Notes

INTRODUCTION

  1. F. Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, trans. S. Reynolds, 2 vols. (London, 1972–3), vol. 2, p. 1244; P. Horden and N. Purcell, The Corrupting Sea: a Study of Mediterranean History (Oxford, 2000), p. 36.

  2. E. Paris, La genèse intellectuelle de l’œuvre de Fernand Braudel: ‘La Méditerranée et le monde méditerranéen à l’époque de Philippe II’ (1923–1947) (Athens, 1999), pp. 64, 316.

  3. J. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War: Studies in the Maritime History of the Mediterranean 649–1571 (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 7, 21–4; Horden and Purcell, Corrupting Sea, pp. 138–9.

  4. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War, pp. 12–13.

  5. Ibid., p. 14, fig. 2.

  6. Ibid., p. 19.

  7. Ibid., pp. 12–24; C. Delano Smith, Western Mediterranean Europe: a Historical Geography of Italy, Spain and Southern France since the Neolithic (London, 1979).

  8. See F. Tabak, The Waning of the Mediterranean 1550–1870: a Geohistorical Approach (Baltimore, MD, 2008), and Braudel, Mediterranean, vol. 1, pp. 267–75; C. Vita-Finzi, The Mediterranean Valleys: Geological Change in Historical Times (Cambridge, 1969).

  9. A. Grove and O. Rackham, The Nature of Mediterranean Europe: an Ecological History (New Haven, CT, 2001); O. Rackham, ‘The physical setting’, in D. Abulafia (ed.), The Mediterranean in History (London and New York, 2003), pp. 32–61.

10. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War, pp. 75–86.

11. S. Orvietani Busch, Medieval Mediterranean Ports: the Catalan and Tuscan Coasts, 1100–1235 (Leiden, 2001).

PART ONE
THE FIRST MEDITERRANEAN, 22000 BC–1000 BC

1. Isolation and Insulation, 22000 BC–3000 BC

  1. D. Trump, The Prehistory of the Mediterranean (Harmondsworth, 1980), pp. 12–13.

  2. E. Panagopoulou and T. Strasser in Hesperia, vol. 79 (2010).

  3. C. Finlayson, The Humans Who Went Extinct: Why Neanderthals Died out and We Survived (Oxford, 2009), pp. 143–55.

  4. L. Bernabò Brea, Sicily before the Greeks (London, 1957), pp. 23–36; R. Leighton, Sicily before History: an Archaeological Survey from the Palaeolithic to the Iron Age (London, 1999).

  5. Trump, Prehistory of the Mediterranean, p. 19.

  6. Ibid., p. 20.

  7. S. Wachsmann, ‘Paddled and oared ships before the Iron Age’, in J. Morrison (ed.), The Age of the Galley (London, 1995), p. 10; C. Perlès, The Early Neolithic in Greece: the First Farming Communities in Europe (Cambridge, 2001), p. 36; R. Torrence, Production and Exchange of Stone Tools: Prehistoric Obsidian in the Aegean (Cambridge, 1986), p. 96; C. Broodbank, An Island Archaeology of the Early Cyclades (Cambridge, 2000), pp. 114–15.

  8. W. F. Albright, The Archaeology of Palestine (Harmondsworth, 1949), pp. 38, 62; Trump, Prehistory of the Mediterranean, pp. 24–6.

  9. C. F. Macdonald, Knossos (London, 2005), p. 3.

10. Torrence, Production and Exchange, pp. 96, 140–63.

11. C. Renfrew, in Malta before History: the World’s Oldest Freestanding Stone Architecture, ed. D. Cilia (Sliema, 2004), p. 10.

12. A. Pace, ‘The building of Megalithic Malta’, in Cilia, Malta before History, pp. 19–40.

13. J. Evans, Malta (Ancient Peoples and Places, London, 1959), pp. 90–91.

14. A. Pace, ‘The sites’, and A. Bonanno, ‘Rituals of life and rituals of death’, in Cilia, Malta before History, pp. 72–4, 82–3, 272–9.

