reel 15, frames 861 and 966. Stokely Carmichael Interview, May 5, 1986, pp. 30–31. EU.
15. Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, p. 55; Fay Bellamy Powell, “Playtime Is Over,” in Hands on the Freedom Plow, pp. 477–478. Jack Rabin Photo Collection, “March 9, 1965 Symbolic March Across Pettus Bridge,” Penn State University.
16. Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, pp. 109–110.
17. Ibid., pp. 112–114.
18. FBI SAC Atlanta Report, February 4, 1966, p. 24; Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, pp. 130–132. King regarded Forman as a “revolutionary” intent on rejecting the compromises necessary to produce social transformation. FBI SAC Atlanta Report, February 4, 1966, pp. 26–27.
19. Stokely Carmichael interview with Clayborne Carson, October 18, 1977, p. 5. CA. All quotes from paragraph, Stokely Carmichael interview, May 5, 1986, p. 36. EU. Stokely Carmichael interview with Clayborne Carson, February 15, 1973, p. 2. Carson Archives.
20. Stokely Carmichael interview, May 5, 1986, p. 39. EU; David Levering Lewis, W.E.B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race, 1868–1919 (New York: Henry Holt, 1994), pp. 354–356. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 455.
21. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 191–192.
22. “Riding in the Car from Atlanta to Tuskegee on February 19, 1966,” Transcribed April 1966, pp. 1–2, SNCCP, Reel 38, frame 1168; Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 459–460. Hasan Kwame Jeffries, Bloody Lowndes: Civil Rights and Black Power in Alabama’s Black Belt (New York: New York University Press, 2009), p. 65.
23. Carmichael Interview, November 7, 1988, CR 1032, pp. 1–9; CR 1033, p. 4. SRC, “Will the Circle Be Unbroken?”
Chapter Seven: Lowndes County: New Directions
1. The Movement, June 4, 1966, p. 4; Jeffries, Bloody Lowndes, p. 71.
2. Jeffries, Bloody Lowndes, pp. 66–67. In a July WATS report, Carmichael described Fort Deposit as a town overrun by Klan violence and “intimidation” that featured cross burnings and the brutal beating of a local activist’s son-in-law. “WATS Report,” July 12, 1965, SNCC Papers, Reel 15, frame 264.
3. WATS Report, August 9, 1965, SNCCP, Reel 16, frame 589; Charles Eagles, Outside Agitator: Jon Daniels and the Civil Rights Movement in Alabama (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993), p. 167; Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, p. 279. Eagles, Outside Agitator, pp. 167–168.
4. WATS Report, August 13, 1965, SNCCP Reel 16, frame 491; Eagles, Outside Agitator, pp. 163–64. Branch, Pillar of Fire, pp. 290–91.
5. WATS Report, August 14, 1965, SNCCP, Reel 16, frame 489; Eagles, Outside Agitator, p. 171. “Alabama Bonding Company,” August 20, 1965, SNCC Papers, Reel 38, frame 1163; Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 467.
6. WATS Report, August 14–15, 1965, SNCCP, Reel 16, frames 489–490. WATS report, August 15, 1965, p. 2, SNCCP, Reel 16, frame, 625. Eagles, Outside Agitator, p. 175.
7. Carmichael interview, CR1034, pp. 1–2. SRC. Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, p. 313. WATS Report, August 20, 1965, SNCCP, Reel 16, frame 638. “Statement Issued by the Selma Office of SNCC,” August 21, 1965. SNCCP, Reel 16, frame 620.
8. Eagles, Outside Agitator, p. 181. Carmichael interview, CR 1034, p. 1. Cleveland Sellers interview, December 2009.
9. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 470. Eagles, Outside Agitator, pp. 182–183. Los Angeles Times, July 3, 1966, p. B2.
10. Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, pp. 315–317, p. 279. “Stokely Carmichael Memo,” September 2, 1965, SNCCP Reel 16, frame 661.
11. New York Times, December 10, 1965, p. 37. The Student Voice, December 20, 1965, p. 1; Dorothy M. Zellner, “My Real Vocation,” in Hands on the Freedom Plow, p. 324.
12. The Movement, March 1966, p. 1. Stokely Carmichael interview with Clayborne Carson, February 15, 1973, p. 7.
13. New York Times, January 5, 1966, p. 1. Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, p. 404, 406. James Forman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997), p. 445.
14. New Journal and Guide, January 15, 1966, p. A7.
15. Carson, In Struggle, pp. 187–188. Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, p. 411; New York Times, January 7, 1966, p. 2.
16. Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, p. 411–412; Carson, In Struggle, p. 189.
17. All quotes from Stokely Carmichael, “Who Is Qualified?,” The New Republic, January 8, 1966, p. 22.
18. All quotes from Ibid.
19. Jeffries, Bloody Lowndes, pp. 29, 157.
20. Ibid., p. 162.
21. All quotes from New York Times, April 20, 1966, p. 27.
22. Ibid., April 21, 1966, p. 38.
23. New York Times, April 30, 1966, pp. 1, 14; Los Angeles Times, April 30, 1966, p. 14; Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, p. 460.
24. Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, p. 463. Carmichael with Thelwell Ready for Revolution, p. 471.
25. Jeffries, Bloody Lowndes, p. 183. John Benson, “Interview with New SNCC Chairman,” The Militant, May 23, 1966. Stokely Carmichael Schomburg Clipping File.
Chapter Eight: The Meredith March
1. Lewis, Walking with the Wind, p. 364. Carson, In Struggle, pp. 196–199; Lewis, Walking with the Wind, pp. 365, 366–373. Harry Belafonte fundraising letter, July 11, 1966, p. 2. SCLC Papers, Pt1, R15, 187.
2. The Washington Post, June 8, 1966, p. 12. James Lawson interview by Eric Etheridge, “How Stokely Carmichael Betrayed the Movement,” http://breachofpeace.com/blog/?p=278.
3. Los Angeles Times, May 25, 1966, p. 16, and May 24, 1966, p. 16; Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, p. 131.
4. New York Times, May 22, 1966. JFP, Box 24, “Black Power Clippings,” LOC. Time, May 27, 1966, p. 22.
5. Newsweek, May 30, 1966. JFP, Box 24, “Black Power Clippings,” LOC. Boston Globe, May 25, 1966, p. 27. The New Republic, June 4, 1966. JFP, Box 24, “Black Power Clippings,” LOC. New York Post, June 4, 1966. JFP, Box 24, “Black Power Clippings,” LOC.
6. Carmichael interview, CR 1037, p. 7; Carmichael interview, CR 1036, p. 2.
7. SCR-1–103–0-6–1-1–1, June 9, 1966, p. 2.
8. Clarion-Ledger, June 8, 1966, p. 7. New York Times, June 8, 1966, pp. 1, 26; Chicago Daily Defender, June 8, 1966, p. 1.
9. Boston Globe, June 8, 1966, p. 2. New York Post, June 8, 1966. JFP, Box 24, “Black Power Clippings,” LOC; Baltimore Afro-American, June 18, 1966, p. 13. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 503; Jackson Daily News, June 8, 1966, p. 14.
10. New York Post, June 8, 1966. JFP, Box 24, “Black Power Clippings,” LOC; Chicago Daily News, June 8, 1966, CSTSCC.
11. Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, p. 477; New York Times, June 8, 1966, p. 26. New York Times, June 8, 1966, p. 26. Chicago Tribune, June 8, 1966, p. 1.
12. For Wilkins article on SNCC, see Los Angeles Times, June 6, 1966, p. A5. For Carmichael and Wilkins meeting, see Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, pp. 135–136; Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 494–500.
13. Meeting of June 13, 1966, p. 21, Reel 12, frame 707. David J. Garrow, Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (New York: Morrow, 1987), p. 478.
14. Clarion-Ledger, June 9, pp. 1, 16; and “Manifesto of the Meredith Mississippi March,” 1966, SCLC, Pt 3, Reel 4, frame 157. Boston Globe, June 9, 1966, p. 3.
15. “Manifesto of the Meredith Mississippi Freedom March,” June 9, 1966, p. 2. SCR 1–67–4-130–1-1–1; Jackson Daily News, June 10, 1966, p. 10.
16. Washington Post, June 11, 1966, p. 1. Clarion-Ledger, June 11, 1966, p. 1. Los Angeles Times, June 11, 1966, pp. 5, F1; New York Times, June 12, 1966, pp. 1, 82.
17. New York Times, June 13, 1966, p. 32. “March to Jackson, Mississippi,” June 13, 1966, p. 2.
18. Meeting of June 13, 1966, p. 3. SNCCP, Reel 12, frame 698.
19. Sellers, The River of No Return, p. 164.
20. Time, June 24, 1966, p. 31. New York Times, June 15, 1966, p. 26.
21. Clarion-Ledger, June 15, 1966, pp. 1, 16; Jackson Daily News, June 15, 1966, pp. 1, 16; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, p. 480; New York Times, June 14, 1966, pp. 1, 26. New York Times, June 16, 1966, p. 35; Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, p. 140. Clarion-Ledger, June 16, 1966, p. 18.
22. Lorna Smith to Stokely Carmichael, August 1966, p. 1, SNCCP, Reel 2.
23. Lorna Smith to Stokely Carmichael, August 1966, p. 1 and May 22, 1966, pp. 1–2, SNCCP, Reel 2. Lorna Smith to Stokely Carmichael, May 24, 1966, p. 1, SNCCP, Reel 2. Lorna Smith to Newsweek Editors, May 24, 1966, SNCCP, Reel 2.
24. Stokely Carmichael to Lorna Smith, June 15, 1966, p. 1, SCLDSC.
25. New York Times, June 17, 1966, p. 33.
26. Ibid., June 18, 1966, p. 20.
27. Los Angeles Times, June 15, 1966, p. 16. Clarion-Ledger, June 17, 1966, p. 2.
28. New York Times, June 17, 1966, pp. 1, 33; Clarion-Ledger, June 17, 1966, pp. 1, 16; Los Angeles Times, June 17, 1966, p. 2.
29. Boston Globe, June 17, 1966, p. 18.
30. New York Times, June 17, 1966, p. 33. Chicago Tribune, June 17, 1966, p. A6.
31. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 528, 504. Carmichael interview, CR 1037, pp. 3–6; Jackson Daily News, June 17, 1966, pp. 1, 10, 17; Clarion-Ledger, June 17, 1966, pp. 1, 16.
32. Carmichael interview, CR 1037, p. 8. Clarion-Ledger, June 18, 1966, p. 1; Chicago Tribune, June 18, 1966, p. A6. Los Angeles Times, June 19, 1966, p. J4.
33. New York Times, June 18, 1966, p. 20. Baltimore Afro-American, June 25, 1966, p. 2.
34. Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, pp. 143–144; Chicago Sun-Times, June 20, 1966. CSTSCC. Stokely Carmichael to William Worthy, June 23, 1966. SNCCP, Reel 2. Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, p. 144; Boston Globe, June 20, 1966, p. 3. Philadelphia Tribune, June 25, 1966, p. 28; Face the Nation, June 19, 1966, Transcript, p. 8. SNCCP, Reel 2, frame 58. Face the Nation, June 19, 1966, Transcript, pp. 9–27. SNCCP, Reel 2, frame 58; I.F. Stone’s Weekly, June 6, 1966, p. 3. SCLDS; Robert Lewis Shelton, “The Real Stokely Carmichael,” SR, July 9, 1966. SCLDS.
35. Boston Globe, June 19, 1966, pp. 30–31; Los Angeles Times, June 19, 1966, p. J4.
36. Jet, June 23, 1966, p. 20.
37. “Selected Racial Developments: Continuation of the March from Memphis, Tennessee, to Jackson, Mississippi,” LBJ Papers, June 22, 1966, pp. 2–3; New York Times, June 23, 1966, p. 22. New York Times, June 22, 1966, p. 25. “Selected Racial Developments,” June 22, 1966, p. 1.
38. “Eyes on the Prize II: The Time Has Come, 1964–1966;” New York Times, June 24, 1966, p. 20; Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, p. 490.
39. New York Times, June 24, 1966, p. 1. Los Angeles Times, June 24, 1966, pp. 1, 13: “CBS News Special Report: The Meredith March in Mississippi,” June 26, 1966; “Selected Racial Developments,” June 24, 1966, pp. 1–2. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 508.
40. Chicago Tribune, June 24, 1966, p. 1. New York Times, June 24, 1966, p. 20.
41. New York Times, June 25, 1966, p. 15; Boston Globe, June 25, 1966, p. 2; Clarion-Ledger, June 25, 1966, p. 1.
42. “Selected Racial Developments,” June 27, 1966, pp. 1–2; New York Times, June 27, 1966, p. 29. Washington Post, June 27, 1966, pp. 1, 10; New York Times, June 27, 1966, p. 29.
43. Washington Post, June 27, 1966, p. 1. Chicago Daily Defender, June 27, 1966, p. 1; Chicago Sun-Times, June 23, 1966. CSTSCC.
44. The broadcast traced the chronology of significant events during the march. An early press conference of march leaders provided the stark image of Carmichael in a crisp white shirt with short sleeves outlining a militant call to action and characterizing Lyndon Johnson’s promises as empty since words “could not stop bullets.” “CBS News Special Report: The March in Mississippi,” Museum of Radio, Film, and Television Archives, New York City.
45. Ibid.
46. New York Times, June 27, 1966, p. 29; Clarion-Ledger, June 27, 1966, pp. 1, 14; Jackson Daily News, June 27, 1966, pp. 1, 16.
47. Los Angeles Times, June 27, 1966, p. 6. Lorna Smith to Stokely Carmichael, August 1966, p. 3. SNCCP, Reel 2.
48. Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, p. 493. Los Angeles Times, June 27, 1966, p. 6. Baltimore Afro-American, July 9, 1966, p. 14. Los Angeles Times, June 27, 1966, p. 13; New York Times, June 27, 1966, p. 29.
