1. William D. McArdle, Frank I. Katch, and Victor L. Katch, Essentials of Exercise Physiology, 3rd ed. (Baltimore: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 2005), 15–16.
2. Kimberly Harper, “Historic Missourians: John S. Sappington,” State Historical Society of Missouri, http://shs.umsystem.edu/historicmissourians/name/s/sappington/index.html.
3. Charles Neider, ed., The Autobiography of Mark Twain (New York: Harper & Row, 1959), 64–65.
4. Ibid., 65–66.
5. Albert Bigelow Paine, Mark Twain, a Biography: The Personal and Literary Life of Mark Twain (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1912 ), 2:162.
6. Joshua Wolf Shenk, “Lincoln’s Great Depression,” Atlantic (October 2005), http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2005/10/lincolns-great-depression/304247/.
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9. Edgar W. Martin, The Standard of Living in 1860: American Consumption Levels on the Eve of the Civil War (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1942), 225–47.
10. Charles E. Rosenberg, “The Practice of Medicine in New York a Century Ago,” in Leavitt and Numbers, Sickness and Health in America, 63.
11. Charles E. Rosenberg, “The Therapeutic Revolution: Medicine, Meaning, and Social Change in Nineteenth Century America,” in Vogel and Rosenberg, Therapeutic Revolution, 8.
12. “Bloody Suckers: Leech Therapy,” Nature, PBS http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/bloodysuckers/leech.html (accessed March 21, 2013).
13. Roy Porter, ed., The Cambridge History of Medicine (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 56, 58, 109.
14. Duffy, From Humors to Medical Science, 15; Whorton, Nature Cures, 4–5.
15. Duffy, From Humors to Medical Science, 14–16.
16. Rush quoted in John Warner, The Therapeutic Perspective: Medical Practice, Knowledge, and Identity in America, 1820–1885 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986), 18; Whorton, Nature Cures, 6.
17. Wesley, Primitive Physick, 36, 84.
18. John R. Betts, “Mind and Body in Early American Thought,” Journal of American History 54, no. 4 (March 1968): 791; Thurs, Science Talk, 30–31.
19. T. Gregory Garvey, Creating the Culture of Reform in Antebellum America (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2006), 2, 33.
20. Ibid., 33; Haller, Medical Protestants, 31; Numbers, “Do-It-Yourself the Sectarian Way,” 49.
21. Ralph Waldo Emerson, “Self-Reliance,” Essays: First Series (Stilwell, KS: Digireads, 2007), 31.
22. Porter, Greatest Benefit to Mankind, 281; Starr, Social Transformation of American Medicine, 595; Eric H. Christianson, “Medicine in New England,” in Leavitt and Numbers, Sickness and Health in America, 64; Whitfield J. Bell, “A Portrait of the Colonial Physician,” in Leavitt and Numbers, Sickness and Health in America, 45–46.
23. Haller, Medical Protestants, 3; Cassedy, Medicine in America, 191; Reed, Healing Cults, 67–71.
24. Worthington Hooker, The Treatment Due from the Profession to Physicians Who Become Homeopathic Practitioners (Norwich, CT: John G. Cooley, 1852), 8.
25. Wrobel, “Introduction,” in Wrobel, Pseudoscience and Society, 2–3.
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31. Cohen, “Medical Social Movements,” 32.
32. Duffy, From Humors to Medical Science, 12–17.
33. Matthew Baillie quoted in Porter, Greatest Benefit to Mankind, 266.
34. Starr, “Medicine, Economy and Society,” 591.
35. “American vs. European Medical Science Again,” 183; Ronald L. Numbers, “The Fall and Rise of the American Medical Profession,” in Leavitt and Numbers, Sickness and Health in America, 225–26.
36. Thomson, New Guide to Health, 7.
37. Starr, “Medicine, Economy and Society,” 591.
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43. Thurs, Science Talk, 13–14, 20; Porter, Greatest Benefit to Mankind, 29, 40.
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1. Samuel Thomson, The Constitution, Rules and Regulations to be Adopted and Practiced by the Members of the Friendly Botanic Society at Eastport, Pass. [sic] and Portsmouth, N.H. Together With the Preparation of Medicine and System (Portsmouth, NH: 1812), 21–22.
2. E. E. Helm, “Untitled,” Botanico-Medical Recorder 8 (January 18, 1845): 83.
3. Anonymous, “Ode to Lobelia,” Thomsonian Manual and Lady’s Companion 5 (June 15, 1839): 230.
4. Haller, People’s Doctor, 33–34.
5. Flannery, “Early Botanical Medical Movement.”
6. Haller, Medical Protestants, 9–10, 37.
7. Thomson, New Guide to Health, 16.
8. Ibid., 16.
9. Whorton, Nature Cures, 26; Haller, Medical Protestants, 38.
10. Rothstein, “Botanical Movements,” in Gevitz, Other Healers, 30–32; Haller, Medical Protestants, 8–9; Susan M. Kingsbury, ed., Records of the Virginia Company of London, vol. 3 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1933), 237–38.
11. Haller, People’s Doctor, 8.
12. Rothstein, “The Botanical Movements and Orthodox Medicine,” 33; “Herbal Medicine,” University of Maryland Medical Center, http://www.umm.edu/altmed/articles/herbal-medicine-000351.htm.
13. Rothstein, “Botanical Movements,” 32–33.
14. Haller, People’s Doctor, 10–11.
15. Numbers, “Do-It-Yourself the Sectarian Way,” 49–51; Thomson, New Guide to Health, 38–43.
16. Haller, Medical Protestants, 38–39; John S. Haller Jr., “Samuel Thomson and the Poetry,” in Samuel Thomson and the Poetry of Botanic Medicine, 1810–1860, Lloyd Library and Museum, http://www.lloydlibrary.org/Haller/hallerpoetrychone.html (16 January 2012); “Dr. Samuel Thomson,” Boston Investigator, November 15, 1843.
17. Thomson, New Guide to Health, 40.
18. John S. Haller Jr., “The American Hippocrates,” Lloyd Library and Museum, www.lloydlibrary.org/Haller/hallerpoetrychone.html.
19. Rothstein, “Botanical Movements,” 42–43; ibid.
20. Thomson, New Guide to Health, 42.
21. Ibid., 6.
22. Thomson, “Narrative of the Life,” in ibid., 30–44.
23. J. U. and C. G. Lloyd, eds., Bulletin of the Lloyd Library: Life and Medical Discoveries of Samuel Thomson and a History of the Thomsonian Materia Medica 11 (Cincinnati: Lloyd Library, 1909), 32; Thomson, New Guide to Health, 56–58.
24. Haller, People’s Doctor, 18–21.
25. “Cold,” Online Etymology Dictionary, http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=cold.
26. Haller, People’s Doctor, 20–21; Thomson, A New Guide to Health, 40–48.
27. Thomson, A New Guide to Health, 40–42, 48–52.
28. Haller, People’s Doctor, 20–26; ibid., 62, 57.
29. Haller, Medical Protestants, 42–44; Thomson, New Guide to Health, 62–65.
30. Samuel Thomson, “Three Crafts,” in Thomson, Learned Quackery Exposed, 12–15.
31. D. L. Terry, “The Botanic’s Song of Liberty,” Botanico-Medical Recorder XII (September 21, 1844): 364–65.
32. Flannery, “Early Botanical Medical Movement”; John S. Haller, “The Thomsonian System,” Lloyd Library and Museum, http://www.lloydlibrary.org/Haller/hallerpoetrychtwo.html.
33. Samuel Thomson, “General Introduction,” The Thomsonian Materia Medica or Botanic Family Physician (Albany: J. Munsell, 1841), 8; Alex Berman, “The Thomsonian Movement and its Relation to American Pharmacy and Medicine,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 25 (1951): 405, 406.
34. Whorton, Nature Cures, 30–31.
35. W. A. A., “Thomsonism,” Boston Medical and Surgical Journal (January 16, 1839): 19, 24, American Periodicals, accessed September 5, 2012; Whorton, Nature Cures, 32.
36. Whorton, Nature Cures, 35–40.
37. Haller, People’s Doctor, 16, 23.
38. Ibid., 33.
39. Samuel Thomson, “Calomel,” in Thomson, Learned Quackery Exposed, 10.
40. Thomson, Narrative of the Life, 17.
41. Holmes, Medical Essays, 379.
42. J. Dickson Smith, Rational Medicine and Thomsonism: An Essay (Macon, GA: Telegraph Steam Printing House, 1859), 31–32.
43. Lebergott, “Wage Trends,” 462.
44. Haller, People’s Doctor, 33; Whorton, Nature Cures, 41–42.
45. Haller, Medical Protestants, 41.
46. Quoted in James Harvey Young, “American Medical Quackery in the Age of the Common Man,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 47, no. 4 (March 1961): 582–83.
47. Haller, People’s Doctor, 146–47, 154–55.
48. “Thomsonian Dinner,” Hagerstown (MD) Mail, May 24, 1839.
49. Whorton, Nature Cures, 38; Rothstein, “Botanical Movements and Orthodox Medicine,” 46; Thomson, New Guide to Health, 134.
50. An Observer [Samuel Thomson], “Doggerel Verses; A Paraphrase on a Chapter in the History—Or, a Compend of the History of Mr. Aaron Dow,” Thomsonian Manual 2 (September 15, 1837): 175.
51. Haller, People’s Doctor, 37–38; Thomas Sewall, “On the Use of Arsenic in Cancerous Complaints,” New England Journal of Medicine and Surgery 4 (April 1815): 111.
52. Haller, People’s Doctor, 39.
53. Haller, Medical Protestants, 40.
54. “Public Notice,” Columbian Centinel and American Federalist (Boston), August 6, 1825.
55. Rothstein, “Botanical Movements and Orthodox Medicine,” 45.
56. Haller, Medical Protestants, 40.
57. Samuel Thomson, “To the Public,” Thomsonian Recorder 2 (1833): 10; “Proceedings of the Convention of the Friendly Botanic Societies of the United States, Held at Baltimore,” Thomsonian Recorder 3 (October 1834): 72–73.
58. Haller, People’s Doctor, 148.
59. Haller, Medical Protestants, 52.
60. Thomson, New Guide To Health, 73–74.
61. Haller, Medical Protestants, 45.
62. Haller, People’s Doctor, 52.
63. Ibid., 251.
64. Flannery, “Early Botanical Medical Movement.”
65. Ibid.
66. Haller, People’s Doctor, 46.
67. Thomson, New Guide to Health, 132.
68. Haller, People’s Doctor, 83.
69. T. Hersey, The Thomsonian Recorder 2, no. 9 (February 1, 1834): 133.
70. Whorton, Nature Cures, 39; US Census, Abstract of the Fifth Census of the United States, 1830 http://www.census.gov/prod/www/abs/decennial/1830.html.
