*Terms you are required to know in the AP U.S. Government and Politics curriculum.
Please note the other terms in the glossary are related to the AP U.S. Government and Politics required documents, required Supreme Court cases, and optional and illustrative examples referenced in the curriculum.
Activist court—court that makes decisions that forge new ground such as Roe v Wade or Brown v Board of Education and establishes precedent that often results in some form of legislative action.
Advise and consent—power of the Senate regarding presidential appointments.
*Affirmative Action—programs for minorities supported by government as a means of providing equality under the law.
Affordable Care Act—In 2010, President Obama signed into law his signature initiative, the Affordable Care Act. The law was passed only by Democratic votes and two independents; the Republicans who opposed it referred to it as “Obamacare.” The law provides that all Americans will have access to affordable health insurance options.
*Agenda setting—political parties setting policy goals.
All politics is local—phrase coined by former Democratic Speaker of the House Tip O’Neill (Speaker 1977–1987) and refers to how the behavior of congresspersons on the local level was the determining factor for how voters perceived their representatives.
Americans with Disabilities Act (1991)—act that required employers, schools, and public buildings to reasonably accommodate the physical needs of handicapped individuals by providing such things as ramps and elevators with appropriate facilities.
Amicus curiae—“friend of the court”; briefs that may be sent to support the position of one side or the other.
*Anti-Federalists—one of the first political factions, they urged the rejection of the Constitution and objected to a federal government that was too centralized. They became the Democratic-Republican party, led by Thomas Jefferson.
Appellate jurisdiction—courts that have the right to review cases from lower courts on appeal. The highest federal court, the Supreme Court, is the final court of appeal.
*Apportionment—the determination of legislative district boundaries as a result of population changes measured every 10 years by the census.
Appropriation bill—Congressional legislation that has spending as a basic characteristic. There are 13 appropriation bills that make up the federal budget.
Arraignment—court hearing where a person accused of a crime is formally charged.
*Articles of Confederation—the first adopted written constitution of the newly independent United States. Because of its weaknesses, the period of time it was in force (1781–1789) became known as the critical period.
Baker v Carr—case that established the principle of one man, one vote. This decision created guidelines for drawing up congressional districts and guaranteed a more equitable system of representation to the citizens of each state.
Balanced budget—public policy that advocates the federal budget spend only as much money as it receives. Attempt made to pass a constitutional amendment mandating this policy failed.
Battleground states—also called “swing states,” refers to those states in a presidential election, such as Florida, Missouri, and Ohio, that are closely contested.
Bicameral—a two-house legislature.
Bill of attainder—the constitutional prohibition of the legislature determining a judicial outcome without a trial.
Bipartisan—refers to two political parties working together to reach a common policy goal.
*Bipartisan Campaign Act of 2002—also known as the McCain–Feingold Act, it banned soft money donations by individuals to presidential candidates and set aggregate limits for individuals contributing to individual candidates.
*Block grants—a form of fiscal federalism where federal aid is given to the states with few strings attached.
*Bully pulpit—the ability to use the office of the presidency to promote a particular program and/or to influence Congress to accept legislative proposals.
*Bureaucracies—large administrative agencies reflecting a hierarchical authority, job specialization, and rules and regulations that drive them.
Bush v Gore (2000)—Supreme Court ruled the Florida recount held after the 2000 presidential voting between Republican George W. Bush and Democrat Al Gore violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, which resulted in Bush winning Florida’s electoral votes and the presidential election.
*Cabinet—part of the “unwritten Constitution,” it was first established by George Washington and includes federal departments such as state, defense, and so on.
Campaign finance reform—legislation aimed at placing limits on political candidates accepting money and gifts from individuals and special-interest groups.
Casework—also known as constituent service, a congressperson provides various services (such as helping an immigrant get a green card) to people who reside in his or her district or state.
*Categorical grants—include project and formula grants and aim at assisting the states in areas such as health, income security, and education.
*Caucus—party regulars meeting in small groups asking questions, discussing qualifications regarding the candidate, and voting on whether to endorse a particular candidate. In presidential campaigns, the Iowa caucus has taken on almost as much importance as the New Hampshire primary because of its timing.
Census—official count of the population of a district, state, or nation, which includes recording of statistics such as age, sex, occupation, and property ownership.
*Checks and balances—a key aspect of the Constitution of the United States protecting the balance of power among the three branches of government. The concept was first promoted by James Madison in the Federalist Papers.
*Chief executive—a term to describe the president. Powers found in Article II of the Constitution.
*Civil liberties—those rights of the people that are protected by the Bill of Rights.
*Civil rights—the application of equal protection under the law to individuals.
*Civil Rights Act of 1964—established the legality of access to public accommodations, theaters, hotels, and other public facilities.
*Clear and Present Danger Doctrine—established in Schenck v United States (1919), it gives the government the right to censor free speech if, during national emergencies such as war, it can be proven that the result of that speech will significantly endanger national security.
*Closed Primary—primary in which only registered party members can vote. Florida is a state that has closed primaries.
*Closed rule—bans amendments to a bill once the bill reaches the House floor.
*Cloture—the process by which 60 senators can vote to cut short debate or a filibuster.
*Coalition building—the alliance of special-interest groups with the purpose of achieving the same goal using both direct lobbying and grassroots lobbying.
*Commander in chief—delegated power of the president.
*Commerce clause—Article I Section 8 Clause 3 of the Constitution giving Congress the authority to regulate interstate commerce and commerce with foreign countries.
*Committee of the Whole—The whole membership of a legislative house sitting as a committee and operating under informal rules.
Competitive federalism—begun under Richard Nixon and known as the new federalism, this approach stressed the downsizing of the federal government and more reliance on revenue sharing and grants.
*Concurrent power—power shared by the state and federal governments, such as the power to tax.
Concurring opinion—additional opinion in a court decision written by a member of the majority.