15. Evans, Malta, p. 158.

16. D. Trump, ‘Prehistoric pottery’, in Cilia, Malta before History, pp. 243–7.

17. Bernabò Brea, Sicily, pp. 38–57; Leighton, Sicily before History, pp. 51–85.

18. Leighton, Sicily before History, p. 65.

19. Trump, Prehistory of the Mediterranean, p. 80.

20. Wachsmann, ‘Paddled and oared ships’, p. 10; C. Broodbank and T. Strasser, ‘Migrant farmers and the Neolithic colonization of Crete’, Antiquity, vol. 65 (1991), pp. 233–45; Broodbank, Island Archaeology, pp. 96–105.

21. Trump, Prehistory of the Mediterranean, pp. 55–6.

2. Copper and Bronze, 3000 BC–1500 BC

  1. R. L. N. Barber, The Cyclades in the Bronze Age (London, 1987), pp. 26–33.

  2. C. Broodbank, An Island Archaeology of the Early Cyclades (Cambridge, 2000), pp. 301–6; Barber, Cyclades, pp. 136–7.

  3. C. Renfrew, The Cycladic Spirit (London, 1991), p. 18; J. L. Fitton, Cycladic Art (London, 1989).

  4. F. Matz, Crete and Early Greece (London, 1962), p. 62.

  5. Broodbank, Island Archaeology, pp. 99–102; Renfrew, Cycladic Spirit, p. 62.

  6. C. Moorehead, The Lost Treasures of Troy (London, 1994), pp. 84–6; J. Latacz, Troy and Homer: Towards a Solution of an Old Mystery (Oxford, 2004).

  7. C. Blegen, ‘Troy’, Cambridge Ancient History, vols. 1 and 2, rev. edn, pre-print fascicle (Cambridge, 1961), p. 4.

  8. D. Easton, ‘Introduction’, in C. Blegen, Troy (2nd edn, London, 2005), p. xxii.

  9. Blegen, Troy, pp. 25–41; T. Bryce, The Trojans and Their Neighbours (London, 2006), pp. 39–40.

10. Blegen, Troy, p. 40; Bryce, Trojans, p. 40; Matz, Crete and Early Greece, p. 37; L. Bernabò Brea, Poliochni, città preistorica nell’isola di Lemnos, 2 vols. (Rome, 1964–71); S. Tiné, Poliochni, the Earliest Town in Europe (Athens, 2001).

11. Latacz, Troy and Homer, p. 41.

12. Blegen, Troy, pp. 47–8, 55.

13. Ibid.

14. Moorehead, Lost Treasures, pp. 128–30.

15. Bryce, Trojans, pp. 51–6; Blegen, Troy, pp. 56–61, 77–84, noting Easton’s comments, ibid., p. xvii.

16. Thucydides 1:4.

17. Matz, Crete and Early Greece, pp. 57–8, 69.

18. A. Morpurgo Davies, ‘The linguistic evidence: is there any?’ in The End of the Early Bronze Age in the Aegean, ed. G. Cadogan (Leiden, 1986), pp. 93–123.

19. R. Castleden, Minoans: Life in Bronze Age Crete (London, 1990), pp. 4–7; C. F. Macdonald, Knossos (London, 2005), pp. 25–30.

20. Matz, Crete and Early Greece, p. 57; Castleden, Minoans, p. 29; Macdonald, Knossos, pp. 43–7.

21. Macdonald, Knossos, pp. 50–52; Castleden, Minoans, p. 69, fig. 18 (plan of Gournia), p. 112.

22. Reported in Archaeology (Archeological Institute of America), vol. 63 (2010), pp. 44–7.

23. Macdonald, Knossos, pp. 58–9, 87–8; Castleden, Minoans, pp. 169–72.

24. C. Gere, Knossos and the Prophets of Modernism (Chicago, IL, 2009), and the discussion in part 5, chap. 2 below.

25. Macdonald, Knossos, pp. 134, 173; Castleden, Minoans, p. 12.

26. Morpurgo Davies, ‘The linguistic evidence’; L. R. Palmer, Mycenaeans and Minoans: Aegean Prehistory in the Light of the Linear B Tablets (2nd edn, London, 1965).