71. Thomson, New Guide To Health, 130–31.
72. Ibid.; M. Simpson et al., “Raspberry Leaf in Pregnancy: Its Safety and Efficacy in Labor,” Journal of Midwifery and Women’s Health 46 (March–April 2001): 51–59.
73. Stephen Lyng, Holistic Health and Biomedical Medicine: A Countersystem Analysis (Albany: SUNY Press, 1990), 182–87; Janet Farrell Brodie, Contraception and Abortion in Nineteenth-Century America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997), 149–50.
74. Haller, People’s Doctor, 125–27.
75. Ibid., 126.
76. “More Quack Murder,” New York Courier, reprinted in Daily National Intelligencer (Washington, DC), June 2, 1885.
77. Daniel Drake, The People’s Doctors (Cincinnati: The People, 1830), 59–60.
78. “Influence of Quackery on Health, Morals, &c,” Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 39 (January 10, 1849): 471–80, American Periodicals, accessed September 5, 2012.
79. Thomson, New Guide to Health, 72; Haller, People’s Doctor, 127; William G. Rothstein, American Physicians in the Nineteenth Century: From Sects to Science (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), 146–49.
80. Thomson, Narrative of the Life, 87–105; Whorton, Nature Cures, 43; Haller, People’s Doctor, 129.
81. Benjamin Waterhouse and Robert D. Montgomery, “Communications,” Daily National Intelligencer (Washington, DC), June 2, 1835.
82. Haller, People’s Doctor, 123–24.
83. Berman, “The Thomsonian Movement,” 405–28.
84. Rothstein, “Botanical Movements and Orthodox Medicine,” 46.
85. J. P. Shepherd, “Communication,” Botanico-Medical Recorder 6 (1838): 129–30.
86. Haller, People’s Doctor, 159.
87. Whorton, Nature Cures, 45; John S. Haller, Kindly Medicine: Physio-Medicalism in America, 1836–1911 (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1997), 27–28.
88. Whorton, Nature Cures, 45.
89. Haller, People’s Doctor, 90–93.
90. Alva Curtis, “Notes,” Thomsonian Recorder 4 (1836): 188.
91. Samuel Thomson, “Please to Take Notice,” Thomsonian Manual 1 (1836):140.
92. Whorton, Nature Cures, 46–47; Haller, People’s Doctor, 84–111.
93. Whorton, Nature Cures, 47.
94. Haller, Medical Protestants, 92.
95. Quoted in Alex Berman and Michael Flannery, America’s Botanico-Medical Movements: Vox Populi (New York: Informa Healthcare, 2001), 120.
96. Whorton, Nature Cures, 46–48; Haller, People’s Doctor, 103–5.
97. John S. Haller, A Profile in Alternative Medicine: The Eclectic Medical College of Cincinnati, 1845–1942 (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1999), 15–20.
98. Whorton, Nature Cures, 39.
99. Thomson, New Guide to Health, 7–8, 12–16.
100. Haller, People’s Doctor, 1–4; O. S. Fowler, “Phrenological Developments of Dr. Samuel Thomson,” Phrenological Almanac 13 (1845): 359–60.
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2. Ibid., 55–56; Ruth Clifford Engs, Clean Living Movements: American Cycles of Health Reform (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001), 71–72.
3. Untitled article, Phrenological Journal 68, no. 6 (June 1879): 288–92; Stern, Heads and Headlines, 55–57.
4. Fenster, Mavericks, Miracles and Medicine, 189–90.
5. Ibid., 190.
6. Ibid., 192.
7. Finger, Minds Behind the Brain, 122; Simpson, “Phrenology and the Neurosciences,” 475–76.
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9. Simpson, “Phrenology and the Neurosciences,” 476.
10. Finger, Minds Behind the Brain, 28–30.
11. George P. Landow, “Emanuel Swedenborg’s Vision of Christ,” Victorian Web, http://www.victorianweb.org/religion/swedenborg2.html; Finger, Minds Behind the Brain, 119–121; Finger, Origins of Neuroscience, 29–31.
12. Finger, Minds Behind the Brain, 126–27.
13. Simpson, “Phrenology and the Neurosciences,” 477.
14. Finger, Minds Behind the Brain, 130.
15. Ibid., 126–27.
16. Ibid., 126–30.
17. Greenblatt, “Phrenology,” 793–94.
18. Paul, Cult of Personality Testing, 7.
19. Robert E. Riegel, “The Introduction of Phrenology to the United States,” American Historical Review 39, no. 1 (October 1933): 74.
20. Greenblatt, “Phrenology,” 794.
21. Thurs, Science Talk, 25–26.
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27. Tomlinson, “Phrenology, Education, and the Politics of Human Nature,” 12–15.
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32. Paul, Cult of Personality, 8.
33. Thurs, Science Talk, 29–31; O. S. Fowler, L. N. Fowler, and Samuel Kirkham, Phrenology Proved, Illustrated and Applied (Philadelphia: Fowler and Brevoort, 1839), 46–47, 56–59.
34. Young, “Orson Squire Fowler,” 122.
35. Paul, Cult of Personality, 8.
36. Alice Dixon, “A Lesser-Known Daughter of Nantucket: Lydia,” Historic Nantucket 41 (Winter 1993–94): 60–62; John B. Blake, “Lydia Folger Fowler,” Notable American Women: A Biographical Dictionary (Cambridge, MA: Radcliffe College, 1971), 654–55.
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40. Young, “Orson Squire Fowler,” 122.
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42. Young, “Orson Squire Fowler,” 122.
43. Thurs, Science Talk, 29; Tomlinson, “Phrenology, Education, and the Politics of Human Nature,” 2.
44. Young, “Orson Squire Fowler,” 122; Stern, Heads and Headlines, 36–37.
45. Paul Collins, The Trouble with Tom: The Strange Afterlife and Times of Thomas Paine (New York: Bloomsbury, 2009), 97.
46. Colbert, Measure of Perfection, 21.
47. Ibid., 41–42.
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49. Tom Quirk, Mark Twain and Human Nature, 2nd ed. (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2011), 26.
50. William James, Principles of Psychology (1890; repr. ed. New York: Dover, 1950), 1:28.
51. Colbert, Measure of Perfection, 21–22.
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57. Paul, Cult of Personality Testing, 9.
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60. Stern, Heads and Headlines, 133.
61. Charles Dickens’ Complete Works: The Adventures of Oliver Twist; American Notes; The Uncommercial Traveler (Boston: Estes and Lauriat, 1881), 149; Thurs, Science Talk, 22.
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67. Perry Meisel, The Myth of Popular Culture: From Dante to Dylan (Malden, MA: John Wiley, 2009), 3.
68. Alan Gribben, “Mark Twain, Phrenology and the ‘Temperaments’: A Study of Pseudoscientific Influence,” American Quarterly 24, no. 1 (March 1972): 55.
69. Wrobel, Pseudoscience and Society, 15; Minna Morse, “Facing a Bumpy History,” Smithsonian (October 1997), http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/object_oct97.html.
70. P. Flourens, Phrenology Examined, Charles de Lucena Meigs, trans. (Philadelphia: Hogan and Thompson, 1846), 102; Finger, Minds Behind the Brain, 132–34.
71. Oliver Wendell Holmes, The Professor at the Breakfast-Table (Boston: Ticknor and Fields, 1868), 251.
72. Finger, Minds Behind the Brain, 129–32.
73. Stern, Heads and Headlines, 84.
74. Thurs, Science Talk, 33–36.
75. Greenblatt, “Phrenology,” 790.
76. “David Ferrier,” in Mind Matters: Neuroscience and Psychiatry, online exhibition, King’s College London http://kingscollections.org/exhibitions/specialcollections/mind-matters/the-origins-of-modern-neuroscience/david-ferrier; Finger, Origins of Neuroscience, 53–55.
77. P. Thompson, T. D. Cannon, and A. W. Toga, “Mapping Genetic Influences on Human Brain Structure,” Annals of Medicine 34 (2002): 523–26; Fenster, Mavericks, Miracles and Medicine, 189; Simpson, “Phrenology and the Neurosciences,” 480–81; Finger, Minds Behind the Brain, 133–36.
78. Davi Johnson Thornton, Brain Culture: Neuroscience and Popular Media (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2011), 2–4.
79. Stern, Heads and Headlines, 125–28, 178–79, 244.
80. “Statistics from the Water-Cure Establishments,” Water-Cure Journal (October 1851): 90–91; Young, “Orson Squire Fowler,” 123.
1. T. L. Nichols, “Childbirth Without Pain or Danger,” The Herald of Health: Papers on Sanitary and Social Science (London: Nichols & Co., 1881), 145; Silver-Isenstadt, Shameless, 130–33.
2. Silver-Isenstadt, Shameless, 74–75; Phinney, Water Cure, 72–73.
3. Cayleff, Wash and Be Healed, 20–21.
4. Ibid., 21, 186.
5. Legan, “Hydropathy,” 74–76; Cayleff, Wash and Be Healed, 21.
6. Whorton, Nature Cures, 81; Cayleff, Wash and Be Healed, 22.
7. Whorton, Nature Cures, 81; Cayleff, Wash and Be Healed, 23.
8. Silver-Isenstadt, Shameless, 67.
9. Cayleff, Wash and Be Healed, 18–19.
10. Whorton, Nature Cures, 78.
11. Cayleff, Wash and Be Healed, 19–20.
12. “Practical Medicine: John Wesley, Methodism, Medicine,” History of Medicine Collection, Southwestern University Library, http://www.southwestern.edu/library/Early-Medical-Texts/index.htm.
13. Benjamin Rush, Directions for the Use of the Mineral Water and Cold Baths, at Harrogate, Near Philadelphia (Philadelphia: Melchior Steiner, 1786).
14. Trall, Hydropathic Encyclopedia, 4.
15. Francis Graeter, “Treatment of Single Diseases: Weak Digestion, Debility of The Stomach,” in Hydriatics; or Manual of the Water Cure, Especially as Practiced by Vincent Priessnitz in Grafenberg, 3rd ed., ed. and trans. Francis Graeter (New York: William Radde, 1843), 105–6.
16. Legan, “Hydropathy,” 86–87; Whorton, Nature Cures, 80–81.
17. Legan, “Hydropathy,” 86–87.
18. Silver-Isenstadt, Shameless, 66; Cayleff, Wash and Be Healed, 22; Judith Ann Giesberg, Civil War Sisterhood: The US Sanitary Commission and Women’s Politics in Transition (Lebanon, NH: University Press of New England, 2000), 181.
19. Whorton, Nature Cures, 81; Marland and Adams, “Hydropathy at Home,” 499–529.
20. Cayleff, Wash and Be Healed, 23.
21. Ibid., 19.
22. Whorton, Nature Cures, 82.
23. Cayleff, Wash and Be Healed, 20, 24; Legan, “Hydropathy,” 80.
24. Trall, Hydropathic Encyclopedia, 277, 50, 446.
25. R. T. Trall, The New Hydropathic Cook-Book; with Recipes for Cooking on Hygienic Principles (New York: Fowlers and Wells, 1854).