49. Washington Post, June 28, 1966, p. A6.
Chapter Nine: The Magnificent Barbarian
1. Lerone Bennett Jr., “Stokely Carmichael: Architect of Black Power,” Ebony, July 1966; SNCC reprint of Ebony article, pp. 1–3. Ibid., pp. 4–6.
2. Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, p. 496. Los Angeles Times, July 3, 1966, p. B5.
3. Los Angeles Times, June 28, 1966, p. 19 and June 29, 1966, p. 4.
4. “Keynote Address of Roy Wilkins, July 5, 1966,” p. 2. NAACP Papers, Group IV, A-3. LOC. See also Kevin Boyle, Arc of Justice: A Saga of Race, Civil Rights, and Murder in the Jazz Age (New York: Henry Holt, 2004). Los Angeles Sentinel, July 7, 1966, p. A1.
5. John T. Woolley and Gerhard Peters, The American Presidency Project [online]. Santa Barbara, CA. Available from: http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=27705.
6. “Black Power: The Widening Dialogue,” New South, Summer, 1966, p. 68; Los Angeles Times, July 3, 1966, pp. B1–2. All quotes in paragraph, Philadelphia Tribune, July 19, 1966, pp. 1–2.
7. Chicago Defender, July 30, 1966, p. 1; Chicago Tribune, July 28, 1966, p. 14; New Journal and Guide, July 30, 1966, p. A1; Washington Post, July 28, 1966, p. A9.
8. Quotes in this paragraph from Chicago Sun-Times, July 24, 1966, pp. 1, 4 and July 29, 1966, p. 4. CSTSCC.
9. Chicago Daily News, July 29, 1966; Chicago Sun Times, July 29, 1966. CSTSCC.
10. Boston Globe, August 1, 1966, p. 5; Baltimore Afro-American, August 13, 1966, p. 14; Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, pp. 153–154.
11. Los Angeles Times, August 4, 1966, p. 11; Chicago Tribune, August 4, 1966, p. B12; Chicago Tribune, August 3, 1966, p. A2.
12. Carson, In Struggle, p. 227. New York Times, August 5, 1966, p. 10; Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, p. 157; see also U.S. News and World Report, August 15, 1966, p. 12, which reprinted excerpts from the Times stories as the “Inside Story of ‘Black Power’ and Stokely Carmichael.”
13. Lyndon Johnson and Joseph Beirne, Track 3, 10581, August 5, 1966. LBJ Library and Museum, WH6608.07.
14. Washington Post, August 7, 1966, p. A3. Los Angeles Times, August 9, 1966, p. A4; Call and Post, August 13, 1966, p. 1; “Stokely Carmichael,” FBI Report, November 4, 1966, p. 24 in NAACD (Kerner Commission), report 023, LBJ Papers.
15. Muhammad Speaks, August 12, 1966, p. 4; August 19, 1966, pp. 3–4; August 26, 1966, p. 13; Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, pp. 154–155. See also FBIKT 100–446080–3X, “Stokely Carmichael: Racial Matter,” July 29, 1966, pp. 1–4; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Nation of Islam,” August 15, 1966, p. 1; Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 523.
16. Newsweek, August 8, 1966, p. 54; Christian Science Monitor, September 22, 1966. SCLDSC.
17. Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, p. 155; FBIKT 100–446080, “Mendel Rivers to Nicholas Katzenbach,” August 10, 1966, p. 1. FBI agents supplemented their growing dossier with background interviews that detailed his first several arrests for civil rights activity and confidential sources from Bronx Science who identified Carmichael as part of a cohort of students “devoted to left-wing activities” while in high school. FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Stokely Carmichael,” August 10, 1966, p. 1; FBIKT 100–446080–5, “Stokely Carmichael,” August 12, 1966, p. 1.
18. The Bay State Banner, August 27, 1966, p. 1; Muhammad Speaks, September 2, 1966, p. 5. Stokely Carmichael at open meeting, Harvard University, August 1966. UCD 443A/45. Wisconsin State Historical Society (hereafter WSHS). “Communist Infiltration of SNCC,” October 26, 1966, p. 23. SNCC FBI Reports File #1. Federal Records, NACCD (Kerner Commission) Box E19. LBJ Library. “Carmichael on ‘Black Power’,” Harvard Crimson, August 23, 1966, thecrimson.com; Boston Globe, August 19, 1966, p. 2; Stokely Carmichael at open meeting, Harvard University, August 1966. UCD 443A/45. WSHS.
19. “SNCC–Stokely Carmichael,” August 24, 1966, p. 2. Taylor Branch Collection, UNC–Chapel Hill (LBJ Office Files, Office Files of Mildred Stegall, SNCC-Stokely Carmichael, August–December 1966). Boston Globe, August 21, 1966, p. 80.
20. FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Airtel, Boston SAC to FBI Director,” September 9, 1966, p. 5. FBIKT 100–446080–15, “Stokely Carmichael,” September 13, 1966, p. 1; FBIKT 100–446080–10, Memorandum, New York SAC to FBI Director, September 1, 1966, p. 1. Muhammad Speaks, September 2, 1966, p. 5. Bay State Banner, August 27, 1966, p. 1.
21. Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, p. 15.
22. All quotes are from Newark Evening News, August 26, 1966. MDAH, 1–92–0-74–1-1–1. Sovereignty Commission Files.
23. Forman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries, p. 457.
24. “Report of the Communications Section of the Atlanta Office,” August 1, 1966, pp. 1–3. SNCCP, Reel 16.
25. Carson, In Struggle, pp. 229–235; Sellers, The River of No Return, pp. 183–184; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “SNCC: Stokely Carmichael,” August 26, 1966, p. 1; Alice Moore to Stokely Carmichael, August 10, 1966. SNCCP, Reel 2; August 29, 1966, Book Contract, Special Manuscript Collection, Random House, Columbia University.
26. Stokely Carmichael v. Ivan Allen, Jr., p. 4, December 13, 1966, Atlanta, GA, Records of The Southern Courier, Box 43, f1. Tuskegee University Archives.
27. Atlanta Constitution, September 7, 1966, pp. 1, 12; Chicago Tribune, September 7, 1966, pp. 1, 7; Los Angeles Times, September 7, 1966, pp. 1, 13; New York Times, September 7, 1966, pp. 1, 38 and September 9, 1966, pp. 1, 30 and September 11, 1966, p. 2E; Carson, In Struggle, pp. 225–226, 239; Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, pp. 159–160; Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, pp. 524–526; Chicago Sun-Times, October 2, 1966. CSTSCC. Carmichael v. Allen, pp. 6–7.
28. Boston Globe, September 8, 1966, p. 14; Chicago Tribune, September 10, 1966, p. 3; Atlanta Constitution, September 8, 1966, pp. 1, 7. Atlanta Constitution, September 9, 1966, pp. 1, 6.
29. Atlanta Constitution, September 9, 1966, pp. 1, 6. Nashville Tennessean, September 9, 1966, p. 10. The Movement, December 1966, p. 10.
30. Tomiko Brown-Nagin, Courage to Dissent: Atlanta and the Long History of the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), pp. 285–290.
31. Time, September 16, 1966. SCLDSC; Brown-Nagin, Courage to Dissent, pp. 285–290. Ralph McGill, “Story of a Man and of SNCC” and “The Story of Two ‘Snicks’,” Atlanta Constitution, September 8 and 9, 1966, p. 1; “Why Did Snick Turn to Hate?,” Boston Globe, September 8, 1966, p. 14 and “This New Snick Is a Travesty,” Boston Globe, September 10, 1966, p. 6; Howard Zinn et al., “In Defense of SNCC,” Boston Globe, September 15, 1966, p. 22; Atlanta Constitution, September 10, 1966, p. 8; New York Times, September 10, 1966, p. 1. See also Boston Globe, September 17, 1966, p. 6; U.S. News and World Report, September 19, 1966, p. 36. Howard Zinn, “Changing People: Negro Civil Rights and the Colleges,” Black and White in American Culture: An Anthology of the Massachusetts Review (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1971), p. 66.
32. Boston Globe, October 2, 1966, pp. 7, 6.
33. Ibid., September 12, 1966, p. 1; Los Angeles Times, September 11, 1966, p. F4; Chicago Daily Defender, September 14, 1966, p. 12; New York Times, September 21, 1966, p. 33; New Journal and Guide, September 24, 1966, p. 20; Chicago Daily News, October 5, 1966. CSTSCC. All quotes in this paragraph, Nashville Tennessean, September 10, 1966, p. 7; New Journal and Guide, September 17, 1966, pp. 1–2; Carson, In Struggle, p. 239. Washington Post, September 11, 1966, pp. 1, 8.
34. FBIKT 100–446080-NR, Martin Luther King–Stanley Levison Telephone Surveillance, September 10, 1966, pp. 1–2; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “SNCC: Stokely Carmichael,” September 21, 1966, pp. 1–2. FBIKT 100–446080-NR, New York SAC to FBI Director, September 23, 1966, pp. 1–3; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, Airtel, FBI Director to WFO SAC, September 22, 1966, pp. 1–2.
35. Saturday Evening Post, September 10, 1966, p. 88.
36. Stokely Carmichael, “A Letter from Jail,” Sunday Ramparts, October 2, 1966, p. 7.
37. Los Angeles Times, September 17, 1966, p. 14; Chicago Tribune, September 17, 1966, p. 5; Chicago Daily Defender, September 19, 1966, p. 8; Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, p. 532; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Stokely Carmichael,” November 4, 1966, pp. 11, 18, LBJL.
38. Los Angeles Times, September 16, 1966, p. 16. Pittsburgh Courier, October 15, 1966, p. 8B. New Journal and Guide, September 17, 1966, p. 12. Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, p. 166. Boston Globe, September 18, 1966, p. 4; Chicago Tribune, September 19, 1966, p. C19. Chicago Defender, October 1, 1966, p. 10.
Chapter Ten: “A New Society Must Be Born”
1. Baltimore Afro-American, October 8, 1966, pp. 1–2.
2. Stokely Carmichael, “What We Want,” New York Review of Books, September 22, 1966.
3. All quotes in paragraph from “CBS Reports: Black Power, White Backlash,” September 27, 1966, pp. 1, 6. LBJ. CBS Special Report, “Black Power, White Backlash,” September 27, 1966. Museum of Radio, Film, and Television Archive, New York City; New York Times, September 27, 1966, pp. 75, 7.
4. “CBS Reports: Black Power, White Backlash,” p. 10.
5. FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Martin Luther King, Jr, Stokely Carmichael,” October 4, 1966, pp. 1–4 and October 3, 1966, pp. 1–2.
6. Michigan Chronicle, October 8, 1966, p. 7.
7. FBIKT 100–446080–39, “Stokely Carmichael,” Airtel, October 19, 1966, pp. 1–2; Boston Globe, October 12, 1966, pp. 1, 3 and October 14, 1966, pp. 1, 3; Washington Post, October 15, 1966, p. 6; Chicago Defender, October 15, 1966, p. 3; FBIKT 100–446080–35, “Stokely Carmichael,” UPI press release, October 11, 1966, pp. 1–5; Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, pp. 538–540.
8. Los Angeles Times, October 16, 1966, p. F4 and October 19, 1966, p. 25; Chicago Tribune, October 22, 1966, p. 10.
9. All quotes from Minutes of Central Committee Meeting October 23, 1966, pp. 6–10, SNCCP, Reel 16.
10. Carson, In Struggle, p. 230; Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, p. 545.
11. Carson, In Struggle, pp. 232–235; Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, pp. 155–164. Minutes of Central Committee Meeting October 23, 1966, pp. 6–10, SNCCP, Reel 16.
12. All quotes from FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Meeting with Acting AG Clark,” October 27, 1966, pp. 1–5.
13. Ibid.
14. All quotes from FBIKT 100–446080–51, “Stokely Carmichael: Internal Security,” October 28, 1966, pp. 1–2; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, Teletype, Director Hoover from New York SAC, October 27, 1966, p. 1; New York Times, October 29, 1966, pp. 1, 9; Washington Post, October 29, 1966, p. 3; Chicago Tribune, October 28, 1966, pp. 1, 8; Chicago Tribune, October 29, 1966, pp. 1–2; Los Angeles Times, October 28, 1966, p. 31; Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, p. 167; Los Angeles Times, October 30, 1966, p. 15.
15. FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Stokely Carmichael–Selective Service Act,” September 19, 1966, p. 1 and FBIKT 100–446080-NR, Correspondence to Marvin Watson, September 22, 1966, pp. 1–2.
16. Joshua Bloom and Waldo E. Martin, Jr., Black Against Empire: The History and Politics of the Black Panther Party (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013), pp. 128–130. Bloom and Martin correctly highlight Carmichael’s importance to the New Left’s antiwar activism, especially this particular Berkeley speech. I go further however and argue that Stokely Carmichael represented the nation’s most important antiwar protester from the Meredith March until MLK’s much publicized opposition in April 1967. Carmichael popularized the “Hell No, We Won’t Go!” chant to black and white college students and explicitly linked Vietnam, Black Power, and anti-imperialism before the Black Panthers. Moreover, Carmichael’s notoriety was instrumental in mainstreaming the Free Huey Movement and the Black Panther Party. In short, Carmichael’s rhetoric and politics proved the most generative for radicals who were part of the antiwar, Black Power, New Left, Pan-Africanist, and Third World anti-imperialist movements. For Carmichael in Haight-Ashbury, see Clayborne Carson, Martin’s Dream: My Journey and the Legacy of Martin Luther King, Jr. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), p. 45.
17. Los Angeles Times, October 30, 1966, pp. C1, B.
18. Chicago Tribune, October 30, 1966, p. 3; Chicago Daily Defender, October 31, 1966, p. 4; Berkeley Daily Gazette, October 31, 1966, pp. 1, 3.
19. FBIKT 100–446080–395, “Airtel FBI Director to San Francisco SAC,” July 13, 1967, p. 7.
20. Stokely Carmichael, “Speech at University of California, Berkeley, October 29, 1966,” Catherine Ellis and Stephen Drury Smith, eds., Say It Plain: A Century of Great African American Speeches (New York: New Press, 2005), p. 57.