Conference committee—a committee consisting of senators and representatives that meets to resolve differences in legislation.
Congressional Budget Office (CBO)—set up by the Congress, this office evaluates the cost of legislative proposals.
Congressional District—defined by the U.S. Constitution as the people in each state should choose their representatives based on its population determined by the census. The number of citizens per congressional district has risen from an average of 33,000 in 1790 to almost 709,000 as of 2016.
*Congressional oversight—power used by Congress to gather information useful for the creation of legislation, reviewing the operations and budgets of executive departments and independent regulatory agencies, conducting investigations through committee hearings, and bringing to the public’s attention the need for public policy.
Consent of the governed—a derivative of the doctrine of natural rights; a philosophy adopted by Jefferson when he drafted the Declaration of Independence that puts the authority of the government in the people’s hands.
*Conservative—A person who believes in less government, lower taxes, a strong national defense, and more personal responsibility.
*Constituent—person living in the district of an elected official.
Constituent service—a member of Congress providing services to his or her district’s voters, such as providing help with federal agencies, federal grants, and students who want to attend U.S. military academies.
*Constitution—provides the basic framework of government. It is the supreme law of the land.
Consumer Price Index (CPI)—a primary measure of inflation determined by the increase in the cost of products compared to a base year.
Continuing resolution—emergency spending legislation that prevents the shutdown of any department simply because its budget has not been enacted.
Contract with America—a blueprint for legislative action and congressional reform that House Republicans led by Newt Gingrich successfully campaigned for in the 1994 midterm elections, resulting in what was called “the Republican revolution.”
Cooperative federalism—developed during the New Deal, it is characterized by the federal government’s becoming more intrusive into what were traditionally state powers.
Council of Economic Advisors—White House staff agency created to give the president advice regarding economic and fiscal policies.
Creative federalism—developed during President Lyndon Johnson’s administration, it was characterized by the Great Society programs, which placed a major responsibility on federally funded programs.
*Critical election—an election that results in a party realignment caused by the movement of voters from one party to another. The election of 1980 was a critical election because traditional Democrats voted for Ronald Reagan. They became known as Reagan Democrats.
Cruel and unusual punishment—doctrine found in the Eighth Amendment that prohibits the federal government from imposing excessive penalties for crimes committed.
Culture of poverty—the establishment of an income level by government that references the point at which an individual is considered to be living in poverty.
*Daily tracking poll—polls that are released every day during a campaign. They differ from other tracking polls because unlike weekly or monthly polls, they are more of an instant snapshot of how a candidate is performing.
Debt ceiling—the point at which the federal government will run out of money to pay the interest to the creditors of the United States. The debts of the United States are guaranteed by the full faith and credit clause in the Constitution.
*De facto segregation—segregation of schools and other public facilities through circumstance, with no law supporting it.
*De jure segregation—segregation by law, made illegal by Brown v Board of Education.
Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions (1848)—drafted at the Seneca Falls Convention and taken from The History of Woman Suffrage, Vol. 1, by E. C. Stanton, S. B. Anthony, and M. J. Gage, the document outlines the case for women’s right to vote, as well as other rights denied to women at that time.
Defense of Marriage Act—also known as DOMA, signed into law by President Clinton in 1996. The act defines marriage as “a legal union between one man and one woman as husband and wife.” The law also allows states not to recognize same-sex marriages performed legally in other states. The law also prohibits same-sex couples that are legally married or are recognized as a couple as a result of a civil union from collecting any federal benefits that married couples receive.
Deficit spending—refers to a budget where expenditures exceed revenues resulting in an increase of interest on the debt.
*Delegated Powers—defined in the Constitution as those powers that are listed in the Constitution as belonging to the federal government.
*Delegate model of representation—also known as the representational view. Voters elect their representatives as their own delegates representing them for the primary purpose of acting exclusively as their voice in Congress.
*Democratic Party—political party that evolved from the original Democratic-Republican Party. It is one of the two major political parties.
*Demographics—characteristics of a population, including age, sex, and race. Demographics are often used to determine changes in the makeup of a population.
Devolution—political theory of returning power to the states.
*Direct democracy—type of government characterized by citizens attending a town meeting and voting on issues raised, with the majority prevailing.
*Direct lobbying—the attempt by lobbyists to directly influence legislation through communication with a member of a legislative body or government official who has a connection with the formulation of legislation.
*Direct primary—a party primary that permits crossover voters from other political parties to vote for candidates.
Direct tax—money paid directly to the government in the form of income taxes.
*Discharge Petition—If a majority of representatives want to bypass regular legislative procedure, they must sign a petition to get the bill placed on the floor for debate and a vote. This action bypasses the Rules Committee but very rarely succeeds because the majority party usually applies pressure on its members not to sign the petition.
Discount rates—interest levels established by the Federal Reserve that affect the ability of the consumer to borrow money. Raising and lowering rates is used as a tool to combat inflation.
*Discretionary spending—Those appropriation items in the budget that are not mandatory. In the federal budget, discretionary spending consists of measures in the 13 appropriation bills that must be passed by Congress by October 1 in categories such as transportation, agriculture, and education.
Dissenting opinion—written judicial opinion that is contrary to the decision of the majority.
Distributive policy—results in the government giving benefits directly to people, groups, farmers, and businesses. Typical policies include subsidies and research and development funds for corporations, and direct government aid for highway construction and education.
*Divided government—characterized by different political parties having control of different branches of the government.
Division of labor—skilled workers, each having a specialized function, resulting in increased productivity.
Double jeopardy—legal concept wherein once a verdict is handed down, you cannot be tried again for the same crime.
Dual federalism—the earliest type of relationship established between the federal government and the states where the federal government’s powers were defined as delegated and the state government’s powers were reserved.
Dual primary—where presidential candidates are selected and a separate slate of delegates is also voted on. New Hampshire uses this type of primary.