26. Cayleff, Wash and Be Healed, 25; Legan, “Hydropathy,” 81.
27. Whorton, Nature Cures, 83.
28. Legan, “Hydropathy,” 82.
29. Ibid., 83.
30. “Phrenological Hydropathy,” Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 34 (July 15, 1846): 485–86.
31. Cayleff, Wash and Be Healed, 15–16, 18.
32. Frontispiece opposite index, Water-Cure Journal 31 (1861).
33. Cayleff, Wash and Be Healed, 136, 109–12.
34. Mary Gove Nichols, Mary Lyndon, or Revelations of a Life: An Autobiography (New York: Stringer and Townsend, 1855), 146; Blake, “Mary Gove Nichols,” 220–23; Jean Silver-Isenstadt, “Mary S. Gove Nichols: Making the Personal Political,” in Ordinary Women, Extraordinary Lives: Women in American History, ed. Kriste Lindenmeyer (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000), 77–79.
35. Thomas L. Nichols, Nichols’ Health Manual (London: Allen, 1887), 29.
36. Blake, “Mary Gove Nichols,” 223; Silver-Isenstadt, Shameless, 1.
37. Phinney, Water Cure, 72.
38. “Elmira Water Cure,” Chemung County Historical Journal 11 (December 1966): 1539.
39. Cayleff, Wash and Be Healed, 76–78.
40. Ibid., 83.
41. Mark Twain, “Medicine: Gurgle, Gargle, Guggle,” British Medical Journal (July 8, 1857).
42. Phinney, Water Cure, 72.
43. Ibid., 73–75.
44. Lebergott, “Wage Trends,” 462, 464.
45. Thomas Low Nichols, An Introduction to the Water Cure (New York: Fowlers and Wells, 1850), 16.
46. Legan, “Hydropathy,” 83–84; Trall, Hydropathic Encyclopedia, 41.
47. Legan, “Hydropathy,” 84–85.
48. Whorton, Nature Cures, 98–100.
49. Barbara Anne White, The Beecher Sisters (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003), 77–78.
50. Whorton, Nature Cures, 77; Catharine Beecher, Letters to the People on Health and Happiness (New York: Harper, 1856), 117–18, 135–50; Catharine E. Beecher, “Hydropathy,” New York Observer and Chronicle, October 24, 1846.
51. Phinney, Water Cure, 103–4.
52. Mary Gove Nichols, A Woman’s Work in Water Cure and Sanitary Education (London: Nichols & Co., 1874), 20, 26.
53. Silver-Isenstadt, Shameless, 75.
54. Ibid., 76–80, 86–87; Edgar Allan Poe, “The Literati of New York City,” Godey’s Magazine and Lady’s Book, July 1846, 16; Blake, “Mary Gove Nichols,” 226.
55. Blake, “Mary Gove Nichols,” 222.
56. Cayleff, Wash and Be Healed, 86–87, 90.
57. Marland and Adams, “Hydropathy at Home.”
58. Mary Gove Nichols, Experience in Water Cure (New York: Fowler and Wells, 1849), 18.
59. Cayleff, Wash and Be Healed, 44–45; Marland and Adams, “Hydropathy at Home.”
60. Cayleff, “Gender, Ideology, and the Water-Cure Movement,” 87, 94.
61. Cayleff, Wash and Be Healed, 35.
62. Silver-Isenstadt, Shameless, 135–36, 154–55; Ronald G. Walters, American Reformers, 1815–1860 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1978), 156–57.
63. “Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell,” Changing the Face of Medicine, National Library of Medicine, http://www.nlm.nih.gov/changingthefaceofmedicine/physicians/biography_35.html.
64. Cayleff, “Gender, Ideology, and the Water-Cure Movement,” 90.
65. Thomas Low Nichols, “American Hydropathic Institute,” Water-Cure Journal 11, no. 4 (April 1851): 91.
66. Cayleff, Wash and Be Healed, 70.
67. Edward Johnson, The Hydropathic Treatment of Diseases Peculiar to Women; and of Women in Childbed; with Some Observations on the Management of Infants (London: Simpkin, Marshall, and Co., 1850), 125.
68. Cayleff, “Gender, Ideology, and the Water-Cure Movement,” 85–87.
69. Ibid., 91.
70. Ibid., 2; Gleason quoted in ibid., 77.
71. J. R. LeMaster and James D. Vilson, The Routledge Encyclopedia of Mark Twain (New York: Routledge, 2012), 322.
72. Joan D. Hedrick, Harriet Beecher Stowe: A Life (London: Oxford University Press, 1995), 176–81.
73. Legan, “Hydropathy,” 86.
74. Whorton, Nature Cures, 79–80.
75. Ibid., 80.
76. “Hyponatremia,” A.D.A.M. Medical Encyclopedia (Bethesda, MD: US National Library of Medicine, 2011).
77. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, “Book Six,” in The Confessions (London: Wordsworth, 1996), 220; Whorton, Nature Cures, 100–101.
78. “The Water Cure,” Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 35, no. 18 (December 2, 1846).
79. Holmes, Medical Essays, 6.
80. James F. Light, John William DeForest (New York: Twayne, 1965), 29–31.
81. John Townsend Trowbridge, My Own Story: With Recollections of Noted Persons (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1903), 197–99; Legan, “Hydropathy,” 90–91.
82. Whorton, Nature Cures, 100.
83. Ibid., 99–100; Cayleff, Wash and Be Healed, 166–68.
84. Whorton, Nature Cures, 86–87.
85. Cayleff, “Gender, Ideology, and the Water-Cure Movement,” 91.
86. Ibid., 94.
87. Legan, “Hydropathy,” 91–92; Cayleff, “Gender, Ideology, and the Water-Cure Movement,” 95.
88. Cayleff, Wash and Be Healed, 169.
89. J. H. Kellogg, “Hygeio-Therapy and Its Founder,” in Ronald L. Numbers, Prophetess of Health: A Study of Ellen G. White (New York: Harper & Row, 1976), 66–67.
90. Cayleff, Wash and Be Healed, 99–100.
91. Ibid., 168–69.
92. Ibid., 171.
93. Ibid., 160–61.
94. Ibid., 162.
95. Blake, “Mary Gove Nichols,” 230–33; “Feminism and Free Love,” H-net, http://www.h-net.org/~women/papers/freelove.html.
96. Silver-Isenstadt, Shameless, 235–37.
97. Ibid., 241; Cayleff, Wash and Be Healed, 173–75.
98. Nina Rastogi, “Who Says You Need Eight Glasses a Day?,” Slate, April 4, 2008, http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2008/04/who_says_you_need_eight_glasses_a_day.html.
99. Whorton, Nature Cures, 191–92; Piers Edwards, “Sports and Recovery: End of the Ice Bath Age?,” CNN.com, December 18, 2012, http://edition.cnn.com/2012/12/18/sport/feature-ice-baths.
100. Cayleff, Wash and Be Healed, 174.
1. Elizabeth Cady Stanton to Lucretia Mott (October 22, 1852) in Women’s Suffrage in America, 2nd ed., ed. Elizabeth Frost-Knappman and Kathryn Cullen-DuPont (New York: Facts on File, 2005), 103.
2. Judith Wellman, The Road to Seneca Falls: Elizabeth Cady Stanton and the First Woman’s Rights Convention (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2004), 158.
3. Kirschmann, A Vital Force, 29–30.
4. Whorton, Nature Cures, 49.
5. Hahnemann, Organon, 186–87.
6. Haller, History of American Homeopathy, 9–11; Kaufman, Homeopathy in America, 24.
7. Haller, History of American Homeopathy, 11–12; Kaufman, Homeopathy in America, 24.
8. Quoted in Peter Watson, The German Genius: Europe’s Third Renaissance, the Second Scientific (New York: Harper Perennial Reprint, 2011), 176.
9. Quoted in Thomas Lindsley Bradford, “The Life of Hahnemann,” Homeopathic Recorder 8 (August 1893): 346.
10. Whorton, Nature Cures, 51.
11. Ibid., 51.
12. Hahnemann, Organon, 45.
13. Haller, History of American Homeopathy, 12–14.
14. Hahnemann quoted in Lester S. King, The Medical World of the Eighteenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958), 170–71.
15. Whorton, Nature Cures, 57; Robins, Copeland’s Cure, 7–8.
16. Whorton, Nature Cures, 57.
17. Haller, History of American Homeopathy, 29–31.
18. Robins, Copeland’s Cure, 7; Nadav Davidovitch, “Negotiating Dissent: Homeopathy and Anti-Vaccinationism at the Turn of the Twentieth Century,” in Johnston, Politics of Healing, 13–15; Haller, History of American Homeopathy, 243–44.
19. Quoted in Porter, Greatest Benefit to Mankind, 391.
20. Whorton, Nature Cures, 52–54; Haller, History of American Homeopathy, 19–20.
21. Samuel Hahnemann to Dr. Stapf (September 11, 1813), in British Journal of Homeopathy, J. J. Drysdale and J. Rutherfurd Russell, eds. (London: H. Turner, 1845), 3:137–40.
22. Samuel Hahnemann, Materia Medica Pura, trans. Charles Hempel (New York: Radde, 1846), 1:vii.
23. Whorton, Nature Cures, 53–54.
24. Haller, History of American Homeopathy, 12–13; Robins, Copeland’s Cure, 7.
25. Whorton, Nature Cures, 54–56; Kaufman, “Homeopathy in America,” 100–101.
26. Hahnemann, Materia Medica Pura, 26–28, 29, 30, 39, 43; Whorton, Nature Cures, 56.
27. Whorton, Nature Cures, 72–73; Haller, History of American Homeopathy, 70–73.
28. Quoted in David W. Ramey et al., “Homeopathy and Science: A Closer Look,” Technology Journal of the Franklin Institute 6, no. 1 (1999): 99.
29. Holmes, Medical Essays, 56.
30. Kaufman, Homeopathy in America, 31–32.
31. Whorton, Nature Cures, 57–58; Robins, Copeland’s Cure, 10.
32. Hahnemann, Organon, 37, 38.
33. Kirschmann, Vital Force, 13.
34. Haller, History of American Homeopathy, 16.
35. Kirschmann, Vital Force, 18.
36. Hahnemann, Organon, 142.
37. Ibid., 143–45.
38. Samuel Hahnemann, “On the Effects of Coffee, from Original Observations,” in The Lesser Writings of Samuel Hahnemann, ed. R. E. Dudgeon (New Delhi: B. Jain Publishers, 2004), 391–92.
39. Haller, History of American Homeopathy, 31–33; Samuel Hahnemann, The Chronic Diseases: Their Specific Nature and Homeopathic Treatment (New York: William Radde, 1845–46), 1:113–14.