21. Los Angeles Times, October 30, 1966, p. C1; New York Times, October 30, 1966, p. 62. Chicago Tribune, October 30, 1966, p. 3. Carmichael, Stokely Speaks, pp. 54, 58. “Speech by Stokely Carmichael at the Greek Theater, University of California, Berkeley, on the Occasion of ‘Black Power’ Day,” October 29, 1966, pp. 3, 9. FBIKT 100–446080–395, July 13, 1967.
22. Los Angeles Times, October 31, 1966, p. 3; Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, p. 168. Chicago Tribune, October 31, 1966, p. 14. Washington Post, Times Herald, November 1, 1966, p. A2; Los Angeles Times, November 1, 1966, p. 22. New Journal and Guide, November 5, 1966, p. 1.
23. Stokely Carmichael to Alice Moore, September 19, 1966. SNCCP, Reel 2. New York Times, November 6, 1966, p. 28.
24. Yale Daily News, November 21, 1966, p. 8.
25. The Movement, December 1966, p. 8. Stokely Carmichael and Charles V. Hamilton, Black Power: The Politics of Liberation (New York: Random House, 1967), p. 115. The Movement, December 1966, p. 9. See also National Guardian, November 5, 1966, p. 9 for pre-election coverage of Lowndes by the radical press. The Movement, December 1966, p. 8; see also, Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, p. 548.
26. Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, p. 170.
27. Harry Golden, “Black Power Brought Out White Backlash,” Chicago Defender, December 17, 1966, p. 12. Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, pp. 170–171; New Journal and Guide, November 5, 1966, p. 11; Los Angeles Times, November 6, 1966, p. D4; Boston Globe, November 18, 1966, p. 13; Los Angeles Times, November 21, 1966, p. 5.
28. FBIKT 100–446080–99X, Memorandum, November 17, 1966, p. 1; David Corcoran to Roy Wilkins, December 13, 1966, NAACP, Reel V.
29. Yale Daily News, November 16, 1966, pp. 1, 6.
30. San Francisco Chronicle, November 19, 1966, p. 2; FBIKT 100–446080–92, “Stokely Carmichael,” November 28, 1966, p. 4; San Francisco Chronicle, November 19, 1966, p. 2. Donna Jean Murch, Living for the City: Migration, Education, and the Rise of the Black Panther Party in Oakland, California (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010).
31. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 475–476.
32. The Movement, December 1966, pp. 3, 5; FBIKT 100–446080–98, Teletype, November 25, 1966, pp. 1–2.
33. Los Angeles Times, November 27, 1966, p. B; Boston Globe, November 27, 1966, p. 44; Chicago Tribune, November 27, 1966, p. D33; Los Angeles Sentinel, December 1, 1966, pp. 1, 5; Los Angeles Free Press, December 2, 1966, pp. 5, 8; Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, p. 171.
34. Forman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries, p. 479.
35. Carson, In Struggle, pp. 240–241; Forman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries, p. 479. Judy Richardson, “My Enduring ‘Circle of Trust’,” in Hands on the Freedom Plow, p. 365.
36. FBIKT 100–446080–95, Memorandum, December 6, 1966, p. 1. Parks, “Whip of Black Power,” p. 78; FBIKT 100–446080, “Stokely Carmichael,” November 16, 1967, p. 8. Carmichael, Stokely, Box E7, LBJ Library.
37. All quotes from Bayard Rustin to Rabbi Everett Gendler, November 11, 1966, in Michael G. Long, ed., I Must Resist: Bayard Rustin’s Life in Letters (San Francisco: City Lights, 2012), p. 323.
38. Bayard Rustin to Stokely Carmichael, July 27, 1966; Stokely Carmichael to Bayard Rustin, August 2, 1966. SNCCP. Reel 2.
39. Quotes from FBIKT 100–446080–100, “Stokely Carmichael,” December 19, 1966, pp. 1–4.
40. Ibid.; Chicago Tribune, December 14, 1966, p. C9; New York Times, December 15, 1966, p. 34.
41. Washington Post, December 19, 1966, p. 10.
42. New York Times, December 18, 1966, p. BR8; Washington Post, December 21, 1966, p. C21.
43. Village Voice, December 29, 1966, Vol. XII, No. 11, http://blogs.villagevoice.com/runninscared/archives/2010/01/clip_job_stokel_1.php (accessed September 10, 2010); New York Amsterdam News, December 17, 1966, p. 22.
Chapter Eleven: “Hell No, We Won’t Go!”
1. Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour; New York Times, January 19, 1967, p. 38; The Movement, February 1967, pp. 196–197. Clay Carson Archives King Center, Stanford University (hereafter CAKC). The Afro-American, January 28, 1967, p. 18; National Guardian, February 18, 1967, p. 6; FBIKT 100–446080–1133, “Stokely Carmichael,” 1968.
2. Washington Post, January 11, 1967, p. 8.
3. Boston Globe, January 11, 1967, p. 61.
4. New York Times, January 11, 1967, p. 20.
5. Ibid., January 16, 1967, p. 22; FBIKT 100–446080–106, “Stokely Carmichael,” January 13, 1966, p. 1; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, Memorandum, January 25, 1967, p. 2; FBIKT 100–446080–108, “Stokely Carmichael,” January 18, 1967, pp. 1–2; FBIKT 100–447080-NR, “Stokely Carmichael,” January 13, 1967, pp. 1–3. After his two speaking engagements in Chicago, Carmichael relaxed at a West Side lounge until 2 A.M. FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Stokely Carmichael,” January 13, 1967, p. 5.
6. Quotes from Stokely Carmichael to Central Committee, Memo, Subject: D.C. Office, January 19, 1967; Stokely Carmichael to Central Committee, Memo, Subject: Los Angeles Office, January 19, 1967; Stokely Carmichael to Central Committee, Memo, Subject: San Francisco Office, January 19, 1967; Central Committee Decisions, January 20–23, 1967, p. 2; SNCCP, Reel 16.
7. The best study of Douglass as a self-made man is found in John Stauffer, Giants: The Parallel Lives of Frederick Douglass and Abraham Lincoln (New York: Twelve, 2008). Carmichael, Stokely Speaks, pp. 66–67, 76; Chicago Daily Defender, January 18, 1967, p. 5; Los Angeles Times, January 17, 1967, p. 10.
8. Ransby, Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement, p. 355. Chicago Tribune, January 26, 1967, p. 7; Boston Globe, January 26, 1967, p. 10; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Communist Infiltration of SNCC,” January 27, 1967, pp. 1–4. FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Communist Infiltration of SNCC,” June 12, 1967, p. 15. SNCC FBI Reports File #2. Federal Records, NACCD (Kerner Commission) Box E19. LBJ Library. FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Communist Infiltration of SNCC,” January 25, 1967, pp. 1–4. FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Foreign Broadcast Information Service Daily report,” January 26, 1967, p. 4.
9. FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Communist Infiltration of SNCC,” June 12, 1967, p. 16. SNCC FBI Reports File #2; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Communist Infiltration of SNCC,” January 27, 1967, pp. 3–4; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Communist Infiltration of SNCC,” January 27, 1967, p. 2; New York Amsterdam News, February 4, 1967, p. 2.
10. Los Angeles Times, January 30, 1967, pp. 3, 24. The Movement, February 1967, p. 205. CAKC.
11. Quotes from Los Angeles Times, February 5, 1967, pp. DB, 14 and January 30, 1967, p. 3; Berkeley Barb, February 10, 1967, p. 3.
12. Stokely Carmichael to James Baldwin, January 24, 1967; Stokely Carmichael to Gwendolyn Biggs, January 10, 1967; Stokely Carmichael to Kathi Simmons, January 23, 1967. SNCCP, Reel 2. Stokely Carmichael to Gloria Madden, January 24, 1967, p. 1.
13. Stokely Carmichael to Pernicia Morris, January 28, 1967; Stokely Carmichael to Lynn McKinley, January 28, 1967; Stokely Carmichael to Sandra Williams, January 30, 1967; Stokely Carmichael to Carol Matthews, January 30, 1967. SNCCP, Reel 2. Stokely Carmichael to Gloria Madden, February 4, 1967. SNCCP, Reel 2. Lorna Smith to Stokely Carmichael, January 20, 1967. Stokely Carmichael to Lorna Smith, January 28, 1967. SNCCP, Reel 2.
14. Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour.
15. Eldridge Cleaver, “My Father and Stokely Carmichael,” Ramparts, April 1967, pp. 10–14. FBIKT 100–446080–141, “Airtel from San Francisco SA to FBI Director,” February 28, 1967.
16. FBIKT 100–446080-no serial, “Stokely Carmichael,” February 20, 1967, p. 1; Washington Post, February 18, 1967, p. 2. FBIKT 100–446080–131, “Stokely Carmichael; Student Non Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC),” February 28, 1967, pp. 1–2; New Journal and Guide, February 25, 1967, p. 1; San Francisco Chronicle, February 18, 1967, p. 26. FBIKT 100–446080–119, “Stokely Carmichael—Teletype,” February 16, 1967, pp. 1–2; FBIKT 100–446080–120, “Stokely Carmichael—Teletype,” February 18, 1967, pp. 1–3; FBIKT 100–446080–121, “Stokely Carmichael—Airtel,” February 21, 1967, pp. 1–2 and pp. 1–6; Los Angeles Times, February 16, 1967, p. A8.
17. “Stokely Comes to McGill,” Sanity, May 11, 1967, p. 2; C.L.R. James, “Black Power: Its Past, Today, and the Way Ahead,” pp. 1–3. Speech Delivered by C.L.R. James, August 1967. FBIKT 100–446080–301, Montreal Gazette, February 25, 1967; C.L.R. James, “Black Power: Its Past, Today, and the Way Ahead,” August 1967. Speech Delivered in London. SCLDSC.
18. FBIKT 100–446080–127, “Teletype,” March 3, 1967; New Pittsburgh Courier, March 11, 1967, pp. 1, 3, 5.
19. New York Times, March 3, 1967, pp. 1, 21.
20. Central Committee Meeting, March 4, 1967, pp. 1–32. SNCCP, Reel 16.
21. Quotes from Central Committee Meeting, March 4, 1967, pp. 41–43.
22. FBIKT 100–446080-no serial, “Student Non Violent Coordinating Committee: Stokely Carmichael,” March 17, 1967, pp. 1–2.
23. Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, pp. 593, 603. King had come out against the war as early as 1965 but was quickly pressured into silence. SNCC subsequently became one of the war’s leading critics and from June 1966 to April 1967, Carmichael emerged as the black freedom struggle’s most vocal antiwar critic. See Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, pp. 254–255, 308–309, 591–597; Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, pp. 179–183. Chicago Tribune, April 6, 1967, p. 20.
24. FBIKT 100–446080–550, “Stokely Carmichael Speech Delivered at Tennessee A & I State University on April 7, 1967,” September 11, 1967, p. 3.
25. Ibid.
26. Quotes from ibid., pp. 1–6; New York Amsterdam News, April 15, 1967, pp. 1, 15. New Journal and Guide, April 22, 1967, p. 9. Kathleen Cleaver, ed., Target Zero: A Life in Writing by Eldridge Cleaver (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), p. 74.
27. Jennifer Hendricks, “Stokely Carmichael and the 1967 IMPACT Symposium: Black Power, White Fear, and the Conservative South,” Tennessee Historical Quarterly, vol. 63, no. 4, p. 295. FBIKT 100–446080–250, “Airtel from Knoxville SAC to FBI Director,” June 1, 1967; Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, p. 608; Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, p. 178; New York Times, April 9, 1967, pp. 1, 55.
28. New York Times, April 10, 1967, pp. 1, 19. Washington Post, April 10, 1967, p. 3. Nashville Forum, April 1967, Metro Nashville Archives, Metro Government Audio Tape, Record Group 312 (312–500). New York Times, April 11, 1967, p. 46.
29. Boston Globe, April 13, 1967, p. 2; Chicago Tribune, April 11, 1967, p. 12; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, Memorandum, April 20, 1967, p. 1; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam,” April 8, 1967, pp. 1–3.
30. New York Times, April 15, 1967, p. 3; Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, pp. 599–60.
31. Quotes from Stokely Carmichael, “Spring Mobilization to End the War in Vietnam,” April 15, 1967, pp. 1–2. SCLDSC.
32. Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, pp. 180–181.
33. Quotes from Stokely Carmichael, “Spring Mobilization to End the War in Vietnam,” April 15, 1967, p. 2. SCLDSC.
34. Stokely Carmichael to Lorna Smith, May 2, 1967. SCLDSC.
35. Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, p. 600. FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Stokely Carmichael,” November 16, 1967, p. 24. Carmichael, Stokely. Box E7. LBJ Library.
36. Parks, “Whip of Black Power,” p. 82.
37. Ibid., pp. 78, 82.
38. Quotes from Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 514–515; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “SNCC: Stokely Carmichael,” May 5, 1967, pp. 1–3; FBIKT-100–446080–489, “Stokely Carmichael: Prosecutive Summary,” August 12, 1967, p. 239.
39. Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, p. 604. New York Times, April 30, 1967, pp. 1, 10; Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, p. 604.
40. Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, pp. 605–606; FBIKT 100–446080-no serial, “Stokely Carmichael,” May 5, 1967, p. 2; FBIKT 100–446080–666, Airtel from Director Hoover to Atlanta SAC, November 17, 1967, which notes that Assistant Attorney General Walter Yeagley requested that agents “obtain the names of these 16 individuals, the city where they refused induction, and what action was instituted against them for their refusal.” Los Angeles Times, May 2, 1967, p. 9.
41. Stokely Carmichael, “Report from the Chairman,” May 5, 1967, pp. 1–6. SNCC Papers, Box 7, “May 1967 Staff Meeting” folder. King Center Archives.
42. Los Angeles Times, May 6, 1967, p. 4. New York Times, May 6, 1967, pp. 1, 6.
43. New York Times, May 13, 1967, p. 20; Washington Post, May 13, 1967, p. 4; Chicago Tribune, May 13, 1967, p. 6; Los Angeles Times, May 13, 1967, p. 14.