*Due Process Clause—clause found in the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments of the Constitution that guarantees a person’s rights are protected through procedural processes.
Earmarks—pet projects added to appropriation bills by congresspersons, called “wasteful spending” and “pork barrel legislation” by critics.
*Elastic clause—found in Article I Section 8 of the Constitution, it gives Congress the power to make “all laws necessary and proper” to carry out the other defined powers of Congress.
*Electoral College—consists of presidential electors from each state. The number of electors is based on the state’s population. The states with the greatest population have the most electoral votes. When a voter casts a vote for president, in reality the vote goes to one of the presidential electors designated by the candidate in that state. The number of electors for each state equals the number of senators and representatives that state has in Congress. The candidate with a majority of the electoral votes is elected to office. If no candidate receives a majority, the House of Representatives determines the outcome of the election.
*Elite theory—a group theory that revolves around an economic stratum of society controlling the policy agenda.
*Entitlements—those benefits guaranteed by law paid to individuals by the federal government, such as nutrition-assistance programs and Medicaid.
*Enumerated powers—delegated powers of Congress, including the power to collect taxes, pay debts, provide for the common defense and general welfare, regulate commerce among the states, coin money, and declare war.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)—regulates air and water pollution, pesticides, radiation, solid waste, and toxic substances. It is the main environmental regulatory agency.
*Equality of Opportunity—one of the core values that people believe should be a function of government. Government should promote policies that give people a level playing field in getting an education and a job.
*Equal Protection Under the Law—phrase found in the Fourteenth Amendment that furthers the legal concept of civil rights. Originally intended to protect freed former slaves, the clause was later expanded by court interpretation to protect other minority groups.
*Establishment clause—component of the First Amendment to the Constitution that defines the right of citizens to practice religion without governmental interference and states that “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion.”
Ex post facto laws—laws that take effect after the act takes place. Congress is prohibited from enacting this type of legislation.
*Exclusionary rule—rule that resulted from the Mapp v Ohio decision determining that police may obtain only evidence that can be had through a legitimate search warrant. Other evidence found at the scene of the crime is not admissible, or is excluded, in the trial.
*Executive agreement—agreement made between the president and a leader of a foreign country that does not have to be ratified by the Senate.
Executive office of the president—created by Franklin Roosevelt in 1939; it has four major policy-making bodies today—the National Security Council, the Council of Economic Advisors, the Office of Management and Budget, and the Office of National Drug Control Policy.
*Executive order—order signed by the president that has the effect of law, even though it is not passed by Congress. An example of an executive order includes President Clinton’s order legalizing the abortion pill, RU486.
Executive privilege—the ability of the president to protect personal material.
*Exit poll—a survey of randomly selected voters that is taken outside the voting area as the voter is leaving; intended to find out who the voters cast their ballots for, demographic information, and where the voter stands on various issues.
*Expressed power—specific power of the president as listed in Article I of the Constitution.
*Faction—term used by Madison in Federalist No. 10 to describe a group of people with a common political purpose.
Federal Election Campaign Acts (FECA)—in 1971 Congress set up restrictions on the amount of advertising used by a candidate, created disclosure of contributions over $100, and limited the amount of personal contributions a candidate could make on his or her own behalf. In 1974 it set up a Federal Election Commission and established a system of federal matching funds for presidential candidates.
Federal Election Commission—made up of three Democrats and three Republicans, in 1975 Congress created the Federal Election Commission (FEC) to administer and enforce the Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA). The duties of the FEC, which is an independent regulatory agency, are to disclose campaign finance information, to enforce the provisions of the law such as the limits and prohibitions on contributions, and to oversee the public funding of presidential elections.
*Federal Reserve System—federal body that regulates the money supply by controlling open-market operations; buying and selling of government securities; and establishing reserve requirements, the legal limitations on money reserves that banks must keep against the amount of money they have deposited in Federal Reserve Banks and through discount rates, and the rate at which banks can borrow money from the Federal Reserve System.
*Federalism—the overall division of power between the federal and state governments; as defined in the Tenth Amendment of the Constitution. It specifically tells the states that they have reserved powers. Powers not delegated to the government by the Constitution belong to the respective states.
*Federalist Papers—written using the pen name Publius; John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison wrote a series of articles urging the adoption of the Constitution. They argued for a Constitution that would establish a government that could deal with “the tyranny of the majority” by creating three branches of government having distinctive and separate powers.
*Federalist Party—headed by Alexander Hamilton, this party, made up of the country’s upper class, supported a strong national government and set a policy agenda that would solve the nation’s economic problems.
Fighting words doctrine—established in Chaplinsky v New Hampshire (1942), the decision incorporated into state law the concept that the government can limit free speech if it can be proved that the result of speech will cause physical violence.
*Filibuster—tactic used in the Senate whereby a vote on legislation can be delayed through debate. The longest continuous filibuster was made by Strom Thurmond and lasted 24 hours.
Fiscal cliff—An example of a fiscal cliff: on January 1, 2013, if no action was taken by Congress, the so-called Bush tax cuts would expire and income tax rates would be raised for every taxpayer, unemployment insurance would run out for millions of people who were out of jobs, and there would be mandated cuts in discretionary spending and defense spending defined by law (sequestration). An agreement was reached before these actions took place.
Fiscal federalism—a concept of federalism where funding is appropriated to the states by the federal government with specific conditions attached. The legislation can be in the form of mandates.
*Fiscal policy—policy that determines how the economy is managed as a result of government spending and borrowing and the amount of money collected from taxes.
Fletcher v Peck (1810)—decision that established the precedent that the Supreme Court could rule a state law to be unconstitutional.
*Focus group—small discussion groups: a technique used by pollsters to determine how a cross section of voters feels about a particular topic.
Food stamp program—federally funded program that gives food coupons to low-income people based on income and family size.
Franking—privilege enjoyed by members of Congress entitling them to free postage for any mailings made as part of their official duties.