40. Haller, History of American Homeopathy, 33–34.
41. Whorton, Nature Cures, 60; Haller, History of American Homeopathy, 28.
42. Haller, History of American Homeopathy, 98.
43. Ibid., 35–37.
44. William Harvey King, History of Homeopathy and Its Institutions in America, vol. 1 (New York: Lewis Publishing Company, 1905), 60–61; Kaufman, Homeopathy in America, 28.
45. Hering quoted in Arthur M. Eastman, “Life and Reminiscences of Dr. Constantine Hering,” Hahnemannian Monthly 2 (June 25, 1917).
46. Pennsylvania Biographical Dictionary (St. Clair Shores, MI: Somerset Publishers, 1999), 554–55.
47. “Making Medicines from Poisonous Snakes,” National Institutes of Health, Office of Science Education, http://science.education.nih.gov/animalresearch.nsf/Story1/Making+Medicines+from+Poisonous+Snakes; Whorton, Nature Cures, 61.
48. Haller, History of American Homeopathy, 124–27.
49. Anna Kobsar and Martin Eigenthaler, “NO Donors as Antiplatelet Agents,” in Peng George Wang et al., eds., Nitric Oxide Donors (New York: John Wiley, 2005), 258–86; N. Marsh and A. Marsh, “A Short History of Nitroglycerine and Nitric Oxide in Pharmacology and Physiology,” Clinical Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology 27 (April 2000): 314–15; Kaufman, “Homeopathy in America,” 100–101.
50. Haller, History of American Homeopathy, 100–101.
51. Kaufman, Homeopathy in America, 29.
52. Quoted in William E. Kirtsos, “The Beginning of the American Institute of Homeopathy,” AIH, http://homeopathyusa.org/home/about-aih/our-heritage-our-future.html.
53. Haller, History of American Homeopathy, 138–39, 176.
54. Code of Ethics of the American Medical Association, adopted May, 1847 (Philadelphia: AMA, 1848), 18–19.
55. Michael Flannery, “Another House Divided: Union Medical Service and Sectarians During the Civil War,” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 54 (1999): 490; Robins, Copeland’s Cure, 18–19.
56. Kaufman, “Homeopathy in America,” 102.
57. Whorton, Nature Cures, 68–69.
58. “Remarks of Dr. Dake,” Proceedings of the Fifteenth Annual Meeting of the American Institute of Homeopathy 13 (1864): 131–32; Haller, History of American Homeopathy, 177–78.
59. Albert Bellows, A Memorial to the Trustees of the Free City Hospital, With Statistics and Facts, Showing the Comparative Merits of Homeopathy and Allopathy, as Shown by Treatments in European Hospitals (Boston: Clapp, 1863), 23–25; Whorton, Nature Cures, 64.
60. Hahnemann quoted in ibid., 56.
61. Hahnemann, Organon, 261.
62. Kirschmann, Vital Force, 33–35; Haller, History of American Homeopathy, 226.
63. Kirschmann, Vital Force, 34; Haller, History of American Homeopathy, 227–28, 247–49.
64. Haller, History of American Homeopathy, 228–32.
65. Ibid., 231–33.
66. Kirschmann, Vital Force, 31; Martin Bickman, “Transcendental Ideas: Definitions,” American Transcendentalism Web, Virginia Commonwealth University, http://transcendentalism-legacy.tamu.edu/ideas/definitionbickman.html.
67. Kirschmann, Vital Force, 32; Dana Ullman, The Homeopathic Revolution: Why Famous People and Cultural Heroes Chose Homeopathy (Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 2007), 67–68; N. Hirschorn and I. A. Greaves, “Louisa May Alcott: Her Mysterious Illness,” Perspectives in Biological Medicine 50 (Spring 2007): 243–59.
68. Elizabeth Stuart Phelps, “What Shall They Do?,” Harper’s New Monthly Magazine (1877): 522.
69. Ibid., 523.
70. Frederick Wegener, “‘Few Things More Womanly or More Noble’: Elizabeth Stuart Phelps and the Advent of the Woman Doctor in America,” Legacy 1, no. 22 (2005): 2–3.
71. Kirschmann, Vital Force, 40–41; George W. Swazey, “The Admission of Women,” Transactions of the American Institute of Homeopathy (1869–70): 345.
72. Kirschmann, Vital Force, 74–75.
73. Duffy, From Humors to Medical Science, 290.
74. Anne C. Mastroianni, Ruth R. Faden, and Daniel D. Federman, Women and Health Research: Ethical and Legal Issues of Including Women in Clinical Studies (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 1994), 46; Kirschmann, Vital Force, 77.
75. Kirsten Swinth, “Emily Sartain and Harriet Judd Sartain, MD: Creating a Community of Women Professionals,” in Philadelphia’s Cultural Landscape, Katherine Martinez and Page Talbott, eds. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2000), 139–41.
76. Ibid., 143–45; Kirschmann, Vital Force, 62–63, 76–78.
77. Holmes, Medical Essays, 101.
78. Ibid., 203, ix-x.
79. Kaufman, Homeopathy in America, 32–33, 100–101.
80. Haller, History of American Homeopathy, 260.
81. Robins, Copeland’s Cure, 27–28.
82. Ibid., 28; Kaufman, Homeopathy in America, 21–26.
83. Kaufman, “Homeopathy in America,” 106.
84. William Holcombe, “What Is Homeopathy?,” North American Journal of Homeopathy 13 (1865): 341–42; Haller, History of American Homeopathy, 266–69.
85. Rogers, “The Proper Place of Homeopathy.”
86. Kirschmann, Vital Force, 24; Haller, History of American Homeopathy, 268–70.
87. Whorton, Nature Cures, 272; Mark Twain quoted in Harris L. Coulter, Divided Legacy: The Conflict between Homeopathy and the American Medical Association, vol. 3, Science and Ethics in American Medicine, 1800–1914 (Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 1982), 288–89.
88. Kirschmann, Vital Force, 19; Alex Berman, “The Heroic Approach in 19th Century Therapeutics,” Bulletin of the American Society of Hospital Pharmacists 11 (1954): 320–24.
89. Dan King, Quackery Unmasked; or, a Consideration of the Most Prominent Empirical Schemes of the Present Time (Boston: David Clapp, 1858), 132–33.
90. Holmes, Medical Essays, xiv.
91. Kirschmann, Vital Force, 113–20; Terri A. Winnick, “From Quackery to ‘Complementary’ Medicine: The American Medical Profession Confronts Alternative Therapies,” Social Problems 52, no. 1 (February 2005): 40; Haller, History of American Homeopathy, 292–94.
92. Kirschmann, Vital Force, 114.
93. Anne Taylor Kirschmann, “Making Friends for ‘Pure’ Homeopathy,” in Johnston, Politics of Healing, 31–33.
94. Julia M. Green, “Obituary,” Pacific Coast Homeopathic Bulletin 12, no. 1 (January 1964).
95. “Homeopathy: An Introduction,” National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, http://nccam.nih.gov/health/homeopathy.
96. Hahnemann, Organon, 226.
1. Rennie B. Schoepflin, “Christian Science Healing in America,” in Gevitz, Other Healers, 193–94; Milmine, Life of Mary Baker G. Eddy.
2. Sidney Ochs, “A History of Nerve Functions: From Animal Spirits to Molecular Mechanisms,” Brain 128, no. 1 (2005): 227–31; Finger, Doctor Franklin’s Medicine, 220–22; Allen G. Debus, “Paracelsus and the Medical Revolution of the Renaissance,” National Library of Medicine, http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/paracelsus/index.html; Jessica Riskin, “Franz Anton Mesmer (1734–1815),” The Super-Enlightenment Authors, digital collection, Stanford University Libraries, http://collections.stanford.edu/supere/page.action?forward=authors§ion=authors.
3. Whorton, Nature Cures, 104–5; Haller, American Medicine in Transition, 101; Finger, Doctor Franklin’s Medicine, 222.
4. Finger, Doctor Franklin’s Medicine, 222; Whorton, Nature Cures, 104–5.
5. Whorton, Nature Cures, 105; Fuller, “Mesmerism,” 207.
6. Fuller, “Mesmerism,” 220.
7. Ibid., 207.
8. Franz Anton Mesmer, Memoir of F. A. Mesmer on His Discoveries, Jerome Eden, trans. (Mt. Vernon, NY: Eden, 1957), 55; Whorton, Nature Cures, 105.
9. Whorton, Nature Cures, 105; “Glass Armonica,” Benjamin Franklin: An Extraordinary Life, An Eclectic Mind, PBS, 2002, http://www.pbs.org/benfranklin/l3_inquiring_glass.html.
10. Pattie, Mesmer and Animal Magnetism, 63–69; Turner, “Mesmeromania”; Jan Ehrenwald, The History of Psychotherapy: From Healing Magic to Encounter (New York: Jason Aronson, 1976), 221.
11. Mesmer quoted in Ehrenwald, History of Psychotherapy, 223.
12. Whorton, Nature Cures, 105–6.
13. Turner, “Mesmeromania.”
14. Whorton, Nature Cures, 105–6; Turner, “Mesmeromania.”
15. Finger, Doctor Franklin’s Medicine, 234.
16. Whorton, Nature Cures, 106–7.
17. Alison Winter, Mesmerized: Powers of Mind in Victorian Britain (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 171–72.
18. Lady Rosse quoted in Winter, Mesmerized, 257–58.
19. Harriet Martineau, Letters on Mesmerism, 2nd ed. (London: Edward Moxon, 1845), 7–8.
20. Fuller, Mesmerism, 6; Darnton, Mesmerism, 51.
21. Tim Fulford, “Conducting the Vital Fluid: The Politics and Poetics of Mesmerism in the 1790s,” Studies in Romanticism 43, no. 1 (Spring 2004): 62–63.
22. Mesmer quoted in Alan Gauld, A History of Hypnotism (London: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 11–12.
23. John Gardner, The Great Physician: The Connection of Diseases and Remedies with the Truths of Revelation (London: J. Hatchard, 1843), 244.
24. Finger, Doctor Franklin’s Medicine, 228.
25. Whorton, Nature Cures, 108.
26. Pattie, Mesmer and Animal Magnetism, 142–44.
27. Franklin et al., Report of Dr. Benjamin Franklin, 95.
28. Ibid., 87–88.
29. Ibid., 88–89, 102, 108–14.
30. Benjamin Franklin Bache quoted in Claude-Anne Lopez, “Franklin and Mesmer: An Encounter,” Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 66 (1993): 328.
31. Finger, Doctor Franklin’s Medicine, 230–31.
32. Franklin et al., Report of Dr. Benjamin Franklin, 114, 117, 123.
33. Finger, Doctor Franklin’s Medicine, 230–33; Fuller, Mesmerism, 7–10.
34. Wallace and Gach, History of Psychiatry and Medical Psychology, 558–59; Judith Pintar and Steven Jay Lynn, Hypnosis: A Brief History (Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2008), 23–25.