44. The Southern Courier, May 20–21/1967, 2–150–2-6–1-1–1.
45. FBIKT 100–446080–240, Memorandum, “Stokely Carmichael: Director’s Testimony Before House Appropriations Subcommittee February 16, 1967,” May 17, 1967, p.1; FBIKT 100–446080–240X, “Proposed Appearance of Stokely Carmichael, Grand Rapids, Michigan, May 17, 1967,” May 18, 1967, p. 1; FBIKT 100–446080–205, “SNCC: Stokely Carmichael,” May 17, 1967, p. 2. Bureau files reported Carmichael asserting that Hoover was in his “dotage and should retire.” FBIKT 100–446080–213, “Proposed Appearance of Stokely Carmichael, Grand Rapids, Michigan, May 17, 1967,” pp. 1–2. One angry citizen wrote the FBI director pledging support and alleging that, according to news accounts, Carmichael had referred to the director as “J. Edgar Notetaker.” See FBIKT 100–446080–214 Teletype, May 17, 1967, p. 1; FBIKT 100–446080–215, Correspondence to FBI director, May 18, 1967, p. 1. In Grand Rapids, Cleve Sellers gave a brief speech before Carmichael, discussing his decision to resist the draft. See FBIKT 100–446080–486, “Stokely Carmichael,” July 24, 1967, pp. 1–4; FBIKT “SNCC: Stokely Carmichael,” May 29, 1967, p. 1. TBC. FBIKT 100–446080–344, “Stokely Carmichael,” June 20, 1967, 1.
46. Chicago Daily Defender, May 17, 1967, p. 10; FBIKT 100–446080–209, Airtel, Detroit SAC to FBI Director, May 15, 1967, pp. 1–4; FBIKT 100–446080–210, Teletype, FBI Detroit to Director Hoover, May 16, 1967, pp. 1–4; FBIKT 100–446080–240x, “Proposed Appearance of Stokely Carmichael, Grand Rapids, Michigan, May 17, 1967,” May 18, 1967, pp. 1–9; FBIKT 100–446080–228, Unidentified newspaper clipping, May 8, 1967.
47. Washington Post, May 19, 1967, p. 4; Bernard Weinraub, “The Brilliancy of Black,” Esquire, January 1967, p. 134; MSC, May 18, 1967, 3–11–0-29–10–1-1.
48. The Movement, July 1967. SCLDS.
49. Sol Stern, “The Call of the Panthers,” New York Times Magazine, August 6, 1967.
50. FBIKT 100–446080-NR, Correspondence to Mildred Stegall, May 23, 1967; Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, p. 182; Muhammad Speaks, May 26, 1967, p. 24.
51. District Court of Alabama, 1968, Houser v. Hill, 278 F. Supp. 920, pp. 15, 23. FBIKT 100–446080–324, “After Civil Rights—Black Power,” June 13, 1967, pp. 1–6 and FBIKT 100–446080–327, Memorandum, “NBC News Special: June 11, 1967,” June 12, 1967, p. 1; FBIKT 100–446080–292, “Stokely Carmichael,” June 12, 1967, pp. 1–4; New York Times, June 12, 1967, p. 91; Boston Globe, June 13, 1967, p. 39; http://www.nbcuniversalarchives.com/nbcuni/clip/51A06589_s01.do (accessed August 6, 2013).
52. FBIKT 100–446080–292, “Stokely Carmichael,” June 12, 1967, pp. 1–4. FBIKT 100–446080–286, Teletype, “Stokely Carmichael,” pp. 1–2; FBIKT 100–446080–289, “Memorandum—Stokely Carmichael,” June 12, 1967; FBIKT 100–446080–290, “Memorandum—Stokely Carmichael,” June 12, 1967, pp. 1–2; Los Angeles Times, June 12, 1966, p. 16; Washington Post, June 13, 1967, p. 3; New York Times, June 14, 1967, p. 31. The Movement, July 1967, p. 259. CAKC; FBIKT 100–446080-A, Birmingham Post-Herald, June 12, 1967, p. 1; FBIKT 100–446080–299, “Teletype,” June 12, 1967; New York Times, June 14, 1967; FBIKT 100–446080–323, “Stokely Carmichael: Coordinating Council for Black Power,” July 13, 1967, p. 1. See also, Sellers with Terrell, The River of No Return, pp. 197–199.
53. FBIKT 100–446080-NR, Tampa Times, June 13, 1967, p. 14; Chicago Daily Defender, June 15, 1967, p. 2. Boston Globe, June 16, 1967, p. 11; Los Angeles Times, June 22, 1966, p. 4.
54. Boston Globe, July 27, 1967, p. 52 and August 22, 1967, p. 22.
55. FBIKT 100–446080-NR, Deke DeLoach to Clyde Tolson, July 10, 1967, pp. 1–4; FBIKT 100–446080–249, Memorandum, May 23, 1967, p. 1; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, Correspondence to Mildred Stegall, May 24, 1967, pp. 1–2. Front-page headlines in The Wall Street Journal sounded a public warning over Carmichael’s threat to return to Washington for activities almost preordained as violent. SNCC’s summer campaign to eradicate “votelessness, police brutality, the racist war in Vietnam, starvation diets and racist courts” struck the Journal as a blunt call for subversion. They cited black local leaders (including former SNCC activist Marion Barry) as more credible advocates for the city’s indigenous population, dismissing Carmichael as a rabble-rousing carpetbagger while ignoring his roots in the community and his status as one of Howard University’s most famous alumni. SNCC’s new chairman inspired fevered interest from journalists and the FBI. Informants detailed Rap Brown’s Houston lecture on rioting, which allegedly discussed effective ways to damage urban areas despite the presence of National Guard. At a June 22nd press conference, Brown ratcheted up the race-war talk, suggesting that “If America chooses to play the Nazi, black people don’t choose to play the Jews.” Brown’s penchant for outrageous comments that laced predictions of guerrilla warfare with pungent humor made him Carmichael’s contemporary in the ability to outrage white Americans, if not inspire black militants. Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee: Stokely Carmichael,” June 27, 1967, pp. 1–4.
Chapter Twelve: The World Stage: London, Cuba, and Vietnam
1. Angela Davis, Angela Davis: An Autobiography (1974; New York: International Publishers, 1988), p. 150. FBIKT 100–446080-no serial, Observer Review, July 23, 1967.
2. Boston Globe, July 16, 1967, p. 14.
3. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 573–577. Kalbir Shukra, The Changing Pattern of Black Politics in Britain (London: Pluto Press, 1998), pp. 24–25, 30–31.
4. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 576; Ware Interview, pp. 36–43; Observer Review, July 23, 1967, p. 17; London Times, July 25, 1967, p. 2.
5. Stokely Speaks, p. 78.
6. Ibid., p. 80, 81.
7. Ibid., p. 91.
8. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 580; Tariq Ali, Street-Fighting Years: An Autobiography of the Sixties (London: Verso, 2005), pp. 198–199. Quotes from Stokely Carmichael, Dialectics of Liberation Panel, July 1967. 1CDR0002893; 1CDR0002893_BD02 [1]. Mp3; 1CDR)))2894_BD01[1].Mp3; 1CDR0002894_BD02[1]. Stokely Carmichael Recordings, British Library.
9. Berkeley Barb, September 1–7, 1967, p. 5. London Tribune, July 28, 1967, p. 7. The Observer Review, July 23, 1967, p. 17; Washington Post, July 25, 1967, p. 3.
10. FBIKT 100–446080–521, Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Special Memorandum, “Reportage and Comment on Stokely Carmichael’s Activities and Statements Abroad,” p. 24; London Times, July 25, 1967, p. 2; Boston Globe, July 24, 1967, p. 14; Washington Post, July 27, 1967, p. 7.
11. Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, pp. 186–187.
12. New York Times, July 26, 1967, p. 22; New Journal and Guide, July 29, 1967, p. B4. FBIKT 100–446080-no serial, “Cuban Clandestine Operation in the United States,” Memorandum, July 26, 1967; FBIKT 100–446080–521, “Reportage and Comment on Stokely Carmichael’s Activities and Statements Abroad,” August 9, 1967, p. 1; Ware interview, p. 46.
13. FBIKT 100–446080–521, “Reportage and Comment on Stokely Carmichael’s Activities and Statements Abroad,” pp. 32, 49; The Militant, August 21, 1967, pp. 24–32, Stokely Carmichael Clippings. Schomburg Center.
14. Ware interview, p. 48. FBIKT 100–446080–521, “Reportage and Comment on Stokely Carmichael’s Activities and Statements Abroad,” p. 23; Ware interview, p. 48. Elizabeth Martínez interview, March 6, 2009, pp. 12–13; Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 583; Ware interview, pp. 49–50. FBIKT 100–446080–521, “Reportage and Comment on Stokely Carmichael’s Activities and Statements Abroad,” August 9, 1967, p. 40; New York Times, July 27, 1967, pp. 1–11.
15. FBIKT 100–446080–410, “Stokely Carmichael,” July 28, 1967, p. 1. FBIKT 100–446080–616, Christian Science Monitor, July 28, 1967.
16. “July 26, 1967: Castro Adds the US to His Revolutionary List,” pp. 1–3. US Dept. of State, File No: POL 23–8; 4/1/67, Box: 2605; FBIKT 100–446080–521, “Reportage and Comment on Stokely Carmichael’s Activities and Statements Abroad,” p. 2; New York Times, July 26, 1967, p. 38; Christian Science Monitor, July 1967, SCLDSC.
17. FBIKT 100–446080–448, “Stokely Carmichael,” August 4, 1967, pp. 1–2; FBIKT 100–446080–521, “Reportage and Comment on Stokely Carmichael’s Activities and Statements Abroad,” August 9, 1967, pp. 38–39. FBIKT 100–446080-not recorded, Memorandum, August 4, 1967; Carmichael interview with Clayborne Carson, October 18, 1977, p. 13.
18. FBIKT 100–446080–466, “Snick—Castro’s Arm in U.S.,” Omaha World Herald, August 6, 1967. Boston Globe, July 29, 1967, p. 7.
19. Correspondence between Nicholas Katzenbach and Dr. James H. Mendel, July 26 and September 12, 1967; Tom Adams to Dean Rusk, August 14, 1967; Winthrop Brown to Tom Adams, August 22, 1967; Dixon Donnelly to Frank R. Chase, August 31, 1967; Dixon Donnelly to C.N. Woodruff, August 31, 1967; RG 59, GRDS, SC, 1/1/67, Box 234. Winthrop G. Brown to Lurleen Wallace, August 11, 1967, pp. 1–2; RG 59, GRDS, SC, 1/1/67, Box 234.
20. Los Angeles Times, July 30, 1967, p. F4; Los Angeles Times, August 3, 1967, pp. 1, 8. Boston Globe, July 29, 1967, p. 5. For discussion of Reagan quote see Washington Post, July 28, 1967, p. 17 and Boston Globe, July 29, 1967, p. 5. Detroit’s Police Chief Ray Giradin, while conceding that Stokely Carmichael’s speeches inflamed local militants, denied that the riot had been the product of an organized conspiracy. See New York Times, July 28, 1967, p. 10. Baltimore Afro-American, July 29, 1967, p. 15. New York Times, July 30, 1967, p. 141. FBIKT 100–446080–498, Memorandum, “Stokely Carmichael, Sedition,” To Clyde Tolson from Deke DeLoach, August 7, 1967, p. 1.
21. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 583–584.
22. Boston Globe, July 31, 1967, pp. 1, 5; Los Angeles Times, July 31, 1967, pp. 1, 6; Chicago Tribune, August 1, 1967, p. 6; Los Angeles Times, August 1, 1967, p. 14.
23. FBIKT 100–446080–521, “Reportage and Comment on Stokely Carmichael’s Activities and Statements Abroad,” pp. 7, 12, 49; The Movement, September 1967, p. 280.
24. FBIKT 100–446080–686, “Stokely Carmichael,” Airtel, November 9, 1967, pp. 1–5. James Reston, “Havana: Stokely Carmichael’s Game,” New York Times, August 2, 1967, p. 36; Ware interview, pp. 51–52; Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 588–589; see also James Reston, “Havana: The American Negro and Communist Strategy,” New York Times, July 28, 1967, p. 23 and “Havana: Castro’s Achievements and Contradictions,” New York Times, July 30, 1967, p. 140.
25. Washington Post, August 2, 1967, pp. 1, 14; Chicago Tribune, August 2, 1967, p. 8; Boston Globe, August 2, 1967, p. 46. See also Chicago Tribune editorial “If It Isn’t Sedition, What Is It?,” August 5, 1967, p. 8; Richard Helms to President Johnson, Memorandum, August 8, 1967, p. 1. LBJL, Case # 91–33, Document #108A.
26. “Reportage and Comment on Stokely Carmichael’s Activities and Statements Abroad,” August 10 to October 5, 1967, pp. 16–25, 27. State Department. LBJL.
27. FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Stokely Carmichael: Foreign Broadcast Information Service Reports, July–December 1967,” January 22, 1968, pp. 4–8.
28. Carmichael, Stokely Speaks, p. 104.
29. Ibid., pp. 101–110.
30. “Speech of the U.S. Representative, Stokely Carmichael, at the First Conference of Latin American Solidarity (OLAS) July 31–August 10, 1967,” FBIKT 100–446080–675, pp. 2–3.
31. Los Angeles Times, August 11, 1967, p. 23; National Guardian, September 9, 1967, p. 3; Chicago Tribune, August 12, 1967, p. 6. Los Angeles Times, August 13, 1967, p. E3.
32. “Reportage and Comment on Stokely Carmichael’s Activities and Statements Abroad,” August 10 to October 5, 1967, p. 28; Washington Post, August 12, 1967, p. 4; Chicago Daily Defender, August 15, 1967, p. 2.
33. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 594–595.