Free enterprise—the basis of American capitalism; it is characterized by the government allowing open markets and competition in the market place with limited interference.
*Free Exercise Clause—phrase found in the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution that guarantees an individual the right to practice the religion of his or her choice by making it illegal for Congress to pass laws that restrict this right.
Freedom of Information Act (1974)—act that incorporates sunshine laws; opened up the government’s meetings of record to the public and media.
Front loading—refers to the scheduling of the early presidential primaries and the impact on the selection of the majority of presidential delegates.
Front runner—designation given to the candidate who leads in the polls.
Full faith and credit—phrase used to describe the mutual respect and legality of laws, public records, and judicial decisions made by states.
Funded mandates—those regulations passed by Congress or issued by regulatory agencies to the states with federal funds to support them.
Gender gap—a significant deviation between the way men and women vote.
*Gerrymandering—state legislatures, based on political affiliation, create congressional districts, many of which are oddly shaped and favor the political party in power in the state making the changes.
Gibbon v Ogden (1824)—case established the principle that Congress has sole authority over interstate commerce.
Gitlow v New York (1925)—landmark decision in that the Supreme Court incorporated the First Amendment to a state case for the first time.
*Globalization—the degree of linkage among the community of nations.
Grand Old Party—the GOP, another name for the Republican Party.
Grants-in-Aid—money provided by the federal government to the states including categorical grants, aid that meets the criteria of a specific category, project grants that are competitive, formula grants that have specific rules and a formula for who is eligible, and block grants that are given for specific purposes.
Grassroots—political participation at the local level.
*Great Compromise—created a bicameral legislature at the Constitutional Convention held in Philadelphia in 1787. The compromise came about after delegates could not agree on the New Jersey plan that advocated one legislative house based on equal representation and the Connecticut plan that favored one house based on population.
Gridlock—describes people’s perception that Congress and the president are in a state of disagree-ment that results in little legislation passing.
Gross domestic product (GDP)—currently the key economic measure that analyzes an upward or downward economic trend of the monetary value of all the goods and services produced within the nation on a quarterly basis.
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution—passed by Congress in 1964 giving President Lyndon Johnson authority to take whatever action necessary to defend American troops fighting in Vietnam. The resolution became the trigger for our escalation in Vietnam without a formal declaration of war by Congress.
Habeas corpus—right that safeguards a person from illegal imprisonment. Habeas corpus is Latin for “you should have the body.” It refers to the writ requiring that a person be brought before a court to determine whether he is being detained legally.
Hard money—federally regulated campaign contributions made to political candidates and political parties. Under current law, hard money contributions cannot exceed $2,000 per individual, per election cycle.
*Hold—a senator who wants to slow down a nomination process can tell the majority leader that he or she is placing a hold on that nominee until certain questions get answered.
Horse race journalism—the claim that the media is more interested in covering a campaign like a horse race, focusing more on who is ahead rather than in-depth coverage of issues.
*Impeachment—listing of accusations against a federal official of “high crimes and misdemeanors” for the purpose of removing that official for such misconduct. Bill Clinton and Andrew Johnson were the only presidents impeached, but they were not found guilty.
*Implied Powers—those powers in the Constitution that are not listed or delegated. An example of an implied power is the “elastic clause,” giving Congress the right to make laws that are “necessary and proper.”
*Importation of Slaves Compromise—The Constitution allowed importing slavery only until 1808 in exchange for Congress being able to place a tax on the imported slaves until 1808.
*Incorporation of the Fourteenth Amendment—doctrine that made the Bill of Rights apply to the states as a result of Supreme Court decisions. Even though the Fourteenth Amendment was ratified in 1868, incorporation started to take place in the 1920s. It reached a peak during the Warren Court in the late 1950s and 1960s.
*Incumbents—those sitting officials who are running for another term in office.
Independent executive agency—agency such as the General Services Administration, which handles government purchasing and has a specific responsibility that facilitates the day-to-day operation of the government.
Independent expenditures—non-federally regulated campaign contributions made by special-interest groups, labor unions, and corporations to political action committees and political parties; also called soft money.
Independent regulatory agencies—agencies that are quasi-legislative and quasi-judicial in nature and operation. Examples include the Food and Drug Administration and Environmental Protection Agency.
Indictment—a formal list of charges made by a grand jury.
*Individualism—the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that emphasizes the moral worth of the individual.
Inflation—economic situation characterized by steadily rising prices and falling purchasing power. It is, in part, caused by wage rates increasing faster than productivity.
*Inherent power—assumed powers of the president not specifically listed in the Constitution. Inherent powers are derived from the president’s role as chief executive.
Initiative—ballot proposal put forth by the public and voted on as a result of the petition process.
*Interest group—a public or private organization, affiliation, or committee that has as its goal the dissemination of its membership’s viewpoint.
Invisible primary—the first phase of the presidential nomination process, where candidates attempt to gain front-runner status and raise the most money.
*Iowa caucus—the first-in-the-nation presidential preference vote usually held in January or early February. The results reflect the organizational ability and strength of presidential candidates. The majority of candidates who win the Iowa caucus go on to win their party’s nomination.
*Iron-triangle network—the interrelationship among bureaucracies, the government, interest groups, and the public, which also establishes a pattern of relationships among an agency in the executive branch, Congress, and one or more outside clients of that agency.
Jim Crow laws—legislation that legalized segregation even after the adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Joint committee—Congressional committee made up of members of both political parties from the Senate and House of Representatives.
*Judicial activism—a philosophy of judicial review that results in decisions that overturn precedent.
Judicial conference—following oral arguments, Supreme Court justices convene and review the case they heard before taking a vote that determines the decision.
*Judicial restraint—a court that maintains the status quo or mirrors what the other branches of government have established as current policy.
*Judicial review—derived from the Marbury v Madison decision, it gives the Supreme Court the power to interpret the Constitution and, specifically, acts of Congress, the president, and the states.