35. Fuller, Mesmerism, 10–11; Darnton, Mesmerism, 58.
36. Fuller, Mesmerism, 10–11; Darnton, Mesmerism, 58.
37. Adam Crabtree, “The Transition to Secular Psychotherapy: Hypnosis and the Alternate-Consciousness Paradigm,” in Wallace and Gach, History of Psychiatry and Medical Psychology, 557–59.
38. Fuller, Mesmerism, 11; Whorton, Nature Cures, 107–8.
39. Puységur quoted in Henri Ellenberger, The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry (New York: Basic Books, 1970), 72.
40. Fuller, Mesmerism, 10–11.
41. Brian A. Harris and Melvin A. Gravitz, “An 1829 Eyewitness Account of Hypnotic Anesthesia in Major Surgery,” Bulletin of Anesthesia History 26 (October 2008): 9.
42. Stephen E. Braude, First Person Plural: Multiple Personality and the Philosophy of the Mind (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1995), 20–21; Martin Willis and Catherine Wynne, “Introduction,” in Victorian Literary Mesmerism, Willis and Wynne, 1–3.
43. Whorton, Nature Cures, 108–9; James Braid and Arthur Edward Waite, Braid on Hypnotism: The Beginnings of Modern Hypnosis (New York: Julian Press, 1960); Adam Crabtree, From Mesmer to Freud: Magnetic Sleep and the Roots of Psychological Healing (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993), 155–62.
44. Fuller, Mesmerism, 16–17; Finger, Doctor Franklin’s Medicine, 228.
45. Poyen, Progress of Animal Magnetism, 40–41.
46. William Stone, “Animal Magnetism,” Connecticut Current, September 26, 1837.
47. Fuller, “Mesmerism and the Birth of Psychology,” 209–10.
48. Ralph L. Rusk, ed. The Letters of Ralph Waldo Emerson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1939), 2:55.
49. Fuller, Mesmerism, 17–19; Whorton, Nature Cures, 110; Nadis, Wonder Shows, 88.
50. Fuller, Mesmerism, 19.
51. Poyen, Progress of Animal Magnetism, 55.
52. Fuller, Mesmerism, 20–21.
53. Whorton, Nature Cures, 110–11.
54. Fuller, Mesmerism, 78–85; Nadis, Wonder Shows, 88.
55. Fuller, Mesmerism, 33; Turner, “Mesmeromania.”
56. Whorton, Nature Cures, 107; Turner, “Mesmeromania.”
57. LaRoy Sunderland, Confessions of a Magnetizer (Boston: Redding, 1845).
58. Timothy Shay, Agnes: or, The Possessed, A Revelation of Mesmerism (Philadelphia: T. B. Peterson, 1948), 3; Jerome M. Schneck, “Henry James, George Du Maurier, and Mesmerism,” International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis 26, no. 2 (1978): 76; Nadis, Wonder Shows, 89, 103.
59. Samuel Coale, “The Romance of Mesmerism: Hawthorne’s Medium of Romance,” Studies in the American Renaissance (1994): 273–74; Leland S. Person, The Cambridge Introduction to Nathaniel Hawthorne (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 86.
60. Whorton, Nature Cures, 110–11; Joseph Philippe Francois Deleuze, Practical Instruction in Animal Magnetism (Fowler & Wells Co., 1886), 144.
61. Willis and Wynne, Victorian Literary Mesmerism, 129; “Mesmeric Mania and Clairvoyant Somnambulists in 19th Century America,” Annual Report to the Friends (New York: Institute for the History of Psychiatry, 2007), 25–27; Poyen, Progress of Animal Magnetism, 144.
62. Madison Park, “HypnoBirthing: Relax While Giving Birth?,” CNN.com, August 12, 2011, http://edition.cnn.com/2011/HEALTH/08/12/hypnobirth.pregnancy/index.html.
63. Elizabeth, “Remarks of a Female Mesmerist in Reply to the Scurrilous Insinuations of Dr. F. Hawkins, Dr. Mayo, and Mr. Wakley,” Zoist 7 (London: Hippolyte Bailliere, 1850): 46, 47.
64. Fuller, Mesmerism, 30.
65. Whorton, Nature Cures, 112.
66. “Lectures on Mesmerism,” Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 29, no. 3 (January 20, 1844): 466.
67. X. Y., “Animal Magnetism,” New-Hampshire Gazette, July 5, 1841.
68. Whorton, Nature Cures, 111–13.
69. X. Y., “Animal Magnetism”; Sheila O’Brien Quinn, “Credibility, Respectability, Suggestibility, and Spirit Travel: Lurena Brackett and Animal Magnetism,” History of Psychology (October 24, 2011): 2–3.
70. Fuller, Mesmerism, 56–59.
71. Phineas Taylor Barnum, Struggles and Triumphs; or, Forty Years’ Recollections of P. T. Barnum (Buffalo, NY: Warren, Johnson & Co., 1872), 70–71.
72. Fuller, Mesmerism, 79–82, 118.
73. Whorton, Nature Cures, 116; Fuller, Mesmerism, 119.
74. Fuller, Mesmerism, 119–20.
75. Whorton, Nature Cures, 116–17; Fuller, Mesmerism, 120–21.
76. Robert E. Hales, Textbook of Psychiatry, 5th ed. (Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing, 2008), 622.
77. Dresser, Quimby Manuscripts, 30.
78. Ibid., 180.
79. Fuller, Mesmerism, 120–21; Whorton, Nature Cures, 117; Rosenberg, Our Present Complaint, 64.
80. Dresser, Quimby Manuscripts, 82.
81. Ibid., 78.
82. Whorton, Nature Cures, 117.
83. Dresser, Quimby Manuscripts, 83–85.
84. Whorton, Nature Cures, 118.
85. Dresser, Quimby Manuscripts, 52.
86. Quoted in Fuller, Mesmerism, 125.
87. Dresser, Quimby Manuscripts, 173.
88. Fuller, Mesmerism, 128–33; Whorton, Nature Cures, 118–19.
89. Fuller, Mesmerism, 131–32, 124.
90. Ibid., 137–38.
91. Georgine Milmine, “Mary Baker G. Eddy,” McClure’s Magazine 28 (1906–7): 509–13.
92. McDonald, “Mary Baker Eddy,” 94–95; Whorton, Nature Cures, 121–22; Mary Baker Eddy, Science and Health with a Key to the Scriptures (Boston: Allison B. Stewart, 1912), 109, 187–89.
93. Whorton, Nature Cures, 123.
94. Ibid., 123–25; Eddy quoted in Georgine Milmine and Willa Cather, The Life of Mary Baker G. Eddy and the History of Christian Science (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1993), 118.
95. Christian Science Publishing Society, A Century of Christian Science Healing (Boston: Christian Science Publishing Society, 1966), 48–49, 58; Whorton, Nature Cures, 124.
96. Whorton, Nature Cures, 124; “Writing Science and Health,” Longyear Museum, http://www.longyear.org/mary_baker_eddy/teacher/en_extra_writing.
97. Edmund Andrews, “Christian Science,” Journal of the American Medical Association 32 (1899): 581.
98. “Phases of Christian Science,” Journal of the American Medical Association 33 (1899): 297.
99. Ambrose Bierce, Devil’s Dictionary (Cleveland: World Publishing, 1948), 139.
100. “Mrs. Mary Baker Eddy, Boston,” Cincinnati Daily Gazette, June 8, 1882.
101. Gillian Gill, Mary Baker Eddy (New York: Perseus, 1998), 289.
102. Richard Cabot, “One Hundred Christian Science Cures,” McClure’s Magazine 31 (1908): 472–76; Whorton, Nature Cures, 124–26.
103. Whorton, Nature Cures, 125–27.
104. Rev. M. W. Gifford, Christian Science against Itself (Cincinnati: Jennings and Pye, 1902), 74, 258.
105. Rev. Gray, The Antidote to Christian Science or How to Deal with It from the Bible and Christian Point of View (New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1907), 52.
106. Edgar L. Wakeman, “Wakeman’s Wanderings,” Concord Evening Monitor, January 17, 1891; Ralph Wallace Reed, “A Study of the Case of Mary Baker G. Eddy,” Cincinnati Lancet-Clinic 104 (October 15, 1910): 360; McDonald, “Mary Baker Eddy,” 98–100.
107. McDonald, “Mary Baker Eddy,” 105–6.
108. “Global Membership,” Christian Science, http://christianscience.com/church-of-christ-scientist/about-the-church-of-christ-scientist/global-membership.
109. Rennie B. Schoepflin, “Christian Science Healing in America,” in Gevitz, Other Healers, 197.
110. Fuller, Mesmerism, 175.
111. Ibid., 145–46, 153–56.
112. Ralph Waldo Trine, In Tune With the Infinite (New York: Crowell Co., 1897), 16, i.
113. Frank C. Haddock, Mastery of Self for Wealth, Power, Success (Meriden, CT: Pelton, 1928), Project Gutenberg, http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/4286.
114. Fuller, Mesmerism, 164–67.
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1. James Frank Dobie, Rattlesnakes (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1982), 75–76; Dan Hurley, Natural Causes: Death, Lies and Politics in America’s Vitamin and Herbal Supplement Industry (New York: Broadway Books, 2006), 1–2; Gene Fowler, Mavericks: A Gallery of Texas Characters (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2008), 97–100; Joe Schwarcz, “Why Are Snake-Oil Remedies So-Called?,” Gazette (Montreal), February 23, 2008, http://www.canada.com/montrealgazette.
2. Nadis, Wonder Shows, 6.
3. Harold B. Gill, The Apothecary in Colonial Virginia (Williamsburg: Colonial Williamsburg, 1972), 44.
4. Sally Lansdell Osborn, “Delights of Daffy,” Medicine at the Margins conference paper, University of Glamorgan (Wales), April 15, 2011, http://phdpanacea.wordpress.com/2011/08/20/the-delights-of-daffy/.
5. Young, Medical Messiahs, 14–15.
6. John Parascandola, “Patent Medicines and the Public’s Health,” Public Health Reports 114, no. 4 (July–August 1999): 320.
7. Young, “Patent Medicine,” 96–99.
8. Anderson, Snake Oil, 35–36; Kellie Patrick Gates, “PennDOT Archaeologists Uncover Historic Dyottville Glass Works,” PlanPhilly, January 20, 2012, http://planphilly.com/penndot-archaeologists-uncover-historic-dyottville-glass-works (accessed April 18, 2012).
9. Sivulka, Soap, Sex, and Cigarettes, 34.
10. Lydia Pinkham quoted in Stage, Female Complaints, 46.
11. Ibid., 17–23; “Lady with a Compound,” American Journal of Nursing 59, no. 6 (June 1959): 854.
12. Stage, Female Complaints, 27–28.
13. Virginia G. Drachman, Enterprising Women: 250 Years of American Business (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 42–44; ibid., 30–31.