34. Stokely Carmichael Interviewed by David Du Bois in Cairo, Week of September 19, 1967, p. 3. Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University. “Reportage and Comment on Stokely Carmichael’s Activities and Statements Abroad,” August 10 to October 5, 1967, p. 48; New York Times, September 1, 1967, p. 18; Washington Post, September 1, 1967, p. 14; “Reportage and Comment on Stokely Carmichael’s Activities and Statements Abroad,” October 6 to December 12, 1967, p. 8.
35. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 600. “Reportage and Comment on Stokely Carmichael’s Activities and Statements Abroad,” August 10 to October 5, 1967, pp. 43; Washington Post, August 10, 1967, p. 22; New York Times, August 11, 1967, p. 3; Los Angeles Sentinel, August 24, 1967, p. 2; Baltimore Afro-American, August 26, 1967, pp. 1–2; Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 600–601. “Reportage and Comment on Stokely Carmichael’s Activities and Statements Abroad,” August 10 to October 5, 1967, p. 49.
36. Chicago Sun Times, September 5, 1967; Chicago Daily News, September 5, 1967; CSTA. New Journal and Guide, September 9, 1967, p. 1.
Chapter Thirteen: The World Stage: Africa
1. “Visit of Stokely Carmichael to Algeria,” September 21, 1967. CIA-FOIA, Case No. E)-1998–00458; Dept. of State Airgram, October 2, 1967, pp. 1–2. POL 23–8; August 1, 1967, Box 2605. American Embassy Algiers to Secretary of State, September 6, 1967, pp. 1–2, RG 59, GRDS, SC, 1/1/67, Box 234. Quotes from “Stokely Carmichael,” September 7, 1967, pp. 1–2. RG 59, GRDS, SC, 1/1/67, Box 234.
2. The Egyptian Gazette, September 8, 1967, p. 2.
3. Quote from “Stokely Carmichael Interview in Révolution Africaine,” September 11, 1967, pp. 1–2; “Stokely Carmichael in Algeria,” September 11, 1967, pp. 1–2. RG 59/GRDS, FN: SC, 1/1/67, Box 234. “Reportage and Comment on Stokely Carmichael’s Activities and Statements Abroad,” August 10 to October 5, 1967, p. 57; “Stokely Carmichael,” Telegram, September 7, 1967, p. 1 and American Embassy Algiers to Secretary of State, Telegram, September 8, 1967, p. 1, RG 59, GRDS, SC, 1/1/67, Box 234; “Stokely Carmichael Interview in Révolution Africaine” September 11, 1967, pp. 1–2; “Stokely Carmichael in Algeria,” September 11, 1967, pp. 1–2. RG 59/GRDS, FN: SC, 1/1/67, Box 234.
4. Los Angeles Times, September 9, 1967, p. 9; Washington Post, September 9, 1967, p. 6. “Stokely Carmichael,” September 11, 1967, SD Airgram, RG 59, GRDS, SC, 1/1/67, Box 234. “Reportage and Comment on Stokely Carmichael’s Activities and Statements Abroad,” August 10 to October 5, 1967, pp. 57, 62–63. “A Visit to Oran: IV. Thoughts on Stokely Carmichael,” October 2, 1967, pp. 1–2, SD Airgram, RG 59, GRDS, SC, 1/1/67, Box 234.
5. “Stokely Carmichael Interview in Révolution Africaine,” September 11, 1967, pp. 1–2; RG59/GRDS, FN: SC, 1/1/67, Box 234. The Egyptian Gazette, September 12, 1967, pp. 1, 3 and September 13, 1967, p. 2.
6. “Stokely Carmichael in Algeria,” September 18, 1967, pp. 1–2. RG59/GRDS, FN: Carmichael, Stokely, 1/1/67, Box: 234. American Embassy Algiers to Secretary of State, September 14, 1967, pp. 1–2. RG 59, GRDS, SC, 1/1/67, Box 234. Philadelphia Tribune, September 12, 1967, p. 1.
7. “Stokely Carmichael in Algeria,” September 18, 1967, pp. 1–2. RG59/GRDS, FN: Carmichael, Stokely, 1/1/67, Box: 234; “Reportage and Comment on Stokely Carmichael’s Activities and Statements Abroad,” August 10 to October 5, 1967, pp. 61–62; National Guardian, September 16, 1967, p. 8.
8. “Stokely Wasn’t All That Great,” October 2, 1967, pp. 1–2. RG 59, GRDS, SC, 1/1/67, Box 234.
9. Boston Globe, August 16, 1966, p. 14; New York Times, August 15, 1967, pp. 1, 16. “Reportage and Comment on Stokely Carmichael’s Activities and Statements Abroad,” August 10 to October 5, 1967, p. 55. “Complete Transcript of a Taped Interview with Mr. Stokely Carmichael Made in Cairo the Week of September 19, 1967,” pp. 1–8. Shirley Graham Du Bois Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute. Harvard University; Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, pp. 194–195.
10. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 605. “Reportage and Comment on Stokely Carmichael’s Activities and Statements Abroad,” August 10 to October 5, 1967, p. 77. Carmichael and Du Bois Transcript, p. 8; Egyptian Gazette, September 18, 1967, p. 3.
11. “Reportage and Comment on Stokely Carmichael’s Activities and Statements Abroad,” August 10 to October 5, 1967, pp. 79, 83–84; Chicago Daily Defender, September 25, 1967, p. 4; Washington Post, September 24, 1967, p. B2; Carmichael, Ready for Revolution, pp. 606, 608–609; The Egyptian Gazette, September 24, 1967, p. 2. The Egyptian Gazette, September 28, 1967, p. 2.
12. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 614.
13. Marable, Malcolm X, pp. 384–385.
14. Miriam Makeba with James Hall, My Story (New York: New American Library, 1987), p. 109.
15. Ibid., pp. 142–147.
16. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 617–620; Makeba, Makeba, pp. 147–153, 109.
17. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 622, 614–15.
18. “Stokely Carmichael,” Telegram, September 28, 1967, pp. 1–2, RG 59, GRSD, SC, 1/1/67, Box 234.
19. “Stokely Carmichael Visit to Guinea,” October 16, 1967, pp. 1–2; Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 603.
20. “Reportage and Comment on Stokely Carmichael’s Activities and Statements Abroad,” August 10 to October 5, 1967, p. 86.
21. Fleming, Soon We Will Not Cry, pp. 1–12.
22. “Reportage and Comment on Stokely Carmichael’s Activities and Statements Abroad,” October 6 to December 12, 1967, p. 5.
23. Ibid., pp. 6–7; Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 632; Chicago Daily Defender, October 25, 1967, p. 2.
24. “Stokely Carmichael in Tanzania Backwash and Backlash,” December 15, 1967, p. 1. RG 59, GRDS, SC, 1/1/67, Box 234.
25. Quotes from “Stokely Carmichael,” November 1, 1967, pp. 1–4, RG 59/GRDS, FN: Carmichael, Stokely, 1/1/67, Box: 234; FBIKT 100–446080–1012, “Stokely Carmichael,” January 19, 1968, Transcript of November 1967 interview by Tom Looker, p. 1.
26. The Nationalist, November 4, 1967, p.1; Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 638; Makeba, Makeba, pp. 148–149.
27. “ANC on Stokely Carmichael,” November 27, 1967, pp. 1–3, RG59/GRDS, FN: Carmichael, Stokely, 1/1/67, Box: 234. DS Telegram, November 23, 1967, RG59 GRSD, FN: Carmichael, Stokely, 1/1/67, Box: 234; Chicago Tribune, November 5, 1967, p. 12; Washington Post, November 5, 1967, p. 28; New York Times, November 5, 1967, p. 24. See also New York Amsterdam News, November 25, 1967, p. 2.
28. “Stokely Carmichael in Tanzania: Backwash and Backlash,” December 15, 1967, pp. 1–8. RG 59, GRDS, SC, 1/1/67, Box: 234; “ANC on Stokely Carmichael,” November 27, 1967, pp. 1–3, RG 59, GRDS, SC, 1.1.67, Box 234. Baltimore Afro-American, December 2, 1967, p. 1; FBIKT 100–446080–1012, “Stokely Carmichael,” January 19, 1968, Transcript of November 1967 interview by Tom Looker, p. 2.
29. FBIKT 100–446080–1038, United States Information Agency, “Stokely Carmichael,” January 23, 1968, pp. 1–5; FBIKT 100–446080–1038, “Stokely Carmichael: Talk at Kivukoni College, November 6, 1967,” January 23, 1968, pp. 1–8; Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 635–638; “Stokely Irks African Rebel Leaders,” New York Post, November 20, 1967; “Reportage and Comment on Stokely Carmichael’s Activities and Statements Abroad,” October 6 to December 12, 1967, p. 18.
30. “Reportage and Comment on Stokely Carmichael’s Activities and Statements Abroad,” October 6 to December 12, 1967, p. 18; Washington Post, November 28, 1967, p. 10; FBIKT 100–446080–877, FBI Director to SAC Atlanta, Airtel, December 28, 1967.
31. FBIKT 100–446080-NR, Telegram, American Embassy London, November 29, 1967; International Herald Tribune, November 30, 1967, p. 3.
32. “Reportage and Comment on Stokely Carmichael’s Activities and Statements Abroad,” October 6 to December 12, 1967, p. 20; International Herald Tribune, December 1, 1967, p. 3. FBIKT 100–446080-NR, American Embassy Oslo to United States Information Office, Washington, DC, December 1, 1967, pp. 1–2.
33. State Dept. Telegram, November 28, 1967, p. 1; State Dept. Telegram, November 30, 1967, pp. 1–2; State Dept. Telegram, November 30, 1967, pp. 1–2; State Dept. Telegram, December 5, 1967, pp. 1–2, RG 59/GRDS, FN: Carmichael, Stokely, 1/1/67, Box 234; FBIKT 100–446080–998, “Sojourn in Paris of the Colored American Extremist Leader Stokely Carmichael,” December 11, 1967, p. 1; International Herald Tribune, December 6, 1967, p. 1.
34. New York Times, December 7, 1967, p. 2; FBIKT 100–446080–758, “Stokely Carmichael,” Memorandum, December 5, 1967. New York Times, February 10, 1965, p. 3; Chicago Defender, December 9, 1967, p. 3; The Chicago Daily Defender, December 7, 1967, p. 19 and New York Times, December 7, 1967; FBIKT 100–446080–1012, The Sunday San Francisco Chronicle & Examiner, December 10, 1967, p. 6; New York Times, December 6, 1967, p. 3; International Herald Tribune, December 6, 1967, p. 1. Various accounts state that Carmichael’s time in quarantine was between twelve and seventeen hours; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “French Bar Carmichael At Airport,” International Herald Tribune, December 6, 1967; FBIKT 100–446080–740, FBI New York to Director Hoover, Teletype, December 6, 1967. Based on accounts from FBI, newspaper sources, and French intelligence, Carmichael arrived at Orly Airport at 7:40 P.M. on December 5 and departed at 3:00 P.M. the next day, making seventeen hours the most accurate assessment of his time in quarantine.
35. After his ordeal at Orly Stokely thanked the French police for their hospitality when they returned his stamped passport on Wednesday afternoon. FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Carmichael at Paris Rally As French Reverse Stand,” International Herald Tribune, December 7, 1967, pp. 1–2; International Herald Tribune, December 6 and 7, 1967.
36. San Francisco Sunday Examiner & Chronicle, December 10, 1967, p. 6.
37. Greensboro Daily News, December 7, 1967. SCLDS; New York Times, December 7, 1967, p. 2; Chicago Tribune, December 7, 1967, p. 7; U.S. News & World Report, December 15, 1967, p. 28.
38. FBIKT 100–446080–1042, “Stokely Carmichael: Sedition,” February 1, 1968, pp. 23–24; FBIKT 100–446080–779, Paris Legat to Director Hoover, Airtel, December 12, 1967, “Translation from French: An Address by Mr. Stokely Carmichael at a Meeting Held December 6, 1967, at ‘La Mutualité’ House.” FBIKT 100–446080–812, “CBS Evening News with Walter Cronkite (Excerpt),” December 7, 1967, p. 1.
39. FBIKT 100–446080-NR, International Herald Tribune, December 7, 1967, pp. 1–2.
40. FBIKT 100–446080–998, “Sojourn in Paris of the Colored American Extremist Leader Stokely Carmichael,” December 11, 1967, p. 3.
41. Dick Perrin with Tim McCarthy, GI Resister (Victoria, Canada: Trafford Press, 2002), pp. 74–80; New York Times, December 10, 1967, p. 6; Boston Globe, December 10, 1967, p. 93; FBIKT 100–446080–813, “Stokely Carmichael,” December 11, 1967, pp. 1–4; FBIKT 100–446080–824, “Carmichael Loses Passport,” Washington Daily News, December 12, 1967, p. 49; Boston Globe, December 12, 1967, p. 17; Chicago Daily Defender, December 12, 1967, p. 20; Chicago Tribune, December 12, 1967, p. B9; New York Times, December 12, 1967, p. 15; Washington Post, December 12, 1967, p. 1. See also editorials, “Call Carmichael’s Bluff,” Chicago Tribune, December 13, 1967, p. 22 and “Carmichael Returns,” Chicago Daily Defender, December 18, 1967, p. 13. Chicago Tribune, December 13, 1967, p. 22; Chicago Daily Defender, December 18, 1967, p. 13; Washington Post, December 18, 1967, p. 20.
42. Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, p. 204; New York Times, December 12, 1967, p. 14 and December 17, 1967, p. 188; FBIKT 100–446080–744, “Stokely Carmichael,” December 12, 1967; FBIKT 100–446080–765, “Stokely Carmichael,” December 11, 1967; Chicago Daily Defender, December 12, 1967, pp. 1, 3. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 639. New York Times, October 8, 1967, p. 28; Baltimore Afro-American, October 14, 1967, p. 1.