27. L. Casson, ‘Bronze Age ships: the evidence of the Thera wall-paintings’, International Journal of Archaeology, vol. 4 (1975), pp. 3–10; Barber, Cyclades, pp. 159–78, 193, 196–9.

28. Barber, Cyclades, pp. 209–18.

29. Macdonald, Knossos, pp. 171–2, 192.

3. Merchants and Heroes, 1500 BC–1250 BC

  1. W. D. Taylour, The Mycenaeans (London, 1964), p. 76.

  2. Homer, Iliad, 2:494–760.

  3. J. Chadwick, The Decipherment of Linear B (Cambridge, 1958).

  4. F. Matz, Crete and Early Greece (London, 1962), p. 134, plate 32; Taylour, Mycenaeans, plates 3–4.

  5. Taylour, Mycenaeans, pp. 139–48.

  6. Ibid., p. 100.

  7. T. Bryce, The Trojans and Their Neighbours (London, 2006), pp. 100–102; J. Latacz, Troy and Homer: Towards a Solution of an Old Mystery (Oxford, 2004), p. 123; cf. O. R. Gurney, The Hittites (London, 1952), pp. 46–58; A. Yasur-Landau, The Philistines and Aegean Migration and the End of the Late Bronze Age (Cambridge, 2010), p. 180.

  8. G. F. Bass, ‘Cape Gelidonya: a Bronze Age shipwreck’, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 57, part 8 (1967); G. F. Bass, ‘A Bronze Age shipwreck at Ulu Burun (Kas): 1984 campaign’, American Journal of Archeology, 90 (1986), pp. 269–96.

  9. R. Leighton, Sicily before History: an Archaeological Survey from the Palaeolithic to the Iron Age (London, 1999), pp. 141, 144, 147–8; cf. L. Bernabò Brea, Sicily before the Greeks (London, 1957), pp. 103–8.

10. Taylour, Mycenaeans, pp. 152–3.

11. W. D. Taylour, Mycenean Pottery in Italy and Adjacent Areas (Cambridge, 1958); R. Holloway, Italy and the Aegean 3000–700 BC (Louvain-la-Neuve, 1981).