14. Daniel Pinkham quoted in “News,” Lynn (MA) Daily Item, January 23, 1893.
15. Drachman, Enterprising Women, 43; Haller, American Medicine in Transition, 269–70; Stage, Female Complaints, 31.
16. Young, “Patent Medicine,” 99–103.
17. Stage, Female Complaints, 52, 89–90; John King, The American Dispensatory, 10th ed. (Cincinnati: Wistach, Baldwin, and Co., 1876), 79.
18. Jacob Bigelow, MD, “On Self Limited Diseases,” paper presented to the Massachusetts Medical Society ( May 27, 1835), repr. in Medical America in the Nineteenth Century: Readings from the Literature, ed. Gert H. Brieger (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972), 99, 103–4.
19. Stage, Female Complaints, 55–56.
20. Richard Swiderski, Calomel in America: Mercurial Panacea, War, Song, and Ghosts (Boca Raton, FL: BrownWalker Press, 2012), 59–60; Cohen, “Medical Social Movements,” 59–63.
21. “Editor’s Table,” Cincinnati Lancet and Observer 6 (June 1836), 376.
22. Stage, Female Complaints, 61–62.
23. Shaw, “History of the Comstock Patent Medicine Business,” 24–25; Stage, Female Complaints, 62–63; Anderson, Snake Oil, 37.
24. Stage, Female Complaints, 32.
25. Jacob Appel, “Physicians Are Not Bootleggers: The Short, Particular Life of the Medicinal Alcohol Movement,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 8, no. 2 (July 10, 2008): 355–86; ibid., 32, 62.
26. Stage, Female Complaints, 90.
27. Young, “Patent Medicine,” 103.
28. Stage, Female Complaints, 40–41; Young, “Patent Medicines,” 102–3.
29. Stage, Female Complaints, 17, 40–41.
30. Sivulka, Soap, Sex, and Cigarettes, 34–35; Troesken, “Elasticity of Demand,” 25–27.
31. Boston Daily Times quoted in Michael Schudson, Discovering the News: A Social History of American Newspapers (New York: Basic Books, 1978), 23; Parascandola, Sex, Sin, and Science, 320.
32. Stage, Female Complaints, 100; Parascandola, Sex, Sin, and Science, 320; Anderson, Snake Oil, 44.
33. American Medical Association, Nostrums and Quackery: Articles on the Nostrum Evil, Quackery, Reprinted, with Additions and Modifications, from The Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 1 (Chicago: American Medical Association Press, 1912), 364.
34. Stage, Female Complaints, 102–3.
35. Drake Holcombe, “Private Die Proprietaries,” Weekly Philatelic Gossip 113 (June 1842): 375.
36. Charles Austin Bates, Good Advertising (New York: Holmes Publishing, 1896), 439.
37. Erika Janik and Matthew B. Jensen, “Giving Them What They Want: The Reinhardts and Quack Medicine in Wisconsin,” Wisconsin Magazine of History 94 (Summer 2011): 31–32.
38. Parascandola, Sex, Sin, and Science, 320–21; Brooks McNamara, “The Indian Medicine Show,” Educational Theatre Journal 23, no. 4 (December 1971): 432.
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40. Shaw, “History of the Comstock Patent Medicine Business,” 30–31.
41. Stage, Female Complaints, 93.
42. Master Specialist, Home Private Medical Advisor.
43. Sivulka, Soap, Sex, and Cigarettes, 35.
44. Nadis, Wonder Shows, 20–21.
45. “Popularizing Science,” Nation 4, no. 80 (January 10, 1867): 32.
46. George Park Fisher, ed., Life of Benjamin Silliman, M.D., L.L.D., vol. 2 (New York: Charles Scribner and Co., 1866), 1–2.
47. As quoted in John C. Greene, “Protestantism, Science and American Enterprise: Benjamin Silliman,” in Benjamin Silliman and His Circle, ed. Leonard G. Wilson (New York: Science History Publishing, 1979), 22.
48. Nadis, Wonder Shows, 22–23.
49. Anderson, Snake Oil, 6.
50. Nadis, Wonder Shows, 10, 23–27, 35–45.
51. Ibid., 29–30, 35–36.
52. Ibid., 32–39.
53. Porter, Quacks, 84–85; Nadis, Wonder Shows, 30, 36; Starr, Social Transformation of American Medicine, 48.
54. Starr, Social Transformation of American Medicine, 128; “Facts for Sick Women,” Breckenridge News (Cloverport, KY), October 20, 1909.
55. Stage, Female Complaints, 45–46; “Lady with a Compound,” American Journal of Nursing, 855.
56. Steven Seidman, “The Power of Desire and the Danger of Pleasure: Victorian Sexuality Reconsidered,” Journal of Social History 24 (Autumn 1990): 50–51; Ellen Bayuk Rosenman, “Body Doubles: The Spermatorrhea Panic,” Journal of the History of Sexuality 12, no. 3 (July 2003): 366.
57. Master Specialist, Home Private Medical Advisor.
58. A. C. Umbreit, “The Reinhardts and Their Frauds,” 12, in “Medical Institute Investigation 1907,” Wisconsin Governor, Investigations, 1851-1959, series 81, box 18, folder 6, Wisconsin Historical Society; Consumer Price Index Calculator, Bureau of Labor Statistics, http://www.bls.gov/data/inflation_calculator.htm.
59. Starr, Social Transformation of American Medicine, 127–28; Umbreit, Pending Medical Legislation, 12; Umbreit, “The Reinhardts and Their Frauds,” 12–13, 14.
60. “Code of Ethics, Adopted May, 1847,” American Medical Association (Philadelphia: Turner Hamilton, 1871), 15.
61. Henry H. Tucker, “‘The True Physician’: An Address Delivered before the Graduating Class of the Medical College of Georgia, at Its Annual Commencement” (Augusta, GA: E. H. Pughe, 1867), 7.
62. Starr, Social Transformation of American Medicine, 128–29.
63. New York Times, May 7, 1875, ProQuest Historical Newspapers: New York Times (1851–2008), accessed April 11, 2012.
64. Haller, American Medicine in Transition, 269–70.
65. Rosenman, “Body Doubles,” 389; William H. Helfand, Quack, Quack, Quack: The Sellers of Nostrums in Prints, Posters, Ephemera, and Books (Hamden, CT: Winterhouse Editions, 2002), 22.
66. Stage, Female Complaints, 103–4.
67. Norman Gevitz, “Three Perspectives on Unorthodox Medicine,” in Gevitz, Other Healers, 9; Starr, Social Transformation of American Medicine, 129–30.
68. American Lancet, “Can the Advertisements in a Reputable Medical Journal Promote Quackery,” Journal of the American Medical Association 22 (Chicago: American Medical Association, 1894), 957–58.
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73. Troesken, “Elasticity of Demand,” 32; Starr, Social Transformation of American Medicine, 128.
74. Porter, Quacks, 11–12, 17–19, 23, 30–31.
75. Ibid., 30–31; Guenter B. Risse, “Introduction,” in Risse, Medicine without Doctors, 1–4.
76. Troesken, “Elasticity of Demand,” 17–19; Anne Cooper Funderburg, Sundae Best: History of Soda Fountains (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 2002), 93–94, 72; Barbara Mikkelson, “Cocaine-Cola,” Snopes.com, May 19, 2011, http://www.snopes.com/cokelore/cocaine.asp; “Advertising and Branding,” Patent Medicine Exhibit, Hagley Museumand Library, Wilmington, DE, http://www.hagley.org/library/exhibits/patentmed/history/advertisingbranding.html; Joe Nickell, “‘Pop’ Culture: Patent Medicines Become Soda Drinks,” Skeptical Inquirer 35 (January/February 2011), http://www.csicop.org/si/show/pop_culture_patent_medicines_become_soda_drinks/.
77. Nancy Tomes, “The Great American Medicine Show Revisited,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 79, no. 4 (2005): 635; Anderson, Snake Oil, 31; Young, Medical Messiahs, 20.
78. FDA, “A History of the FDA and Drug Regulation in the United States,” http://www.fda.gov/AboutFDA/WhatWeDo/History/default.htm; Julie Donohue, “A History of Drug Advertising: The Evolving Roles of Consumers and Consumer Protection,” Milbank Quarterly 84, no. 4 (2006): 663–64; Stage, Female Complaints, 170–71.
79. Umbreit, Pending Medical Legislation, 12.
80. Umbreit, “The Reinhardts and Their Frauds,” 16–17; “The Reinhardt Case Concluded: The End of a Long Fight for the Protection of the Public Against Imposition,” Journal of the American Medical Association 51 (October 3, 1908): 1144–49.
81. “The Reinhardt Case Concluded.”
82. “Williams’ Electric Batteries,” image on Quackery: A Brief History of Quack Medicines and Peddlers, http://www.authentichistory.com/1898–1913/2-progressivism/8-quackery/index.html (December 23, 2012).
83. Peter Conrad and Valerie Leiter, “From Lydia Pinkham to Queen Levitra: Direct-to-Consumer Advertising and Medicalization,” in Simon J. Williams et al., eds., Pharmaceuticals and Society: Critical Discourses and Debates (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2009), 18–23; Dominick L. Frosch et al., “A Decade of Controversy: Balancing Policy with Evidence in the Regulation of Prescription Drug Advertising,” American Journal of Public Health 100, no. 1 (January 2010): 24–25, 31.
1. B. J. Palmer, The Science of Chiropractic: Its Principles and Philosophies, 4th ed. (Davenport, IA: Palmer School of Chiropractic, 1920), 59–61; D. D. Palmer, Text-Book of the Science, Art, and Philosophy of Chiropractic, for Students and Practitioners (Portland, ME: Portland Printing House, 1910), 10, 18; Wardwell, “Chiropractors,” in Gevitz, Other Healers, 157–58.
2. Moore, Chiropractic in America, 4.
3. Ibid., 15.
4. Hippocrates, “On the Articulations,” trans. Francis Adams, online at Internet Classics Archive, http://classics.mit.edu/Hippocrates/artic.html.
5. Moore, Chiropractic in America, 15–17; Pettman, “History of Manipulative Therapy.”
6. Moore, Chiropractic in America, 15–16; Richard Dean Smith, “Avicenna and the Canon of Medicine: A Millennial Tribute,” Western Journal of Medicine 133 (October 1980): 368.
7. James Caulfield, “Mrs. Mapp, The Female Bone-setter,” in Portraits, Memoirs, and Characters, of Remarkable Persons, from the Revolution in 1688 to the End of the Reign of George II: Collected from the Authentic Accounts Extant, vol. 4 (London: T. H. Whiteley, 1820), 70–77; Moore, Chiropractic in America, 16–17.