Judiciary committee—key Senate committee responsible for recommending presidential judicial appointments to the full Senate for approval.
*Keynesian Economics—John Maynard Keynes advocated government programs to increase employment and spending so that consumers could spend more money through investments or purchases of goods and services.
Keynote address—key speech at the national nominating convention that outlines the themes of the campaign.
Laissez-faire—French term literally meaning “hands off.” Used to describe an economic philosophy of nongovernment intervention in economic matters such as regulation of business or establishing tariffs.
*Lame duck—an officeholder who is leaving office, but is still present until the successor is sworn in: perceived to have little power or influence.
Landslide—election where the winning candidate takes more than 60 percent of the votes.
Layer cake federalism—federalism characterized by a national government exercising its power independently from state governments.
Legislative veto—provision granting Congress the right to veto regulations made by federal agencies; ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.
Libel—intentionally distributing false information that defames the character of an individual.
*Liberal—one who believes in the protection of civil liberties, greater government intervention for social welfare, higher taxes on the rich, and a foreign policy that promotes peace.
*Libertarian—one who believes a government should not interfere in a person’s life, advocates reduced government regulation, believes in Second Amendment gun rights, and has an overall philosophy that looks at the primary function of government to increase civil liberties of individuals, which increases their rights.
*Limited government—derived from the doctrine of natural rights, it was adopted by Jefferson and restricts the power of government, especially in the area of protecting the rights of the people.
Line item veto—allows the president to veto selectively what he considers unnecessary spending items contained in legislation; ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.
*Linkage institution—the means by which individuals can express preferences regarding the development of public policy. Examples of linkage institutions include political parties, special-interest groups, and the media.
Litigation—an action by one party who brings a lawsuit against another party. Special-interest groups use litigation for the purpose of impacting and changing policy. These lawsuits can be aimed at private individuals, corporations, or a governmental agency.
Literacy laws—declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court, they were passed by Southern states after the Civil War aimed at making reading a requirement for voting so that freed slaves could not vote.
*Lobbyists—the primary instruments for fostering a special-interest group’s goals to the policy makers. The term comes from people who literally wait in the lobbies of legislative buildings for officials going to and from the floor of the legislatures.
*Logrolling—a tactic used in Congress that is best illustrated by one legislator saying to another, “I’ll vote for your legislation, if you vote for mine.”
Loose construction—a liberal interpretation of the Constitution.
Majority leader—person selected to lead the political party holding a majority of the seats in the House or Senate.
Majority opinion—court ruling participated in by the majority of justices hearing a case.
*Mandates—programs and services that are required by law.
Mandatory spending—those appropriation items in a budget that must be allocated. In the federal budget, the majority of spending items are mandatory and include Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid, payment on the national debt, and certain components of defense spending.
Marble-cake federalism—also known as cooperative federalism, it developed during the New Deal and is characterized by the federal government’s becoming more intrusive into what was traditionally states’ powers.
Marshall Court—John Marshall’s tenure as chief justice of the Supreme Court; his leadership resulted in the landmark decisions of Marbury v Madison, McCulloch v Maryland, and Gibbons v Ogden. These cases shifted power to the judiciary and federal government.
*Mass media—consisting of television, radio, newspapers, magazines, and social media, they reach a large segment of the population. Also considered one of the linkage institutions.
Matching funds—limited federal funds given to presidential candidates who match private donations raised during the campaign.
McGovern–Fraser Commission—commission that brought significant representation changes to the Democratic Party. It made future conventions more democratic by including more minority representation.
*Media—one of the linkage institutions, along with special-interest groups and political parties, that connects citizens to a group that influences public policy. The old media are print and broadcast journalism. The new media are social sites like Facebook and Twitter and Internet-driven sites.
Medicaid—a program shared between the federal and local governments that covers hospital and nursing home costs of low-income people.
Medicare—program that covers hospital and medical costs of people 65 years of age and older as well as disabled individuals receiving Social Security.
*Midterm election—The congressional election that takes place two years into the first or second term of a president.
Minority leader—person selected by the political party holding a minority of the seats in the House or Senate.
Minority opinion—a dissenting opinion written by a justice representing a minority point of view in the losing side of a Supreme Court decision.
*Miranda rights—rights directing police to inform the accused upon arrest of their constitutional right to remain silent, that anything said could be used in court, that they have the right to consult with a lawyer at any time during the process, that a lawyer will be provided if the accused cannot afford one, that the accused understands these rights, and that the accused has the right to refuse to answer any questions at any time and request a lawyer at any point.
*Monetary policy—policies developed by the Federal Reserve Board, such as raising or lowering interest rates; aimed at creating and maintaining a healthy economy.
Motor Voter Act of 1993—signed into law by President Clinton, it enables people to register to vote when renewing drivers’ licenses or applying for public assistance.
National committee—the governing body of a political party made up of state and national party leaders.
National Security Council—chaired by the president, it is the lead advisory board in the area of national and international security. Other members of the council include the vice president, secretaries of state and defense, director of the Central Intelligence Agency, and chair of the joint chiefs of staff.
*Nationalization of the Bill of Rights—a judicial doctrine of the Fourteenth Amendment also known as selective incorporation that applied the Bill of Rights to the states in matters such as segregation.
Natural rights—part of Locke’s philosophy; rights that are not dependent on the laws or customs of any particular culture or government, such as life, liberty, and property.
*Necessary and Proper Clause—in Article 1, Section 8 of the Constitution, also known as the “elastic clause,” it authorizes Congress to make all laws necessary and proper.
New federalism—political theory first espoused by Richard Nixon and carried out by Ronald Reagan. New federalism advocates the downsizing of the federal government and the devolution of power to the states.
*New Hampshire primary—the first-in-the-nation presidential vote differing from the Iowa caucus because it is a secret ballot where voters use ballots and where registered voters and nonaffiliated independents can vote.