43. FBIKT 100–446080–824, “Carmichael Loses Passport,” Washington Daily News, December 12, 1967, p. 49; FBIKT 100–446080–844, Copy of Stokely Carmichael Passport, issued January 26, 1967; Chicago Daily Defender, December 12, 1967, pp. 1, 3; New York Times, December 12, 1967, p. 14; Los Angeles Times, December 12, 1967, pp. 1, 9 and December 17, 1967, p. L4; Washington Post, December 12, 1967, pp. 1, 4; New York Amsterdam News, December 16, 1967, pp. 1, 44. FBIKT 100–446080–777, “Stokely Carmichael,” December 11, 1967; FBIKT 100–446080–919, “Stokely Carmichael,” December 28, 1967, p. 1. FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Carmichael’s Mother Lives in Fear,” Barbados Advocate, December 14, 1967.
44. New York Times, October 10, 1967, p. 47. Enterprising staff members attempted to turn Carmichael’s strategic silence into financial profit. Desperate for money, SNCC representatives approached news media with an offer to sell an exclusive Carmichael interview for $70,000 only to be rebuffed. FBIKT 100–446080–882, “Stokely Carmichael,” Teletype, December 28, 1967, p. 1; FBIKT 100–446080–900, “Stokely Carmichael,” Memorandum, December 29, 1967.
45. Los Angeles Times, December 3, 1967, p. D21 and December 17, 1967, p. L3; Washington Post, December 3, 1967, p. K6.
Chapter Fourteen: Black Panther
1. Bloom and Martin, Black Against Empire, p. 101.
2. Chicago Defender, October 7, 1967, p. 1; New York Times, January 22, 1968, p. 18.
3. Christopher Lasch, “The Trouble with Black Power: A Special Supplement,” The New York Review of Books, February 29, 1968. Albert Murray, “The Illusive Black Image,” Chicago Sun-Times, November 26, 1967, pp. 4, 10. Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, p. 200; New York Times, December 10, 1967, pp. 3, 66; San Francisco Examiner-Chronicle, November 19, 1967; Chicago Daily News, October 21, 1967. CST.
4. “Possible Criminal Prosecution of Stokely Carmichael,” December 20, 1967, pp. 1–6. RG 59/State Dept. Records, Carmichael, Stokely, 1/1,67, Box: 234; Leonard Meeker to Walter Yeagley, December 29, 1967, and Walter Yeagley to Leonard Meeker, December 20, 1967, RG 59, GRDS, SC, 1/1/67.
5. FBIKT 100–446080–881, NY FBI to Director and Atlanta, Teletype, December 28, 1967, p. 1; FBIKT 100–446080–883, Domestic Intelligence Division to FBI Director, Teletype, December 31, 1967; New York Times, December 30, 1967, p. 21; Chicago Daily Defender, January 2, 1968, p. 8.
6. FBIKT 100–446080–1047, “Stokely Carmichael,” January 23, 1968, pp. 7–8. Washington Post, January 10, 1968, pp. 1, 12. FBIKT 100–446080–1818, “Stokely Carmichael: Washington Field Office Report,” July 30, 1968, p. P.
7. FBIKT 100–446080–970, Washington SAC to FBI Director, Teletype, January 15, 1968, pp. 1–3. Washington Post, January 18, 1968, pp. 1, 7. New York Times, January 18, 1968, p. 29; Robert C. Maynard, “Negro Coalition Leadership Rift Brews,” Washington Post, January 13, 1968, p. B3; “Clerics denounce Negro Coalition Led by Carmichael,” Washington Post, January 14, 1968, p. C3 and “Carmichael in Church Plays It Like Pro,” Washington Post, January 15, 1968, p. B1; Chicago Daily Defender, January 15, 1968, p. 8; FBIKT 100–446080–946, “Stokely Carmichael,” January 10, 1968, pp. 1–2.
8. Chicago Daily Defender, January 27, 1968, p. 4; Los Angeles Sentinel, January 25, 1968, p. D1. FBIKT 100–446080–987, NY FBI to FBI Director, Teletype, January 20, 1968; FBIKT 100–446080–988, WFO SAC to FBI Director, Teletype, January 20, 1968; FBIKT 100–446080–989X, WFO SAC to FBI Director, Teletype, January 21, 1968; Robert C. Maynard, “Carmichael Enigma: What Are His Aims?,” Washington Post, January 21, 1968, pp. 1, 10; New York Times, January 29, 1968, p. 40.
9. FBIKT 100–446080–1167, Memorandum, Stokely Carmichael, February 27, 1968, pp. 1–2; Bobby Seale, Seize the Time (New York, Random House, 1970). pp. 214–218.
10. FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Washington Spring Project,” February 6, 1968, p. 2; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Washington Spring Project,” February 7, 1968, pp. 1–3.
11. FBIKT 100–446080–1096, “Stokely Carmichael,” February 5, 1968, p. 2; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Washington Spring Project: Racial Matters,” January 31, 1968, p. 1. Ethel Payne, “King, Stokely Join in Capitol Camp-In,” Chicago Defender, January 30, 1968. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 648–650; FBIKT 100–446080, “Stokely Carmichael,” pp. 77–78; Muhammad Speaks, February 23, 1968, p. 22; Chicago Daily Defender, February 5, 1968, p. 6; Baltimore Afro-American, February 17, 1968, p. 4; Washington Post, February 11, 1968, p. D1; New York Times, February 11, 1968, p. E4.
12. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 647–648; Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, pp. 689–690; Baltimore-Washington Afro-American, February 10, 1968, p. 1. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, pp. 584–585. FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Washington Spring Project: Racial Matters,” February 9, 1968, pp. 1–3; FBIKT 100–446080–1104, WFO SAC to FBI Director, Teletype, February 7, 1968, pp. 1–3.
13. New Pittsburgh Courier, February 17, 1968, pp, 1, 4; Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, pp. 691–692.
14. Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour. FBIKT 100–446080–1237, “Stokely Carmichael,” March 6, 1968, p. 1. FBIKT 100–446080–1397, “Stokely Carmichael,” April 11, 1968, p. 2.
15. Ethel Minor Interview, pp. 1–12. Carmichael and Hamilton, Black Power, p. 179.
16. Newton, Revolutionary Suicide, p. 209. Call and Post, February 17, 1968, p. 5B; Oakland Tribune, February 17, 1968; Berkeley Gazette, February 17, 1968. Stanford University, Green Library, Newton Foundation Papers (hereafter, NFP).
17. Carson, In Struggle, pp. 277–286.
18. Forman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries, pp. 518–21.
19. See Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour; Clayborne Carson, In Struggle; National Guardian, February 24, 1968, p. 6. Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, pp. 224–226.
20. Carmichael, Stokely Speaks, pp. 121–122.
21. Quotes from FBIKT 100–446080–1397, “Stokely Carmichael,” April 11, 1968, pp. 4–21.
22. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 115–118.
23. Oakland Tribune, February 19, 1968. NFP. Carson, In Struggle, p. 281; Scot Brown, Fighting for US: Maulana Karenga, the US Organization, and Black Cultural Nationalism (New York: New York University Press, 2003), pp. 82–93.
24. FBIKT 100–446080–1209, “Stokely Carmichael, Black Congress Sponsored Rally for Defense of Huey P. Newton, Los Angeles Sports Arena, February 18, 1968,” March 5, 1968.
25. Ibid., p. 58; Chicago Sun-Times, February 18, 1968. CSTA. FBIKT 100–446080–1209, “Stokely Carmichael, Black Congress Sponsored Rally for Defense of Huey P. Newton, Los Angeles Sports Arena, February 18, 1968,” March 5, 1968, pp. 71–72, 72–73.
26. Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, pp. 218–219; Brown, Fighting for US, pp. 94–95.
27. Minor Interview, p. 43; Carson, In Struggle, p. 283.
28. FBIKT 100–446080–1245, “Stokely Carmichael,” March 13, 1968, pp. 1–8; FBIKT 100–446080–1274, “Stokely Carmichael,” Transcript of Morehouse Speech, March 14, 1968, pp. 1–25. FBIKT 100–446080–1193, Teletype, “Stokely Carmichael,” February 28, 1968, p. 1.
29. Herb Boyd, Baldwin’s Harlem (New York: Atria Books, 2008). Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour. All Baldwin quotes in this and the next paragraph: James Baldwin, “From Dreams of Love to Dreams of Terror,” Los Angeles Free Press, Feb. 23–29, 1968, pp. 1, 3; Los Angeles Times, July 7, 1968, p. 23; “Baldwin Batting for Carmichael,” Washington Post, March 3, 1968, p. B2.
30. FBIKT 100–446080–1235, “Stokely Carmichael,” March 12, 1968, pp. 1–4; FBIKT 100–446080–1213, “Stokely Carmichael,” Teletype, March 10, 1968, pp. 1–2; FBIKT 100–446080–1311, “Stokely Carmichael,” March 19, 1968, pp. 1–2; FBIKT 100–446080–1279, “Stokely Carmichael,” March 14, 1968, pp. 1–2; FBIKT 100–446080–1212, “Stokely Carmichael,” Teletype, March 11, 1968, pp. 1–2; FBIKT 100–446080–1276, “Stokely Carmichael,” March 13, 1968, pp. 1–4. Condoleezza Rice, Extraordinary, Ordinary People: A Memoir of Family (New York: Crown, 2010), pp. 117–119, 136–137. Officials at Miles College in Alabama reportedly initially refused to let Carmichael speak at the school during his tour of Alabama but relented. FBIKT 100–446080–1244, “Stokely Carmichael,” Teletype, March 13, 1968, p. 1 and FBIKT 100–446080–1285, “Stokely Carmichael,” March 18, 1968, pp. 1–2.
31. FBIKT 100–446080–1321, “Stokely Carmichael,” March 19, 1968, pp. 1–5. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 655; Boston Globe, March 15, 1968, p. 2; Washington Post, March 16, 1968, p. 3; New York Times, March 16, 1968, p. 34; Chicago Daily Defender, March 18, 1968, p. 19; Call and Post, March 23, 1968, p. 10C. Chicago Daily Defender, March 21, 1968, p. 10. Makeba, Makeba, p. 162.
32. FBIKT 100–446080–1308, “Stokely Carmichael,” March 18, 1968, pp. 1–4; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Possible Racial Violence Major Urban Areas: Washington, D.C.,” March 20, 1968, pp. 1–6; FBIKT 100–446080–1251, “Stokely Carmichael,” Teletype, March 17, 1968, pp. 1–2.
33. LeRoi Jones, Home: Social Essays (1966; Hopewell, NJ: Ecco Press, 1998), p. 85.
34. Philadelphia Tribune, March 23, 1968, p. 1; Quotes from FBIKT 100–446080–1441, “Stokely Carmichael,” April 18, 1968, p. 9; FBIKT 100–446080–1357, “Stokely Carmichael,” March 27, 1968, p. 4.
35. FBIKT 100–446080–1382, “Stokely Carmichael,” April 1, 1968, pp. 1–5; FBIKT 100–446080–1337, “Stokely Carmichael,” March 25, 1968, pp. 1–2.
36. Chicago Daily Defender, April 4, 1968, p. 10; Baltimore Afro-American, April 6, 1968, p. 10; Clay Risen, A Nation on Fire: America in the Wake of the King Assassination (Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2009), p. 47; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Stokely Carmichael: Inciting to Riot,” April 30, 1968, pp. 60–61, 66–67; FBIKT 100–446080–1357, “Stokely Carmichael,” March 27, 1968, p. 7; FBIKT 100–446080–1613, “Stokely Carmichael,” May 23, 1968, pp. 1–17.
Chapter Fifteen: The Prime Minister of Afro-America
1. James M. Washington, ed., A Testament of Hope: The Essential Writings and Speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr. (New York: Harper Collins, 1991), p. 286.
2. FBIKT 100–446080–1474, “Stokely Carmichael,” April 23, 1968, pp. 1–2; FBIKT 100–446080–1389, “Stokely Carmichael: Inciting to Riot,” April 8, 1968, p. 1. FBIKT 100–446080–1389, “Stokely Carmichael: Inciting to Riot,” April 8, 1968, pp. 15–18.
3. FBIKT 100–446080–1389, “Stokely Carmichael: Inciting to Riot,” April 8, 1968; Cara Skubel, “The Shaw Community: The Impact of the Civil Rights Movement, as told by Mrs. Virginia Ali, Owner of Ben’s Chili Bowl,” February 9, 2004, pp. 21–23. Oral History.
4. Boston Globe, April 5, 1968, p. 14; Risen, A Nation On Fire, pp. 54–58, 63; Wall Street Journal, April 8, 1968, p. 25; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Stokely Carmichael: Inciting to Riot,” April 30, 1968, p. 99.
5. Sellers with Terrell, The River of No Return, pp. 229–233; Risen, A Nation on Fire, p. 67. Chicago Daily Defender, April 6, 1968, p. 2; New York Times, April 5, 1968, pp. 1, 26.
6. Lewis, The Shadows of Youth, p. 227.
7. Norman MacAfee, The Gospel According to RFK: Why It Matters Now (New York: Basic Books, 2008), pp. 97–98; Thurston Clarke, The Last Campaign: Robert F. Kennedy and 82 Days That Inspired America (New York: Henry Holt, 2008), pp. 95–96.
8. Boston Globe, April 6, 1968, p. 9; Chicago Tribune, April 6, 1968, pp. N1, 8. Washington Post, April 6, 1968, p. 16; Chicago Daily Defender, April 8, 1968, p. 17; FBIKT 100–446080–1389, “Stokely Carmichael: Inciting to Riot,” April 8, 1968, pp. 29–30. Wall Street Journal, April 8, 1968, p. 25.
9. Washington Post, April 6, 1968, p. A16 in FBIKT 100–446080–1403, p. 102.
10. Ibid.
11. Risen, A Nation on Fire, pp. 88–91; New York Times, April 6, 1968, p. 23.
12. FBIKT 100–446080–1818, “Stokely Carmichael,” pp. 116–131; Boston Globe, April 6, 1968, p. 5; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Stokely Carmichael,” MLK Assassination Summary, pp. 122–141; Risen, A Nation on Fire, pp. 101–102; FBIKT 100–446080–1439, “Stokely Carmichael,” April 6, 1968, pp. 1–2. New York Times, April 7, 1968, p. 62; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Cuban Propaganda Activities,” April 18, 1968, pp. 1–2.