8. Paul Slack, “Mirrors of Health and Treasures of Poor Men: The Uses of the Vernacular Medical Literature of Tudor England,” in Health, Medicine, and Mortality in the Sixteenth Century, ed. Charles Webster (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 237.
9. Moore, Chiropractic in America, 16–17.
10. J. Paget, “Cases That Bonesetters Cure,” British Medical Journal 1 (1867): 1–4.
11. Moore, Chiropractic in America, 17.
12. Leonard F. Peltier, MD, Fractures: A History and Iconography of Their Treatment (San Francisco: Norman Publishing, 1990), 4–5; Whorton, Nature Cures, 144.
13. Whorton, Nature Cures, 143.
14. Ibid., 142–43.
15. Gevitz, “Osteopathic Medicine,” in Gevitz, Other Healers, 125.
16. Still, “Osteopathy.”
17. Walter, Women and Osteopathic Medicine, 6–7.
18. Pettman, “History of Manipulative Therapy.”
19. Whorton, Nature Cures, 144; Walter, Women and Osteopathic Medicine, 8–9.
20. Cohen, “Medical Social Movements,” 76; Whorton, Nature Cures, 144.
21. Still, “Osteopathy,” 2.
22. Whorton, Nature Cures, 145.
23. Cohen, “Medical Social Movements,” 76.
24. Still, Autobiography, 287.
25. Still, “Osteopathy,” 3.
26. Still, Autobiography, 371.
27. Ibid., 219, 310.
28. Pettman, “History of Manipulative Therapy.”
29. Still, “Osteopathy,” 4.
30. Whorton, Nature Cures, 148–50.
31. Still, Osteopathy: Research and Practice, 338.
32. Still, Autobiography, 32.
33. Whorton, Nature Cures, 149.
34. Ibid., 150.
35. A. T. Still, “Differences Between Osteopathy and Massage,” in George Webster, Concerning Osteopathy (Norwood, MA: Plimpton Press, 1917), 93.
36. Emmons Rutledge Booth, History of Osteopathy, and Twentieth Century Medical Practice (Cincinnati: Press of Jennings and Graham, 1905), 33.
37. Gevitz, “Osteopathic Medicine,” in Gevitz, Other Healers, 129–30.
38. Arthur Hildreth, The Lengthening Shadow of Dr. Andrew Taylor Still (Kirksville, MO: Journal Printing, 1942), 31.
39. Cohen, “Medical Social Movements,” 78–79, 81–83; Baer, “Divergence and Convergence,” 184.
40. Quoted in Walter, Women and Osteopathic Medicine, 12.
41. Lara Vapnek, Breadwinners: Working Women and Economic Independence, 1865–1920 (Carbondale: University of Illinois Press, 2009), 11–13.
42. Whorton, Nature Cures, 151; Walter, Women and Osteopathic Medicine, 13; Still, Autobiography, 156.
43. Still, Autobiography, 155.
44. Walter, Women and Osteopathic Medicine, 12.
45. Wardwell, Chiropractic, 52–53.
46. Moore, Chiropractic in America, 6–12.
47. Gielow, Old Dad Chiro, 47–48.
48. Wardwell, Chiropractic, 53.
49. Whorton, Nature Cures, 167.
50. Gielow, Old Dad Chiro, 44, 47.
51. Moore, Chiropractic in America, 14.
52. Whorton, Nature Cures, 167.
53. Gielow, Old Dad Chiro, 79; ibid., 168.
54. Wardwell, Chiropractic, 56.
55. Moore, Chiropractic in America, 19.
56. Ibid., 21.
57. Wardwell, “Chiropractic,” in Gevitz, Other Healers, 189; Whorton, Nature Cures, 169–71; Moore. Chiropractic in America, 21–22.
58. Whorton, Nature Cures, 170–71.
59. Palmer, The Chiropractic Adjustor, 21–22, 380.
60. Ibid., 558; Whorton, Nature Cures, 173.
61. Whorton, Nature Cures, 173.
62. Martin, “The Only Truly Scientific Method of Healing,” 213.
63. Still, Autobiography, 208.
64. Whorton, Nature Cures, 146.
65. Andrew T. Still, “Body and Soul of Man,” 2 (1903), Andrew Taylor Still Papers, Missouri Digital Heritage, http://cdm.sos.mo.gov/u?/atsu,736.
66. Whorton, Nature Cures, 146.
67. Ibid., 171–72.
68. Palmer, The Chiropractic Adjustor, 835–39.
69. Whorton, Nature Cures, 172.
70. Moore, Chiropractic in America, 105–6.
71. Whorton, Nature Cures, 174; Wardwell, Chiropractic, 59; Susan Smith-Cunnien, “Without Drugs or Knives: The Early Years of Chiropractic,” Minnesota History 59, no. 5 (Spring 2005): 202.
72. Palmer quoted in Moore, Chiropractic in America, 108.
73. Oakley Smith, Naprapathy Genetics: Being a Study of the Origin and Development of Naprapathy (Chicago: printed by the author, 1932), 5–6.
74. Matthew Brennan, “Perspectives on Chiropractic Education in Medical Literature, 1910–1933,” Chiropractic History 3 (1983): 285–88.
75. Whorton, Nature Cures, 185–87.
76. “Chiropractic Candor,” Journal of the American Medical Association 75 (November 19, 1920): 1276.
77. Whorton, Nature Cures, 186–87; Wardwell, “Chiropractors,” in Gevitz, Other Healers, 158–59; Moore, 46–49; Thomas Lamar, “From Broadcasting to Podcasting: Chiropractic Is on the Air!,” part I, Spinal Column Radio, http://spinalcolumnradio.com/2010/02/05/from-broadcasting-to-podcasting-chiropractic-is-on-the-air-part-1/; “Chiropractic Candor,” Journal of the American Medical Association, 1276.
78. Whorton, Nature Cures, 152.
79. Still, Autobiography, 321–22.
80. Whorton, Nature Cures, 152–53; Cohen, “Medical Social Movements,” 93–94.
81. Laughlin quoted Baer, Biomedicine and Alternative Healing Systems, 54, 53.
82. Ibid., 53–55.
83. Ibid., 72–73; Moore, Chiropractic in America, 94–98.
84. Cohen, “Medical Social Movements,” 93–99.
85. Russell Gibbons, Chiropractic History: Lost, Strayed or Stolen (Davenport, IA: Palmer College Student Council, 1976), 13-14.
86. Gevitz, “Osteopathic Medicine,” in Gevitz, Other Healers, 132–34.
87. Ibid., 134–35.
88. Still, Autobiography, 395–96.
89. Cohen, “Medical Social Movements,” 106.
90. Wardwell, Chiropractic, 58–63.
91. Cohen, “Medical Social Movements,” 106; Whorton, Nature Cures, 182–84.
92. Wardwell, Chiropractic, 68–69.
93. Whorton, Nature Cures, 182–83; Wardwell, Chiropractic, 67.
94. Palmer, The Chiropractic Adjustor, 146, 256, 695.
95. John Wesley, Primitive Physick, 14th ed. (Philadelphia, 1770), 57, 61–62.
96. Harvey Green and Mary Elizabeth Perry, The Light of the Home: An Intimate View of the Lives of Women in Victorian America (New York: Pantheon, 1983), 138–39.
97. Leica Claydon et al., “Dose-specific Effects of Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation (TENS) on Experimental Pain: A Systematic Review,” Clinical Journal of Pain 27 (September 2011): 635–47; Richard M. Dubinksy and Janis Miyasaki, “Assessment: Efficacy of Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation in the Treatment of Pain in Neurologic Disorders,” Neurology 74 (January 12, 2010): 173–76.
98. “Mr. Frank X. Trudell,” Anaconda (MT) Standard, March 31, 1907, 12; Moore, Chiropractic in America, 23–25, 31–41.
99. Moore, Chiropractic in America, 22–23; Starr, Social Transformation of American Medicine, 54–58.
100. Cohen, “Medical Social Movements,” 100; Whorton, Nature Cures, 159–60.
101. B. J. Palmer, The Philosophy of Chiropractic (Davenport, IA: Palmer School of Chiropractic, 1909), 5:6.
102. I. D. Coulter, “Chiropractic and Medical Education: A Contrast in Models of Health and Illness,” Journal of the Canadian Chiropractic Association 27, no. 4 (December 1983): 153.
103. James B. Campbell et al., “Chiropractic and Vaccination: A Historical Perspective,” Pediatrics 105, no. 4 (April 1, 2000), http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/105/4/e43.full; Martin, “Chiropractic and the Social Context of Medical Technology,” 814.
104. Moore, Chiropractic in America, 142–49.
105. Cohen, “Medical Social Movements,” 82–83.
106. Twain quoted in Ober, Mark Twain and Medicine, 160–63.
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108. Richard Newton, “Is There Any Good in Osteopathy?,” American Medicine 6 (1903): 616–17; Whorton, Nature Cures, 152–53.
109. John R. Musick, “Healing Without Medicine,” Godey’s Magazine, October 1895, 380.
110. “Mark Twain, Osteopath: Appears at Public Hearing Before Assembly Committee,” New York Times, February 28, 1901.
111. Baer, Biomedicine and Alternative Healing Systems, 61.
112. Charles Warner, Quacks (Jackson, MS: printed by the author, 1930), 97.
113. “The Menace of Chiropractic: Practically No Educational Qualifications Necessary for Matriculation in Chiropractic Colleges,” Journal of the American Medical Association 80 (March 10, 1923): 715–16.
114. Morris Fishbein, The Medical Follies: An Analysis of the Foibles of Some Healing Cults (New York: Boni and Liveright, 1925), 61.
115. J. F. Hart, “Did D. D. Palmer Visit A. T. Still in Kirksville?,” Chiropractic History 17, no. 2 (1997): 49–55.
116. George Creel, “Making Doctors While You Wait,” Harper’s Weekly (April 3, 1915): 321.
117. “Don’t Drug Yourself to Death,” advertisement, St. Paul (MN) Dispatch, August 27, 1904.
118. Still, Osteopathy: Research and Practice, 433; Centers for Disease Control, “Diphtheria,” Pinkbook, http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/pinkbook/downloads/dip.pdf; Whorton, Nature Cures, 153; Moore, Chiropractic in America, 80–81.
119. “Dr. D. D. Palmer Goes to Jail,” Davenport (IA) Democrat & Leader, March 27, 1906; Gielow, Old Dad Chiro, 67, 99–104.
120. Moore, Chiropractic in America, 76.
121. Baer, “Divergence and Convergence,” 185–86.
122. “Mark Twain, Osteopath,” New York Times, February 28, 1901.
123. Whorton, Nature Cures, 154–55, 158–60; Cohen, “Medical Social Movements,” 102–4.
124. Whorton, Nature Cures, 159–60; Andrew Taylor Still, “An Appeal to the Thinking Osteopaths of the Profession,” Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 15 (1915–16): 52.