12. Bernabò Brea, Sicily, pp. 138–9; cf. Holloway, Italy and the Aegean, pp. 71–4.

13. Holloway, Italy and the Aegean, pp. 87, 95.

14. Taylour, Mycenean Pottery; Holloway, Italy and the Aegean, pp. 85–6.

15. Holloway, Italy and the Aegean, pp. 67, 87–9.

16. F. Stubbings, Mycenaean Pottery from the Levant (Cambridge, 1951).

17. W. Culican, The First Merchant Venturers: the Ancient Levant in History and Commerce (London, 1966), pp. 46–9.

18. Ibid., pp. 41–2, 49–50; W. F. Albright, The Archaeology of Palestine (Harmondsworth, 1949), pp. 101–4.

19. Taylour, Mycenaeans, pp. 131, 159.

20. D. Fabre, Seafaring in Ancient Egypt (London, 2004–5), pp. 39–42.

21. A. Gardiner, Egypt of the Pharaohs: an Introduction (Oxford, 1961), pp. 151–8.

22. Fabre, Seafaring in Ancient Egypt, pp. 158–73.

23. Ibid., pp. 12–13.

24. Ibid., pp. 65–70.

25. Bryce, Trojans, p. 89.

26. H. Goedicke, The Report of Wenamun (Baltimore, MD, 1975).

27. Ibid., pp. 175–83.

28. Ibid., p. 51.

29. Ibid., p. 58.

30. Ibid., pp. 76, 84, 87.

31. Ibid., p. 94.

32. Ibid., p. 126.

33. Gardiner, Egypt, pp. 252–7; Gurney, Hittites, p. 110; N. Sandars, The Sea Peoples: Warriors of the Ancient Mediterranean 1250–1150 BC (London, 1978), pp. 29–32; R. Drews, The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe ca. 1200 BC (Princeton, NJ, 1993), pp. 130–34.

4. Sea Peoples and Land Peoples, 1250 BC–1100 BC

  1. C. Blegen, Troy (2nd edn, London, 2005), pp. 92–4; T. Bryce, The Trojans and Their Neighbours (London, 2006), pp. 58–61.

  2. J. Latacz, Troy and Homer: Towards a Solution to an Old Mystery (London, 2004), pp. 20–37; cf. Bryce, Trojans, pp. 62–4.

  3. Bryce, Trojans, p. 117.

  4. Latacz, Troy and Homer, pp. 49–51, 69.

  5. Ibid., pp. 46–7, fig. 10 (map of trade routes).

  6. Bryce, Trojans, pp. 104, 111.

  7. O. R. Gurney, The Hittites (London, 1952), pp. 49–50; Bryce, Trojans, pp. 110–11.

  8. Gurney, Hittites, pp. 51–2; Bryce, Trojans, p. 100.

  9. Latacz, Troy and Homer, pp. 92–100.

10. Blegen, Troy, pp. 124–8.

11. For an argument favouring subsidence as a major cause of damage, see M. Wood, In Search of the Trojan War (2nd edn, London, 1996), pp. 203–11.

12. V. R. d’A. Desborough and N. G. L. Hammond, ‘The end of Mycenaean civilisation and the Dark Age’, Cambridge Ancient History, vols. 1 and 2, revised edn, pre-print fascicle (Cambridge, 1964), p. 4; N. Sandars, The Sea Peoples: Warriors of the Ancient Mediterranean 1250–1150 BC (London, 1978), p. 180.

13. Sandars, Sea Peoples, pp. 142–4; R. Drews, The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe ca. 1200 BC (Princeton, NJ, 1993), pp. 13–15.

14. L. Woolley, A Forgotten Kingdom (Harmondsworth, 1953), pp. 163–4, 170–73.

15. Blegen, Troy, p. 142.

16. Sandars, Sea Peoples, p. 133; also A. Gardiner, Egypt of the Pharaohs: an Introduction (Oxford, 1961), pp. 284, 288; A. R. Burn, Minoans, Philistines, and Greeks BC 1400–900 (2nd edn, London, 1968).

17. Sandars, Sea Peoples, pp. 106–7.

18. Ibid., pp. 50–51; Gardiner, Egypt, p. 198; B. Isserlin, The Israelites (London, 1998), p. 55.

19. Sandars, Sea Peoples, p. 105; Gardiner, Egypt, pp. 265–6.

20. Drews, End of the Bronze Age, p. 20; A. Yasur-Landau, The Philistines and Aegean Migration and the End of the Late Bronze Age (Cambridge, 2010), p. 180.

21. Sandars, Sea Peoples, p. 114; Gardiner, Egypt, p. 266; Isserlin, Israelites, p. 56, and plate 34 opposite p. 81.

22. Drews, End of the Bronze Age, p. 21.

23. T. and M. Dothan, People of the Sea: the Search for the Philistines (New York, 1992), p. 95; cf. Sandars, Sea Peoples, pp. 134–5.

24. Sandars, Sea Peoples, p. 119; Gardiner, Egypt, pp. 276–7.

25. Sandars, Sea Peoples.

26. Ibid., pp. 124, 134–5, 165, 178, plate 119; p. 189, plate 124; F. Matz, Crete and Early Greece (London, 1962), supplementary plate 22; W. D. Taylour, The Mycenaeans (London, 1964), plate 7.