13. New York Times, April 6, 1968, pp. 1, 22; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Stokely Carmichael,” MLK Assassination Summary, April 1968, p. 70; Washington Post, April 7, 1968, p. B6 and April 8, 1968, pp. 11, 16.
14. New York Times, April 6, 1968, p. 38.
15. Chicago Tribune, April 6, 1968, p. N2.
16. Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, April 9, 1968. Temple University Urban Archives, hereafter cited as PEBUA. See also New York Post, April 7, 1968. FBI director J. Edgar Hoover publicly claimed a connection between Black Power and communists, who found Black Power–inspired urban and racial unrest useful for their overall political agenda. See U.S. News & World Report, January 15, 1968, p. 14. San Jose Mercury, April 9 and April 15, 1968. SCLDS. San Jose Mercury, July 3, 1968. SCLDS.
17. Washington Post, April 7, 1968, pp. B1, 3, 14; New York Times, April 8, 1968, p. 35; Boston Globe, April 8, 1968, p. 3; New York Times, April 14, 1968, p. E2.
18. Washington Post, April 8, 1968, pp. 1, 9, B1, B3; Risen, A Nation on Fire, pp. 183–186; New York Times, April 10, 1968, p. 35. FBIKT-100–446080–1380, “Stokely Carmichael,” Teletype, April 7, 1968; FBIKT 100–446080–1389, “Stokely Carmichael: Inciting to Riot,” April 8, 1968, pp. 39, 203–209.
19. Chicago Tribune, April 9, 1968, p. 1; New York Times, April 9, 1968, p. 37; Washington Post, April 12, 1968, p. B1; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, Memo, Fred Vinson to FBI Director, April 12, 1968, pp. 1–2.
20. New York Times, April 10, 1968, p. 33. Washington, ed., The Essential Writings and Speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr., p. 267. San Francisco Chronicle, April 19, 1968. SCLDS; Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 659; Los Angeles Times, April 10, 1968, pp. 1–2, 20; Washington Post, April 10, 1968, pp. 1, 11.
21. Michael K. Honey, Going Down Jericho Road: The Memphis Strike, Martin Luther King’s Last Campaign (New York: W.W. Norton, 2008), p. 482.
22. Risen, A Nation on Fire, pp. 212–213. Washington Post, April 10, 1968, p. 1; Boston Globe, April 10, 1968, p. 13; Chicago Daily Defender, April 10, 1968, p. 3; Chicago Tribune, April 10, 1968, pp. 1–2; New York Times, April 10, 1968, pp. 1, 34; New York Amsterdam News, April 13, 1968, pp. 1, 49; FBIKT 100–446080–1371, “Stokely Carmichael,” Teletype, April 10, 1968, pp. 1–2.
23. Washington Post, April 12, 1968, p. 23; Risen, A Nation on Fire, pp. 219–224; New York Times, April 12, 1968, p. 20; Baltimore Afro-American, April 13, 1968, pp. 1, 15; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, Memo, From Baltimore SAC to FBI Director, April 17, 1968, pp. 1–3.
24. Ransby, Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement, pp. 310, 350–351.
25. FBIKT 100–446080–1535, “Stokely Carmichael,” April 29, 1968, pp. 1–3; FBIKT 100–446080–1593, “Stokely Carmichael,” May 14, 1968, p. 2; Boston Globe, April 27, 1968, p. 2; Chicago Daily Defender, April 27, 1968, p. W2; Los Angeles Times, April 27, 1968, p. 1; Washington Post, April 27, 1968, pp. 1, 4; New York Amsterdam News, May 11, 1968, p. 32; Stefan Bradley, Harlem vs. Columbia University: Black Student Power in the Late 1960s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009).
26. Baltimore Afro-American, May 4, 1968, p. 14 and May 11, 1968, p. 21; Washington Post, December 14, 1968, p. C9.
27. FBIKT 100–446080–1703, “Stokely Carmichael,” June 11, 1968, pp. 1–2; New York Times, May 18, 1968, p. 27.
28. Quotes from “Stokely Takes a Bride,” Ebony, July 1968, pp. 137–142.
29. Ibid. Washington Afro-American in FBIKT 100–446080, May 21, 1968, pp. 185–188; see also, The Oregonian, May 20, 1968, and Sepia, July 1968. SCLDS.
30. FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Stokely Carmichael–Counterintelligence Program,” July 9, 1968, pp. 1–2.
31. Call and Post, June 15, 1968, p. 4B. Hubert Humphrey characterized media coverage of “the emotional appeals of the Stokely Carmichaels and other agitators” as tantamount to “throwing gasoline on the flames” of racial discontent. New York Times, June 18, 1968, p. 29; Chicago Tribune, June 13, 1968, p. 24; Call and Post, June 15, 1968, p. 4B; Washington Post, June 17, 1968, p. D11; New York Amsterdam News, June 15, 1968, p. 3; New York Times, June 25, 1968, p. 83; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, Airtel, Cleveland SAC to Director Hoover, June 20, 1968.
32. FBIKT 100–446080–1720, “Stokely Carmichael,” Teletype, WFO SAC to Director and NY SAC, June 19, 1968; Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 673.
33. New York Times, July 8, 1968, pp. 1, 23; Los Angeles Times, July 8, 1968, p. 4; New York Amsterdam News, July 20, 1968, p. 27; New Pittsburgh Courier, July 20, 1968, p. 5; Chicago Daily Defender, July 18, 1968, p. 16. Firing Line # 60, “Protest in Vietnam,” William F. Buckley and Benjamin Spock, June 26, 1967, p. 7, Hoover Institute, Stanford University; Boston Globe, August 4, 1968, pp. 7.
34. Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, pp. 232–233. See also International Herald Tribune, July 13–14, 1968. SCLDS.
35. FBIKT 100–446080–1842, “Stokely Carmichael,” July 29, 1968, pp. 1–5; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, Signed Passport Affidavit, July 17, 1968; Chicago Tribune, July 27, 1968, p. N5; FBIKT 100–446080–1858, “Stokely Carmichael,” Teletype, July 28, 1968, pp. 1–2; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Stokely Carmichael: Mobile, Alabama,” September 9, 1968, pp. 34–50.
36. New York Amsterdam News, July 27, 1968, p. 16; Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 702.
37. New York Times, August 9, 1968, p. 28; Washington Post, August 9, 1968, p. 3; Boston Globe, August 10, 1968, p. 2.
38. Call and Post, September 14, 1968, p. 6B.
39. Gerald C. Fraser, “SNCC Breaks Ties with Stokely Carmichael,” New York Times, August 23, 1968, p. 45; “Carmichael’s View,” New York Times, August 23, 1968, p. 45; Chicago Tribune, August 23, 1968, p. 14; Washington Post, August 23, 1968, pp. 1, 23. San Jose Mercury, August 23, 1968. SCLDS. Carson, In Struggle, p. 283; Touré interview with Carson, May 4, 1983. Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour.
40. FBIKT 100–446080, COINTELPRO (Stokely Carmichael), July 9, 1968, pp. 1–2. FBI plans also included a bogus invitation to Carmichael to travel to China on a thirty-four-day tour to be underwritten by the Chinese government. See FBIKT 100–446080-Not Recorded, August 22, 1968, pp. 1–3. See also “Wedding Mansion For Carmichaels?” U.S. News & World Report, June 10, 1968, p. 14. Washington Post, August 24, 1968, p. D10; Carson, In Struggle, pp. 291–292; Bloom and Martin, Black Against Empire, pp. 123–124.
41. FBIKT 100–446080-Not Recorded, “Re Trial Huey P. Newton, Minister of Defense, Black Panther Party,” p. 2; Philadelphia Tribune, August 31, 1968, p. 31. Berkeley Barb, 2–8, 1968, pp. 7, 17.
42. FBIKT 100–446080-Not Recorded, “Stokely Carmichael: Racial Matters,” August 23, 1968, pp. 1–28.
43. National Guardian, August 31, 1968, p. 5. FBISNCC 100–439190 (Boston), “Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee,” July 22, 1968, pp. 1–18. See also, Kwame Ture interview with Clayborne Carson, May 4, 1983. Carson Archives King Center, Stanford University; FBIKT 100–446080–1975, “Stokely Carmichael,” September 17, 1968, p. 38.
44. FBIKT 100–446080–1929, Teletype, September 6, 1968, pp. 1–2; Jules Milne, ed., Kwame Nkrumah: The Conakry Years: His Life and Letters (London: Panaf Books, 1990), pp. 260–262. FBIKT 100–446080-NR, Stokely Carmichael Press Conference, Dakar, Senegal, September 1968, Department of State Telegram. Milne, Kwame Nkrumah, p. 261.
45. FBIKT 100–446080–1915, Rocky Mountain News, August 22, 1968, p. 70; Airtel, Denver SAC to FBI Director, August 22, 1968, pp. 1–3.
46. FBIKT 100–446080–1975, “Stokely Carmichael,” September 17, 1968, pp. 226, 260–263.
47. FBIKT 100–446080–2201, “Stokely Carmichael,” January 13, 1969 (Transcript of October 14, 1968, Black Writers Congress Speech), pp. 1–35.
48. Baltimore Afro-American, October 26, 1968, p. 31.
49. Diran Karaguezian, Blow It Up!: The Black Student Revolt at San Francisco State College and the Emergence of Dr. Hayakawa (Boston: Gambit, 1971), pp. 95–103.
50. New York Times, November 15, 1968, p. 34. FBIKT 100–446080–2089, “Stokely Carmichael,” November 20, 1968, Transcript of Carmichael’s Howard Speech, pp. 1–24.
51. FBIKT 100–446080–2112, Newspaper clipping, November 22, 1968; FBIKT 100–446080–2183, “Stokely Carmichael: Racial Matters–Black Panther Party,” January 3, 1969, p. 2. FBIKT 100–446080–1975, “Stokely Carmichael,” September 17, 1968, pp. 136–147; FBIKT 100–446080–2100, Teletype, “Stokely Carmichael,” November 22, 1968; FBIKT 100–446080–2139, Durham Morning Herald, November 22, 1968, p. 8C. The State Department had returned his passport months earlier after he agreed to stay out of banned countries so he could honeymoon overseas. See San Francisco Chronicle, July 26, 1968, and The Oregonian, August 7, 1968. SCLDS.
Chapter Sixteen: “The Revolution Is Not About Dying. It’s About Living”
1. Stokely Carmichael, “Pan-Africanism—Land and Power,” The Black Scholar (originally published, November 1969, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 36–43), vol. 27, nos. 3/4 Fall/Winter 1997, pp. 58–64.
2. New York Times, July 4, 1969, p. 25.
3. San Francisco Chronicle, July 5, 1969. SCLDS.
4. Carson interview with Carmichael, 1983; Los Angeles Times, July 22, 1969, p. 8. New York Times, July 25, 1969, p. 16; New York Times, July 26, 1969, p. 9; New York Times, August 18, 1969, p. 30; Philadelphia Tribune, August 23, 1969, p. 4; Call and Post, August 23, 1969, p. 7; Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour.
5. Makeba, My Story, p. 173.
6. The Sunday Times (London), November 3, 1969, p. 28.
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid., pp. 28–29, 31.
9. New York Times, July 26, 1969, p. 9; Chicago Tribune, July 31, 1969, p. N12; Boston Globe, July 31, 1969, p. 16.
10. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 691, 704.
11. Makeba, Makeba, p. 156.
12. Carmichael, Stokely Speaks, pp. 185–182; Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour.
13. FBIKT 100–446080–2615, “Stokely Carmichael,” Airtel, April 22, 1970, pp. 1–2.
14. Greensboro Daily News, March 20 and 25, 1970; San Francisco Chronicle, March 26, 1970; Washington Post, March 26, 1970, p. 6. SCLDS; Chicago Tribune, March 26, 1970, p. J14; New York Times, March 26, 1970, p. 51; Los Angeles Times, March 26, 1970, p. 27; Baltimore Afro-American, April 4, 1970, p. 1; Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, p. 258.
15. See for example his April 11, 1970, speech in Baltimore. FBIKT 100–446080–2672, “Stokely Carmichael,” June 11, 1970, p. 8.
16. FBIKT 100–446080–2503, “Stokely Carmichael: Racial Matters,” April 10, 1970, pp. 1–2; FBIKT 100–446080–2512, “Stokely Carmichael,” April 10, 1970, p. 1; FBIKT 100–446080–2530, “Stokely Carmichael,” Teletype, April 10, 1970, pp. 1–3 Washington Post, April 10, 1970, p. B5; FBIKT 100–446080–2626, “Stokely Carmichael,” May 12, 1970 (Transcript of Howard Speech), pp. 6–43.
17. New York Times, April 14, 1970, p. 51.
18. Philadelphia Tribune, April 18, 1970, p. 9. New York Times, April 14, 1970, p. 51; Greensboro Daily News, October 4, 1970. SCLDS.
19. New York Times, April 21, 1970; Newsweek, April 27, 1970; Greensboro Daily News, April 27, 1970. SCLDS. Carmichael, Stokely Speaks, pp. 186–190, 205–220. Chicago Daily Defender, April 21, 1970, pp. 3, 20; FBIKT 100–446080–2622, “Stokely Carmichael,” April 29, 1970, pp. 10–45; FBIKT 100–446080–2675, “Stokely Carmichael,” May 19, 1970, p. 7.
20. FBIKT 100–446080–2655, “Stokely Carmichael,” April 27, 1970, pp. 1–8; FBIKT 100–446080–2665, “Stokely Carmichael,” May 4, 1970, pp. 1–33.
21. FBIKT 100–446080–2604, “Stokely Carmichael,” Teletype, May 2, 1970; Washington Post, May 6, 1970, p. B9; Chicago Tribune, May 6, 1970, p. 1.
22. Stokely Carmichael, “To the Brothers and Sisters of the Congress of African Peoples,” August 17, 1970, Conakry, Guinea. SCLDS. Komozi Woodard, A Nation Within a Nation (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999).