125. Whorton, Nature Cures, 182; H. L. Mencken, Prejudices: Sixth Series (New York: Octagon, 1977), 224.
126. Whorton, Nature Cures, 163; Cohen, “Medical Social Movements,” 110–12.
127. Gevitz, “Osteopathic Medicine,” in Other Healers, 153–55; Cohen, “Medical Social Movements,” 115–16.
128. Raymond J. Roberge and Marc. R. Roberge, “Overcoming Barriers to the Use of Osteopathic Manipulation Techniques in the Emergency Department,” Western Journal of Emergency Medicine 10, no. 3 (August 2009), http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2729220/; S. M. Johnson, M. E. Kurtz, and J. C. Kurtz, “Variables Influencing the Use of Osteopathic Manipulative Treatment in Family Practice,” Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 97, no. 2 (February 1997): 86; Whorton, Nature Cures, 179; Cohen, “Medical Social Movements,” 120–22, 144–45; Rosenberg, Our Present Complaint, 123.
129. Baer, “Divergence and Convergence,” 180–81; Cohen, “Medical Social Movements,” 145–46; Shawn A. Silver, “‘Thanks, but no thanks’: How Denial of Osteopathic Service in World War I and World War II Shaped the Profession,” Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 112 (February 1, 2012): 93–97.
130. Baer, Biomedicine and Alternative Healing Systems, 52, 56–57; Eileen L. DiGiovanna et al., An Osteopathic Approach to Diagnosis and Treatment, 3rd ed. (New York: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 2005), 8.
131. Cohen, “Medical Social Movements,” 145; Baer, Biomedicine and Alternative Healing Systems, 50–52.
132. Baer, Biomedicine and Alternative Healing Systems, 74.
133. Gevitz, “Osteopathic Medicine,” in Other Healers, 186–89.
134. J. Licciardone, R. Gamber, and K. Cardarelli, “Patient Satisfaction and Clinical Outcomes Associated with Osteopathic Manipulative Treatment,” Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 102 (January 2002): 13; M. Pomykala, B. McElhinney, B. L. Beck, and J. E. Carrerio, “Patient Perception of Osteopathic Manipulative Treatment in Hospitalized Setting: A Survey-Based Study,” Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 108 (November 2008): 665–66.
135. Deanna M. Rothwell, Susan J. Bondy, and J. Ivan Williams, “Chiropractic Manipulation and Stroke: A Population-Based Case-Control Study,” Stroke 32 (2001): 1055, 1059–60; J. David Cassidy et al., “Risk of Vertebrobasilar Stroke and Chiropractic Care,” Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics 32 (February 2009): S208.
136. Baer, Biomedicine and Alternative Healing Systems, 82–84.
137. B. J. Palmer quoted in Wardwell, Chiropractic, 74.
1. Thomas Lindsley Bradford, History of the Homeopathic Medical College of Pennsylvania (Lancaster, PA: T. B. & H. B. Cochran, 1898), 279–80; Naomi Rogers, An Alternative Path: The Making and Remaking of Hahnemann Medical College (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1998), 80; Naomi Rogers, “The Proper Place of Homeopathy: Hahnemann Medical College and Hospital in the Age of Scientific Medicine,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 108, no. 2 (April 1984): 179; Philadelphia College of Pharmacy Alumni Association, “Senior Class News,” Alumni Report 30, issues 1–9 (1894): 36–38.
2. Cayleff, Wash and Be Healed, 169–70; Duffy, From Humors to Medical Science, 167–69.
3. Rosenberg, Our Present Complaint, 118–20.
4. Duffy, From Humors to Medical Science, 216–17; ibid., 119.
5. Whorton, “From Cultism to CAM,” 292–94; Cayleff, Wash and Be Healed, 168–70.
6. Abraham Flexner, Medical Education in the United States and Canada: A Report to the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (New York: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1910), 157; Whorton, Nature Cures, 226–27; Claire Johnson and Bart Green, “100 Years after the Flexner Report,” Journal of Chiropractic Education 24, no. 2 (Fall 2010): 145–50.
7. Mike Mitka, “The Flexner Report at the Century Mark: A Wake-Up Call for Reforming Medical Education,” Journal of the American Medical Association 15 (April 23, 2010): 1465–66.
8. Duffy, From Humors to Medical Science, 209–13.
9. Whorton, Nature Cures, 226–27.
10. Duffy, From Humors to Medical Science, 212–13.
11. Flexner, Medical Education in the United States, xiv.
12. Martin, “Chiropractic and the Social Context of Medical Technology,” 815; Meryl S. Justin, “The Entry of Women into Medicine in America: Education and Obstacles, 1847–1910,” Hobart and William Smith Colleges, http://www.hws.edu/about/blackwell/articles/womenmedicine.aspx; Flexner quoted in Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science, 343; Starr, Social Transformation of American Medicine, 124.
13. Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science, 65–66, 88–89, 244–49.
14. Oliver Wendell Holmes, “Notes,” Maryland Medical Journal 10 (1883): 424.
15. Morantz, “Women in the Medical Profession,” 163–64.
16. Kirschmann, Vital Force, 119–21; Morantz, “Women in the Medical Profession,” 167; Dodson quoted in Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science, 253; Starr, Social Transformation of American Medicine, 124.
17. Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science, 70; Kirschmann, Vital Force, 119–21; Morantz, “Women in the Medical Profession,” 167.
18. Edward Clarke, Sex in Education; or, a Fair Chance for Girls (Boston: James R. Osgood and Company, 1875), 17–18, 31–36.
19. Stille quoted in Kimmel, “Men’s Response to Feminism,” 268.
20. Ibid., 270.
21. Ibid., 269–71.
22. Morantz, “Women in the Medical Profession,” 165–67.
23. Whorton, “From Cultism to CAM,” 299–300; Robins, Copeland’s Cure, 223–24.
24. Robins, Copeland’s Cure, 223–24, 238, 241.
25. Twain quoted in Ober, Mark Twain and Medicine, 241.
26. Rosenberg, Our Present Complaint, 123.
27. Ibid., 122–23.
28. Bara Fintel, Athena T. Samaras, and Edson Carias, “The Thalidomide Tragedy: Lessons for Drug Safety and Regulation,” Science in Society (July 28, 2009), http://scienceinsociety.northwestern.edu/content/articles/2009/research-digest/thalidomide/title-tba; Duffy, From Humors to Medical Science, 241–43.
29. Whorton, “From Cultism to CAM,” 300–301.
30. Ibid., 300–2.
31. Johnston, “Introduction,” Politics of Healing, 3.
32. Cassedy, Medicine in America, 191; Reed, Healing Cults, 67–71.
33. Robins, Copeland’s Cure, 242.
34. Whorton, “From Cultism to CAM,” 302.
35. Rustum Roy, “Science and Whole Person Medicine: Enormous Potential in a New Relationship,” Bulletin of Science, Technology, and Society 22, no. 5 (October 2002): 377; Rosenberg, Our Present Complaint, 118.
36. American Holistic Medical Association statement in Whorton, “From Cultism to CAM,” 287.
37. Ibid., 287–88, 302–4.
38. “Holistic Health Hard to Define,” Milwaukee Journal (May 21, 1979), parts 2 and 3.
39. Whorton, “From Cultism to CAM,” 301–3.
40. Astin, “Why Patients Use Alternative Medicine”; Rosenberg, Our Present Complaint, 113–14; Goldstein, Alternative Health Care, 8.
41. Martin, “Chiropractic and the Social Context of Medical Technology,” 814.
42. Alex Berman, “The Heroic Approach in 19th-Century Therapeutics,” in Leavitt and Numbers, Sickness and Health in America, 81–82.
43. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Chronic Diseases and Health Promotion,” http://www.cdc.gov/chronicdisease/overview/index.htm.
44. Martin, “‘The Only Truly Scientific Method of Healing,’” 209.
45. More, Fee, and Parry, Women Physicians and the Cultures of Medicine, 10–11.
46. Cohen, “Medical Social Movements,” 62–64; Duffy, From Humors to Medical Science, 169–70.
47. Goldstein, Alternative Health Care, 6.
48. Patricia M. Barnes, Barbara Bloom, Richard L. Nahin, Complementary and Alternative Medicine Use Among Adults and Children: United States, 2007, National Health Statistics Report 12 (Washington, DC: Centers for Disease Control: December 10, 2008), http://nccam.nih.gov/sites/nccam.nih.gov/files/news/nhsr12.pdf..
49. James Whorton, “The Homeopathy Debate,” The Alternative Fix, Frontline, posted November 4, 2003, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/altmed/themes/homeopathy.html.
50. Astin, “Why Patients Use Alternative Medicine.”
51. Charles Vincent and Adrian Furnham, Complementary Medicine: A Research Perspective (Chichester, UK: Wiley & Sons, 1997), 119–21.
52. Montaigne quoted in Hunter, “A Question of Faith,” 125–28.
53. Holmes, Medical Essays, 1.
54. Maj-Britt Niemi, “Placebo Effect: A Cure in the Mind,” Scientific American, February 25, 2009, http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=placebo-effect-a-cure-in-the-mind.
55. Hunter, “A Question of Faith,” 126–27.
56. “Just the Placebo Effect?,” Science in School 21, http://www.scienceinschool.org/2011/issue21/placebo.
57. Hunter, “A Question of Faith,” 125–28.
58. “Think Yourself Better,” Economist, May 19, 2011, http://www.economist.com/node/18710090; Ted Kaptchuk, “The Placebo Effect in Alternative Medicine: Can the Performance of a Healing Ritual Have Clinical Significance?,” Annals of Internal Medicine 136, no. 11 (June 4, 2002): 817; Aijing Shang et al., “Are the Clinical Effects of Homeopathy Placebo Effects? Comparative Study of Placebo-Controlled Trials of Homeopathy and Allopathy,” Lancet 366, no. 9487 (August 2005): 726–32.
59. J. Bruce Moseley et al., “A Controlled Trial of Arthroscopic Surgery for Osteoarthritis of the Knee,” New England Journal of Medicine 347 (July 11, 2002): 81–88.
60. Steve Silberman, “Placebos Are Getting More Effective. Drugmakers Are Desperate to Know Why,” Wired, September 2009, http://www.wired.com/medtech/drugs/magazine/17–09/ff_placebo_effect?currentPage=all.
61. Goldstein, Alternative Health Care, 10–11; Johnston, “Introduction,” Politics of Healing, 4.
62. Owsei Temkin, Double Face of Janus and Other Essays in the History of Medicine (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977), 16.
63. Walter Johnson, Homeopathy: Popular Exposition and Defence of Its Principles and Practices (Simpkin, Marshall, and Co., 1852), 8.
64. Forbes quoted in “Miscellany,” Medical Times 15 (London: J. Angerstein Carfrae, 1846), 115.