27. Gurney, Hittites, p. 54.

28. Joshua 18:1 and 19:40–48; Judges 5; Dothan, People of the Sea, pp. 215–18; Sandars, Sea Peoples, pp. 163–4.

29. Dothan, People of the Sea, p. 215.

30. Sandars, Sea Peoples, pp. 111–12, 200; Yasur-Landau, Philistines and Aegean Migration, pp. 180, 182; cf. Gardiner, Egypt, p. 264.

31. C. Whitman, Homer and the Heroic Tradition (Cambridge, MA, 1958), pp. 51–2.

32. Desborough and Hammond, ‘End of Mycenaean Civilisation’, p. 5; also V. R. d’A. Desborough, The Last Mycenaeans and Their Successors (Oxford, 1964).

33. Desborough and Hammond, ‘End of Mycenaean Civilisation’, p. 12.

34. L. Bernabò Brea, Sicily before the Greeks (London, 1967), p. 136.

35. R. Leighton, Sicily before History: an Archaeological Survey from the Palaeolithic to the Iron Age (London, 1999), p. 149; also R. Holloway, Italy and the Aegean 3000–700 BC (Louvain-la-Neuve, 1981), p. 95.

36. Dothan, People of the Sea, pp. 211–13.

37. W. Culican, The First Merchant Venturers: the Ancient Levant in History and Commerce (London, 1966), pp. 66–70.

38. Dothan, People of the Sea, plates 5 and 6, and pp. 37–9, 53.

39. Yasur-Landau, Philistines and Aegean Migration, pp. 334–45.

40. I Samuel 17:5–7.

41. Yasur-Landau, Philistines and Aegean Migration, pp. 305–6.

42. Dothan, People of the Sea, pp. 8, 239–54.

43. Amos 9:7.

44. Exodus 15:1–18; Isserlin, Israelites, p. 206.

45. Isserlin, Israelites, p. 57.

46. Drews, End of the Bronze Age, p. 3.

PART TWO
THE SECOND MEDITERRANEAN, 1000 BC–AD 600

1. The Purple Traders, 1000 BC–700 BC

  1. L. Bernabò Brea, Sicily before the Greeks (London, 1957), pp. 136–43.

  2. M. E. Aubet, The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, Colonies, and Trade (2nd edn, Cambridge, 2001), p. 128; S. Moscati, ‘Who were the Phoenicians?’, in S. Moscati (ed.), The Phoenicians (New York, 1999), pp. 17–19.

  3. G. Markoe, The Phoenicians (2nd edn, London, 2005), p. xviii.

  4. D. B. Harden, The Phoenicians (2nd edn, Harmondsworth, 1971), p. 20.

  5. S. Filippo Bondì, ‘The origins in the East’, in Moscati, Phoenicians, pp. 23–9.

  6. Aubet, Phoenicians in the West, pp. 23–5.

  7. Leviticus 18:22.

  8. Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 38–45, 121.

  9. B. Isserlin, The Israelites (London, 1998), pp. 149–59, for Israelite agriculture.

10. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, pp. 48–9, and fig. 19.

11. I Kings 9:11–14; S. Moscati, The World of the Phoenicians (London, 1968), p. 33.

12. Markoe, Phoenicians, p. xx, but missing the importance of grain.

13. Ibid., p. 37 (King Ithobaal, early ninth century); Moscati, World of the Phoenicians, p. 35.

14. Harden, Phoenicians, p. 25; cf. Tyre: Markoe, Phoenicians, p. 73.

15. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, pp. 34–5; Markoe, Phoenicians, p. 73.

16. Ezekiel 27.

17. Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 15–28.