*New Jersey Plan—offered at the Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia, it urged the delegates to create a legislature based on equal representation by the states.
*Nominating party convention—party delegates selected from caucus and primary votes officially select their party’s candidate for president and vice president based on a majority vote of the delegates attending the convention.
*Non-preferential primary—where voters choose delegates who are not bound to vote for the winning primary candidate.
Office of Management and Budget (OMB)—its director, appointed with the consent of the Senate, is responsible for the preparation of the massive federal budget, which must be submitted to the Congress in January each year. Besides formulating the budget, the OMB oversees congressional appropriations.
*Open Primary—registered voters from either party can cross over and vote in the other party’s primary. New Hampshire has an open primary.
Oral argument—legal argument made by each attorney in proceedings before the court in an attempt to persuade the court to decide the issue in their client’s favor.
Original jurisdiction—cases heard by the Supreme Court that do not come on appeal and that “affect ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a State shall be a party.”
Pardon—power to excuse an offense without penalty or grant release from a penalty already imposed.
*Participatory Democracy—democracy that emphasizes political participation in politics.
Party dealignment—a shift away from the major political parties to a more neutral, independent ideological view of party identification.
Party eras—a time period characterized by national dominance by one political party. There have been four major party eras in American history—the era of good feeling, the Republican era following the Civil War, the Democratic era following the election of Franklin Roosevelt, and the Republican era following the election of Richard Nixon.
*Party identification—how a person acts when belonging to a political party.
*Party-line voting—voting for every candidate running for office from one party.
Party machine—the party organization that exists on the local level and uses patronage as the means to keep the party members in line. Boss Tweed and his Tammany Hall allies are examples from nineteenth-century New York.
Party organization—formal structure of a political party on the national, state, and local levels.
Party platforms—voted on by the delegates attending the National Convention, they represent the ideological point of view of a political party.
*Party realignment—the movement of voters from one political party to another, resulting in a major shift in the political spectrum (characterized by the start of a party era).
Plank—any of the principles contained in a political party’s platform.
Plessy v Ferguson (1896)—case that ruled that states had the right to impose “separate but equal” facilities on its citizens as well as create other laws that segregated the races.
*Pluralism—a theory that involves different groups all vying for control of the policy agenda. No single group emerges, forcing the groups to compromise.
Plurality—winning number of votes received in a race containing more than two candidates but which is not more than half of the total votes cast.
*Pocket veto—rejection of legislation that occurs if the president does not sign a bill within 10 days and the Congress also adjourns within the same time period.
Police power—power reserved to the states by the Tenth Amendment to the Constitution.
*Policy agenda—agenda that results from the interaction of linkage institutions.
Political action committees—known as PACs, they raise money from special-interest constituents and make contributions to political campaigns on behalf of those constituents.
Political consultant—person who specializes in running or advising a political campaign.
*Political culture—the fundamental values people have about their government and how these values translate into voting patterns.
*Political efficacy—relates to those who identify the strongest with a political party and vote for every candidate running from that party in the general election.
*Political participation—the various ways an average citizen gets involved in the political process, ranging from conventional means of influencing government to more radical unconventional tools that have influenced our elected officials.
*Political party—a group of people joined together by common philosophies and common approaches with the aim of getting candidates elected in order to develop and implement public policy. It is characterized by an organization that is responsible to the electorate and has a role in government.
*Political platform—positions a party takes that are adopted by the party at its convention.
*Political socialization—the factors that determine voting behavior, such as family, religion, and ethnic background.
*Politico model—representatives are the most political in this model, utilizing both the trustee model and delegate model to make decisions.
Poll tax—made illegal by the Twenty-fourth Amendment to the Constitution, it was a tax instituted by mainly Southern states as a condition to vote and had the effect of preventing African Americans from voting.
*Popular sovereignty—political doctrine that believes that government is created by and subject to the will of the people.
*Pork-barrel legislation—the practice of legislators obtaining funds through legislation that favors their home districts.
Poverty line—references the point at which an individual is considered living in what has been called a “culture of poverty.”
*Preamble—the introduction to the Constitution, outlining the goals of the document.
*Precedent—legal concept, also known as stare decisis, by which earlier court decisions serve as models in justifying decisions in subsequent cases.
President pro tempore—temporary presiding officer of the Senate.
*Presidential primary—elections held in individual states to determine the preference of the voters and to allocate the number of delegates to the party’s national convention.
Press secretary—key White House staff position; the press secretary meets with the White House press corps.
Prior restraint—the actions of a governmental body that result in the censorship of written material. In the Pentagon Papers case, President Nixon asked for an injunction to halt the publication of the confidential Defense Department documents by The New York Times.
Privileges and immunities—the guarantees that the rights of a citizen in one state will be respected by other states. Also, a clause in the Fourteenth Amendment that protects citizens from abuses by a state.
*Procedural due process—a series of steps that are established by the Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh Amendments that protect the rights of the accused at every step of an investigation.
Progressive tax—a tax based upon the amount of money an individual earned, such as an income tax. Became legal as a result of the ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution.
*Proportional voting—delegates are selected in a primary based on the percentage of the vote the candidate received in the election.
*Prospective voting—voters deciding that what will happen in the future is the most important factor. If the voter feels that the party in power has done a poor job, that voter will vote for the other party.
*Public opinion polls—scientific surveys aimed at gauging public preference of candidates and issues.
Quasi-judicial—a characteristic of independent regulatory agencies that gives them judicial power to interpret regulations they create.
Quasi-legislative—a characteristic of independent regulatory agencies that gives them legislative powers to issue regulations.
Ranking committee member—the senior member of the minority party serving on a congressional committee and who works closely with the committee chair deciding on committee business.
*Ratification—the process the Senate uses to approve a treaty the president has made; a two-thirds vote is required.
*Rational choice voting—refers to voting based on decisions made after considering alternative positions.