23. New York Times, April 14, 1996, p. E9. “Interview With Stokely Carmichael,” Afriscope, July 1972, p. 33. SCLD. New York Times, February 6, 1971, p. 11.
24. New York Times, November 6, 1971, p. 8; Washington Post, June 18, 1972, p. L4; Los Angeles Times, July 6, 1972, p. D5.
25. FBIKT 100–446080–2883, “Stokely Carmichael: Racial Matters,” March 25, 1971, pp. 1–2; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Domestic Intelligence Division,” March 24, 1971. FBIKT 100–446080–2888, “Stokely Carmichael,” March 22, 1971, pp. 1–30.
26. Los Angeles Sentinel, March 18, 1971, pp. 1, 12; FBIKT 100–446080–2951, “Stokely Carmichael,” May 10, 1971, pp. 1–3.
27. FBIKT 100–446080–2917, “Stokely Carmichael,” March 26, 1971, pp. 1, 23.
28. FBIKT 100–446080–2926, “Stokely Carmichael,” April 5, 1971, pp. 1–12; FBIKT 100–446080–2880, “Stokely Carmichael,” Teletype, March 20, 1971, pp. 1–3.
29. FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Stokely Carmichael,” March 30, 1971, pp. 1–4; FBIKT 100–446080–2938, “Stokely Carmichael: Racial Matters,” April 8, 1971, pp. 1–36.
30. FBIKT 100–446080–2881, “Stokely Carmichael,” Teletype, March 24, 1971, pp. 1–3; FBIKT 100–446080–2882, “Stokely Carmichael,” Teletype, March 25, 1971, pp. 1–2; FBIKT 100–446080–2865, “Stokely Carmichael,” Teletype, March 24, 1971, pp. 1–3; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Stokely Carmichael,” March 23, 1971, pp. 1–3.
31. Stokely Carmichael to Toni Morrison, October 5, 1971; Stokely Carmichael to Toni Morrison, November 15 and December 15, 1971, March 16 and April 9, 1972; Toni Morrison to Stokely Carmichael, September 21, 1971. RHC, RBMLCU.
32. Stokely Carmichael to Toni Morrison, October 5, 1971. See also Stokely Carmichael to Toni Morrison, November 15 and December 15, 1971, March 16 and April 9, 1972; Toni Morrison to Stokely Carmichael, September 21, 1971; Stokely Carmichael to Alice Mayhew, November 26, 1970, November 26, 1970, February 1, April 12, and May 12, 1971. RHC, RBMLCU.
33. New York Times, May 16, 1971, pp. BR4, 22. See also “Carmichael’s ‘Molotov Cocktail,’” Evening Star, August 9, 1971, p. 23 in FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Stokely Carmichael,” September 16, 1971, p. 54.
34. Stokely Carmichael, “A Message From Stokely Carmichael In Guinea,” Black World, July 1972, p. 25, SCLDS. Oregonian, June 16, 1972. SCLDS. Afriscope, July 1972. SCLDS.
35. Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour; Woodard, A Nation Within a Nation.
36. New York Times, May 14, 1972, p. 8.
37. FBIKT 100–446080–3152, “Stokely Carmichael,” December 22, 1972, pp. 1–7.
38. Baltimore Afro-American, October 1972; Washington Post, October 13, 1972. SCLDS; Washington Post, October 18, 1972, p. 39; FBIKT 100–446080–3083, “Stokely Carmichael,” October 30, 1972, p. 15.
39. Washington Post, October 25, 1972; Washington Evening Star, October 31, 1972; “Statement by Stokely Carmichael on Harambee Controversy,” October 24, 1972. SCLDS; FBIKT 100–446080–3069, “Stokely Carmichael,” Teletype, October 13, 1972, pp. 1–4; FBIKT 100–446080–3070, “Stokely Carmichael,” Teletype, October 15, 1972, pp. 1–2; FBIKT 100–446080–3103, “Stokely Carmichael,” November 8, 1972, pp. 19–21, Howard Hilltop, October 20, 1972. Memphis Commercial Appeal, November 16, 1972; Los Angeles Times, November 24, 1972.
40. Washington Post, November 5, 1972, pp. A1, A10.
41. San Jose Mercury News, December 3, 1972. SCLDS; Washington Post, November 5, 1972, p. 10; New York Times, November 14, 1972, p. 22; Washington Post, November 15, 1972, pp. D1, 3; New York Times, November 16, 1972, p. 54; Washington Post, November 23, 1972, B1–2; FBIKT 100–446080–3190, “Stokely Carmichael,” February 14, 1973, pp. 4–5; Theoharis, The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks, pp. 38–42. Katherine Charron has written the definitive account of Clark’s life: Freedom’s Teacher: The Life of Septima Clark (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009).
42. San Francisco Chronicle, January 27, 1973; San Jose Mercury, February 14, 1973. SCLDS. San Jose News, February 22, 1973. SCLDS.
43. New York Times, January 26, 1973, p. 77. Chicago Daily Defender, January 30, 1970, p. 2; Call and Post, February 10, 1972, p. 5.
44. Boston Globe, February 13, 1973, p. 3.
45. Baltimore Afro-American, March 10, 1973, p. 6; Chicago Daily Defender, January 1973, p. 2; New York Times, April 1, 1973, p. 6E.
46. FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Stokely Carmichael,” Teletype, March 6, 1973, pp. 1–2. “Mr. Carmichael,” The Star, March 19, 1973, p. 6. SCLDS. The Daily Gleaner, March 15, 1973, in FBIKT 100–446080–3255: “Our Man in Kingston,” Time, August 6, 1973.
47. FBIKT 100–446080–3324, “Stokely Carmichael,” Teletype, May 6, 1973; FBIKT 100–446080–3288, “Stokely Carmichael,” Teletype, April 17, 1973, pp. 1–5. Voice of Uganda, June 7, 18, and 19, 1973, p. 6. SCLDS; FBIKT 100–446080–3343, “Stokely Carmichael Given Ugandan Citizenship,” State Department File, June 19, 1973, pp. 1–3.
48. Seattle Post-Intelligencer, October 4, 1973; University of Washington Daily, October 5, 1973. SCLDS.
49. FBIKT 100–446080–3523, “Stokely Carmichael,” Teletype, October 29, 1973, p. 2. FBIKT 100–446080–3520, “Stokely Carmichael,” October 23, 1973; FBIKT 100–446080–3532, “Stokely Carmichael,” Teletype, October 25, 1973, pp. 1–3; FBIKT 100–446080–3517, “Stokely Carmichael,” Teletype, October 29, 1973, pp. 1–4.
50. FBIKT 100–446080–3661, “Visit of Stokely Carmichael,” March 1, 1974, pp. 1–2; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Stokely Carmichael,” March 24, 1974; FBIKT 100–446080–3709, “Stokely Carmichael,” Teletype, May 5, 1974, pp. 1–2.
51. FBIKT 100–446080–3661, “Visit of Stokely Carmichael,” March 1, 1974, pp. 1–2; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Stokely Carmichael,” March 24, 1974; FBIKT 100–446080–3709, “Stokely Carmichael,” Teletype, May 5, 1974, pp. 1–2.
52. Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, pp. 288–295; Woodard, A Nation Within a Nation; Haki Madhubuti, Enemies: The Clash of Races (Chicago: Third World Press, 1978); Adolph Reed, Stirrings in the Jug: Black Politics in the Post-Segregation Era (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999) and ed., Race, Politics, and Culture: Critical Essays on the Radicalism of the 1960s (New York: Greenwood Press, 1986); Cedric Johnson, From Revolutionaries to Race Leaders (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007).
53. FBIKT 100–446080–3854, “Stokely Carmichael,” October 7, 1974, p. 17, Transcript of September 5, 1974, interview. FBIKT 100–446080–3842, “Stokely Carmichael,” Teletype, September 5, 1974, pp. 1–5. FBIKT 100–446080–3854, “Stokely Carmichael,” October 7, 1974, p. 17, Transcript of September 5, 1974, interview.
54. Quotes from FBIKT 100–446080–3854, “Stokely Carmichael,” October 7, 1974, p. 22; Transcript of September 5, 1974, interview; Marable, Malcolm X, pp. 111–112. FBIKT 100–446080–3924, “Stokely Carmichael,” December 3, 1974, p. 2; FBIKT 100–446080-NR, “Stokely Carmichael,” November 12, 1974, pp. 1–10.
55. Bay State Banner, March 3, 1977, pp. 1, 11; Tri-State Defender, March 19, 1977, p. 1. SCLDS; FBIKT 100–446080–4078, “Stokely Carmichael,” November 7, 1975, pp. 1–6; FBIKT 100–446080–4082, “Stokely Carmichael,” Teletype, November 15, 1975, pp. 1–3; FBIKT 100–446080–4091, “Stokely Carmichael,” January 27, 1976.
56. Washington Post, February 24, 1975, p. C1; Los Angeles Times, May 17, 1976, p. F6; Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour. FBIKT 100–446080–4057, “Stokely Carmichael,” June 2, 1975, Transcript of WHUR Interview Broadcast on May 5–7, 1975, p. 20.
57. FBIKT 100–446080–4054, “Stokely Carmichael,” July 18, 1975, pp. 1–13; FBIKT 100–446080–4083, “Stokely Carmichael,” Teletype, November 25, 1975, pp. 1–2; FBIKT 100–446080–4084, “Stokely Carmichael,” November 14, 1975, pp. 1–2; FBIKT 100–446080–4091, “Stokely Carmichael,” January 27, 1976, pp. 1–6; FBIKT 100–446080–4103, “Stokely Carmichael,” Teletype, March 15, 1976, pp. 1–2.
58. FBIKT 100–446080–4202, “Stokely Carmichael: All-African People’s Revolutionary Party (AAPRP),” July 29, 1976, p. 15. FBIKT 100–446080–4177, “Stokely Carmichael,” May 21, 1976, pp. 1–2; Jeffries, Bloody Lowndes, pp. 244–245.
59. New York Amsterdam News, May 1, 1976, p. 8; Los Angeles Times, May 4, 1976, p. 7 and May 17, 1976, pp. F1, 5, 6; FBIKT 100–0446080–4091, “Stokely Carmichael,” January 27, 1976, p. 16; FBIKT 100–446080–4114, “Stokely Carmichael,” April 1, 1976, pp. 1–4. New York Times, October 7, 1976, p. 17; Los Angeles Sentinel, October 14, 1976, p. 3.
60. Washington Post, March 21, 1977, p. 2; New York Amsterdam News, March 26, 1977, p. B6.
61. Bay State Banner, July 7, 1977, p. 1. SCLDS; Philadelphia Tribune, May 3, 1977, p. 10; Washington Post, May 29, 1977, p. 53.
62. Makeba, Makeba, p. 204. Washington Post, May 14, 1978, pp. B1, 7; Philadelphia Tribune, March 21, 1978, p. 1; Los Angeles Times, December 27, 1978, p. B2; Washington Post, December 28, 1978, p. 20.
63. Washington Post, January 25, 1979, p. C9.
64. Harry S. Jaffe and Tom Sherwood, Dream City: Race, Power, and the Decline of Washington, D.C. (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994), pp. 125–268.
65. New York Amsterdam News, December 20, 1980, p. 4; Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 673–674.
66. Harry Belafonte, My Song: A Memoir (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2011), p. 341.
67. Ibid., p. 340.
68. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 712. Philadelphia Tribune, March 6, 1984, p. 2; New York Amsterdam News, November 6, 1982, p. 32.
69. New York Times, April 12, 1984, p. 4.
70. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 720, 721.
71. “Arrest: Case of Kwame Shaka Ture AKA Stokely Carmichael,” August 19, 1986, pp. 1–2, State Dept. Records, Case: 200701907.
72. “Arrest: Case of Kwame Shaka Ture AKA Stokely Carmichael,” August 1986, State Department Records, Case ID: 200701907 and “Arrest and Release of Kwame Shaka Ture AKA Stokely Carmichael,” August 1986, pp. 1–3. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 724–727; Chicago Tribune, August 18, 1986, p. 6; New York Times, August 19, 1986, p. 11; Chicago Tribune, August 20, 1986, p. 6; “Arrest: Case of Kwame Shaka Ture AKA Stokely Carmichael,” August 1986, State Department Records, Case ID: 200701907 and “Arrest and Release of Kwame Shaka Ture AKA Stokely Carmichael,” August 1986, pp. 1–3.
73. Kwame Ture and Charles Hamilton, Black Power: The Politics of Liberation (New York: Vintage, 1992), pp. 187–199.
74. New York Times, March 1, 1996, p. B4; New York Amsterdam News, March 9, 1996, p. 3.
75. Charlie Cobb, “Revolution: From Stokely Carmichael to Kwame Ture,” The Black Scholar, vol. 27, no. 3–4 (Fall/Winter 1997), p. 33.
76. Ibid., pp. 728–746.
77. Holsaert et al., eds., Hands on the Freedom Plow, p. 15.
78. New York Beacon, July 3, 1996, p. 9. Michigan Citizen, June 29, 1996, p. A1.
79. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 764–767. New York Amsterdam News, August 17, 1996, p. 24.
80. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, p. 738. Cobb, “Revolution: From Stokely Carmichael to Kwame Ture,” p. 33.
81. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 752–756. Wilkerson, “Soul Survivor,” p. 184.
82. Carmichael with Thelwell, Ready for Revolution, pp. 777–778; Jacksonville Free Press, April 29, 1998, p. 2; Washington Informer, April 22, 1998, p. 16.
83. New York Voice, Inc., Harlem U.S.A., July 15, 1998, p. 9.
84. The Los Angeles Sentinel, November 26, 1998, p. A1.
85. American Embassy Conakry to Secretary of State, “Death Comes for the Arch-Activist: Stokely Carmichael/Kwame Ture Eulogized and Laid to Rest in Guinea,” November 1998, pp. 1–6, State Department Records, Case: 200701907; “State Funeral for Kwame Ture,” November 20, 1998.