18. M. L. Uberti, ‘Ivory and bone carving’, in Moscati, Phoenicians, pp. 456–71.

19. Harden, Phoenicians, p. 49 and plate 48.

20. Moscati, World of the Phoenicians, p. 36; Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, p. 91, fig. 27, a later bas-relief from Nimrud showing two monkeys.

21. I Kings 9:26–8; I Kings 10:22, 10:49; Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 31–4; Isserlin, Israelites, pp. 188–9.

22. Markoe, Phoenicians, p. 122.

23. Genesis 44:2.

24. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, pp. 80–84.

25. Moscati, World of the Phoenicians, pp. 137–45.

26. V. Karageorghis, ‘Cyprus’, in Moscati, Phoenicians, pp. 185–9.

27. Ibid., p. 191; Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 41–2.

28. Harden, Phoenicians, p. 49 and plate 51; Moscati, World of the Phoenicians, pp. 40–41.

29. Cf. Ezekiel’s account of Tyre: Ezekiel 27; Isserlin, Israelites, p. 163.

30. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, pp. 166–72, 182–91; P. Bartoloni, ‘Ships and navigation’, in Moscati, Phoenicians, pp. 84–5.

31. Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 116–17; R. D. Ballard and M. McConnell, Adventures in Ocean Exploration (Washington, DC, 2001).

32. Markoe, Phoenicians, p. 117; cf. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, p. 174.

33. Bartoloni, ‘Ships and navigation’, pp. 86–7; Markoe, Phoenicians, p. 116.

34. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, pp. 173–4.

35. Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 118–19.

36. Ibid., p. xxi.

37. Bartoloni, ‘Ships and navigation’, pp. 87–9; Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, pp. 174–8.

38. S. Ribichini, ‘Beliefs and religious life’, in Moscati, Phoenicians, p. 137.

39. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, pp. 215–16; R. Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed: the Rise and Fall of an Ancient Civilization (London, 2010), pp. 58–9.

40. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, pp. 221–6, and figs. 49 and 51.

41. Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, p. 81.

42. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, p. 232.

43. Harden, Phoenicians, pp. 35–6, figs. 6–7; Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 81–3; popular account: G. Servadio, Motya: Unearthing a Lost Civilization (London, 2000).

44. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, p. 238.

45. Ibid., pp. 311, 325; also Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, pp. 49–54.

46. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, p. 279.

47. Ibid., pp. 279–81, 288–9.

48. Jonah 1; Isaiah 23:1; cf. 23:6, 23:14.

49. G. Garbini, ‘The question of the alphabet’, in Moscati, Phoenicians, pp. 101–119; Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 141–3; Moscati, World of the Phoenicians, pp. 120–26.

50. Harden, Phoenicians, p. 108 and fig. 34; also plates 15 and 38; Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 143–7.

51. Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 173–9; Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, pp. 245–56 (though the biblical references there are confused); Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, pp. 69–73.

52. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, p. 249; Harden, Phoenicians, plate 35; Ribichini, ‘Beliefs and religious life’, in Moscati, Phoenicians, pp. 139–41; Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, p. 70.

2. The Heirs of Odysseus, 800 BC–550 BC

  1. I. Malkin, The Returns of Odysseus: Colonisation and Ethnicity (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA, 1998), p. 17.

  2. Ibid., p. 22; also D. Briquel, Les Pélasges en Italie: recherches sur l’histoire de la légende (Rome, 1984); R. Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes: Greeks and Their Myths in the Epic Age of Homer (London, 2008).

  3. Odyssey 1:20, 5:291, 5:366, in the translation of Roger Dawe.

  4. Malkin, Returns of Odysseus, pp. 4, 8.

  5. Notably in the works of the French Homer scholars Victor Bérard and his son Jean Bérard: J. Bérard, La colonisation grecque de l’Italie méridionale et de la Sicile dans l’antiquité (Paris, 1957), pp. viii, 304–9.