Reagan Democrats—traditional Democratic middle-class voters turning to Ronald Reagan during the 1980s.
*Reapportionment—the process by which a state legislature redraws congressional districts based on population increases or declines.
Reapportionment Act of 1929—act that provides for a permanent size of the House and for the number of seats, based on the census, each state should have.
Recess appointment—a presidential appointment made when the Congress is not in session and that usually lacks enough votes in the Senate for confirmation. The position must be confirmed by the Senate by the end of the next session of Congress, or the position becomes vacant.
Recession of 2008—caused by a collapse of the housing market, the mismanagement of housing mortgages by banks, and the bankruptcy of major investment firms, it resulted in a 10 percent unemployment rate, a precipitous drop in the global markets, and an economic slowdown that lasted until the middle of 2009.
*Redistricting—also known as reapportionment, the process that takes place every ten years as a result of the federal census mandating state legislatures to redraw their congressional districts based on population gains and losses.
Referendum—practice of submitting to popular vote a measure proposed by a legislative body; also called a proposition.
Regressive tax—a tax that is imposed on individuals regardless of how much they earn, such as a sales tax.
Regulatory policy—policy that results in government control over individuals and businesses. Examples of regulatory policy include protection of the environment and consumer protection.
Religious right—an evangelical conglomeration of ultraconservative political activists, many of whom support the Republican Party.
Representative democracy—form of government that relies on the consent of the people and is often called a republican government.
Republican form of government—describes how the U.S. Constitution defines our democracy, one that is characterized by representation by the people and for the people.
*Republican Party—political party that evolved from the Whig Party, coming to power upon Lincoln’s election. It is one of the two current major political parties.
Reserved Power clause—in the Tenth Amendment, it gives states powers not delegated to the national government.
*Retrospective voting—the decisions people make on voting based on how political parties perform, how elected officials perform, and the extent to which an elected administration achieves its goals.
Reverse discrimination—discrimination against whites or males, usually with regard to employment or education. Those who oppose affirmative action programs often claim reverse discrimination as a result of such programs. Alan Bakke is an example.
*Riders—amendments to bills, often in the form of appropriations, that sometimes have nothing to do with the intent of the bill itself and many times are considered to be pork-barrel legislation.
Rule of four—judicial concept employed by the Supreme Court requiring the approval of at least four justices before a case can be heard on appeal.
*Rule of Law—procedures followed by government guaranteeing the due process rights of individuals.
*Rules Committee—one of the most important committees of the House of Representatives; its function is to create specific rules for every bill to be debated by the full House.
Rust Belt—the geographic area that is characterized by industries that have been in decline in the western part of the Northeast and upper Midwest including western Pennsylvania, western New York, Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, Indiana, and northern Illinois. The name came from deindustrialization and economic decline that left unoccupied manufacturing plants with their unused machinery to rust. It is a politically important area because these states have become swing states in presidential elections.
Safe seat—the seat of an elected official who, as an incumbent, has an easy reelection as a result of his incumbency or the political makeup of the district.
Safety net—a minimum government guarantee that ensures individuals living in poverty will receive support in the form of social-welfare programs.
*Sampling error—a statistical error, usually within 3 percentage points, inherent in the polling process.
*Scientific Polling Sample—scientific polling uses a random sample of the population.
Second Treatise of Civil Government—written by John Locke, it contains the blueprint of principles found in the Declaration of Independence.
Select committees—specifically created congressional committees that conduct special investigations. The Watergate Committee and Iran-Contra investigators were select Senate committees.
*Senate confirmation—the process outlined in Article Two of the Constitution, giving the Senate the authority to approve appointments made by the president.
Senatorial courtesy—policy that gives senators the right to be notified by the president of pending judicial nominations. Once informed, the approval of the senators from the state from which the judge comes is obtained, and the appointment process moves on. This courtesy does not apply to Supreme Court justice nominations.
Seniority—a system guaranteeing that those who serve in office the longest get preferential treatment. In Congress, those representatives who serve the longest get seniority in their committee assignments.
Separate but equal—the judicial precedent established in the Plessy v Ferguson decision that enabled states to interpret the equal protection provision of the Fourteenth Amendment as a means of establishing segregation.
*Separation of church and state—also known as the “establishment clause,” it is part of the First Amendment to the Constitution prohibiting the federal government from creating a state-supported religion.
*Separation of powers—originally developed by Montesquieu in The Spirit of Natural Laws written during the Enlightenment and used by James Madison in Federalist No. 48. This important doctrine resulted in the establishment of three separate branches of government—the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, each having distinct and unique powers.
Sequestration—the mandated cuts in discretionary and defense spending passed by Congress after President Obama and the House Republicans agreed to raise the debt ceiling in 2011. Sequestration was put in place in 2013 after Congress and the president could not agree on an alternative.
*Shared powers—those powers that are concurrent, or overlapping, between the federal and state governments. Taxation is a shared power, for instance.
*Shays’ Rebellion—a failed attempt by Daniel Shays, a Revolutionary War veteran who lost his farm to foreclosure, to revolt against the Massachusetts state government.
*Single-Issue Group—a special-interest group, such as the National Rifle Association, which has one outstanding issue that attracts its members to join.
*Signing statement—made by a president at the time he or she signs a bill into law, and which enables the president to give explanatory views and interpretations of the intent of the law.
Slander—Speech that intentionally gives false information or defames the character of an individual.
*Social media—social media include email, personal opinion pages called “blogs,” Facebook and Twitter, and other sites that promote personal interaction. Social media became a political force starting with the 2008 presidential campaign with candidates setting up Facebook pages and Twitter accounts.
*Social movement—grassroots actions by individuals who want the government to enact laws supporting that group and its causes. Examples include gay rights advocates and women’s equality groups.
*Social welfare—programs such as welfare and Aid to Dependent Children paid for by the federal government.
*Soft money—unrestricted and unregulated legal campaign contributions made to political parties and intended for party development. Significant abuses of soft money contributions were discovered during the 1996 election.
Solid South—political dominance by the Democratic Party in the South following the Civil War. After President Johnson pushed through civil rights legislation and social programs in the 1960s, white Democrats in the South rapidly changed allegiance to the Republicans. Further Republican inroads were made with the election of Ronald Reagan 1980 and after the Republicans gained control of Congress in 1994.
*Speaker of the House—the representative from the majority party in the House of Representatives who sets the House agenda, presides over meetings, recognizes speakers, refers bills to committees, answers procedural questions, and declares the outcome of votes.
Standing committees—committees that deal with proposed bills and also act in an oversight function. They are permanent, existing from one Congress to the next, such as the House Ways and Means and Senate Appropriations.
*Stare decisis—Latin for judicial precedent, this concept originated in England in the twelfth century when judges settled disputes based on custom and tradition.
*State of the Union address—constitutional requirement for the president to deliver an annual report to Congress regarding the current state of the nation. Traditionally, the president delivers the address every January, in the form of a speech before a joint session of Congress.
Strict constructionists—individuals who believe in a conservative interpretation of the Constitution.
Suffrage—the right to vote guaranteed to African Americans in the Fifteenth Amendment and women in the Nineteenth Amendment.
Super PACs—political action committees that can endorse or criticize a political candidate and raise unlimited funds, sometimes anonymously, from corporations, unions, and individuals.
Super Tuesday—the Tuesday on which a number of primary votes take place.
Superdelegates—Democratic Party leaders and elected party officials who automatically are selected as delegates to the National Convention.
*Supply-Side Economics—a component of the free enterprise system favoring those who produce goods and services with minimum government regulation or interference.
Supremacy clause—clause that states “the Constitution, and the laws of the United States … shall be the supreme law of the land.”
*Symbolic speech—form of free speech interpreted by the Supreme Court as a guarantee under the First Amendment to the Constitution, such as wearing a black armband to protest a governmental action or burning an American flag in protest for political reasons.
Third political parties—political parties that can be described as ideological, single-issue oriented, economically motivated, and personality driven. Examples include the Free Soil Party, Know-Nothings, Populist, and Bull Moose Parties. In 1996 Ross Perot created a new national third party called the Reform Party.
*Three-Fifths Compromise—offered at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, it was adopted by the delegates and counted every five slaves as three people for representation and tax purposes.
Ticket splitting—process by which voters choose a candidate from one political party for one elective office and candidate from a different party for another elective office.
*Tracking poll—polls conducted by media outlets to gauge the potential outcome of a political election on a periodic basis.
*Trustee model of representation—also known as the attitudinal view. Voters elect their represent-atives as their own trustees giving them autonomy to act for the good of the constituents, enabling the Congressman or woman to act out of conscience even if the majority of voters might disagree.
Twenty-fifth Amendment—constitutional amendment outlining the criteria for presidential selection and presidential disability.
Two-party system—two political parties controlling the government. In the United States, the Democrats and Republicans have dominated elections because of the “winner-take-all” electoral system.
Unalienable rights—rights such as life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, which are derived from the doctrine of natural rights.
*Unanimous Consent—This rule requires the agreement of the entire Senate to move forward.
Unanimous decision—a decision made by the Supreme Court that has no dissent. A unanimous decision by the Court is 9–0.
*Unconventional political participation—the means, such as protests and civil disobedience, by which people get involved in the political process when conventional means fail.
Unfunded mandates—those regulations passed by Congress or issued by regulatory agencies to the states without federal funds to support them.
Unwritten Constitution—traditions, precedent, and practice incorporated into our form of government that add to the Constitution’s elasticity and its viability. Political parties, the president’s cabinet, political action committees, and the federal bureaucracy are important examples.
*Veto—power of the president to prevent enactment of legislation passed by Congress. A two-thirds majority vote of each house is required to override a presidential veto.
*Virginia Plan—offered at the Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia, it urged the delegates to create a legislature based on the population of each state.
*Voting Rights Act of 1965—prohibited states from passing their own restrictive voting laws without “preclearance” from the Department of Justice. It also led to the passage of the Twenty-fourth Amendment, which outlawed poll taxes in federal elections.
War Powers Act—1973 act that states that a president can commit the military only after a declaration of war by the Congress, by specific authorization by Congress, if there is a national emergency, or if the use of force is in the national interest of the United States.
Watergate—refers to the office complex in Washington, D.C., where members of the committee to reelect Richard Nixon, posing as burglars, broke into the offices of the Democratic Party’s national headquarters. They were caught, and the scandal ultimately led to Nixon’s resignation.
Wave election—an election where one political party wins, resulting in a change of control of the presidency and Congress, increased control of the Congress, or change of control in one or both houses of Congress. Examples of wave elections are the 2008 presidential election (change of control of the presidency and an increase of Democrats in both houses of Congress) and the 1994, 2006, and 2010 midterm elections, where one party took control of one or both houses of Congress.
*Whips—also known as assistant floor leaders, they check with party members and inform the majority leader of the status and feelings of the membership regarding issues that are going to be voted on. Whips are responsible for keeping party members in line and having an accurate count of who will be voting for or against a particular bill.
*White House staff—managed by the White House chief of staff, who directly advises the president on a daily basis, it includes the more than 600 people who work at the White House, from the chef to the advance people who make travel arrangements. The key staff departments include the political offices of the Office of Communications, Legislative Affairs, Political Affairs, and Intergovernmental Affairs. The staff includes the support services of Scheduling, Personnel, and Secret Service and policy offices of the National Security Affairs, Domestic Policy Affairs, and cabinet secretaries.
*Winner-take-all voting—the candidate receiving a plurality of votes in a primary election gets all the delegates.
Writ of certiorari—Latin for “to be made more certain,” the process by which the Supreme Court accepts written briefs on appeal based on the rule of four.