  6. Malkin, Returns of Odysseus, p. 186.

  7. Ibid., p. 41; M. Scherer, The Legends of Troy in Art and Literature (New York, 1963).

  8. Malkin, Returns of Odysseus, pp. 68–72.

  9. Ibid., pp. 68–9, 94–8; Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes, pp. 181–2.

10. Odyssey 14:289; 15:416, trans. Dawe.

11. M. Finley, The World of Odysseus (2nd edn, London, 1964).

12. Odyssey 1:180–85, trans. Dawe.

13. Ibid., 9:105–115.

14. Ibid., 9:275.

15. Ibid. 9:125–9 .

16. Ibid. 1:280.

17. D. Ridgway, The First Western Greeks (Cambridge, 1992) (revised edn of L’alba della Magna Grecia, Milan, 1984). Subsequent literature on the western Greeks: G. Pugliese Carratelli (ed.), The Western Greeks (London, 1996); V. M. Manfredi and L. Braccesi, I Greci d’Occidente (Milan, 1996); D. Puliga and S. Panichi, Un’altra Grecia: le colonie d’Occidente tra mito, arte e memoria (Turin, 2005); also Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes.

18. Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes, p. 160.

19. Cited by Ridgway, First Western Greeks, p. 99.

20. Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes, pp. 52–69.

21. Ibid., p. 159.

22. Ridgway, First Western Greeks, p. 17; Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes, pp. 55–9.

23. L. Woolley, A Forgotten Kingdom (Harmondsworth, 1953), pp. 172–88.

24. Ridgway, First Western Greeks, pp. 22–4.

25. Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes, pp. 138–49.

26. Ridgway, First Western Greeks, pp. 55–6, figs. 8–9; Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes, pp. 157–8.

27. Odyssey 3:54, trans. Dawe.

28. Ridgway, First Western Greeks, pp. 57–9, 115.

29. Ibid., pp. 111–13, and fig. 29, p. 112.

30. Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes, pp. 169–70.

31. Iliad 2:570 – cf. Thucydides 1:13.5; J. B. Salmon, Wealthy Corinth: a History of the City to 338 BC (Oxford, 1984), p. 1; M. L. Z. Munn, ‘Corinthian trade with the West in the classical period’ (Ph.D. thesis, Bryn Mawr College, University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, MI, 1983–4), p. 1.

32. Pindar, Olympian Ode 13; C. M. Bowra (trans.), The Odes of Pindar (Harmondsworth, 1969), p. 170.

33. Thucydides 1:13.

34. Salmon, Wealthy Corinth, pp. 84–5, 89.

35. Ridgway, First Western Greeks, p. 89.

36. Aristophanes, Thesmophoriazousai, ll. 647–8.

37. L. J. Siegel, ‘Corinthian trade in the ninth through sixth centuries BC’, 2 vols. (Ph.D. thesis, Yale University, University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, MI, 1978), vol. 1, pp. 64–84, 242–57.

38. Thucydides 1:13; Siegel, Corinthian Trade, p. 173.

39. Herodotos 1:18.20 and 5:92; A. Andrewes, The Greek Tyrants (London, 1956), pp. 50–51; Siegel, Corinthian Trade, pp. 176–8; also M. M. Austin, Greece and Egypt in the Archaic Age (supplements to Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society, no. 2, Cambridge, 1970), especially p. 37.

40. Salmon, Wealthy Corinth, pp. 105–6, 109–10.

41. Munn, Corinthian Trade, pp. 6–7; Salmon, Wealthy Corinth, pp. 101–5, 119.

42. Woolley, Forgotten Kingdom pp. 183–7.

43. Salmon, Wealthy Corinth, pp. 99, 120.

44. Munn, Corinthian Trade, pp. 263–7, 323–5.

45. Salmon, Wealthy Corinth, p. 136.

46. K. Greene, ‘Technological innovation and economic progress in the ancient world: M. I. Finley reconsidered’, Economic History Review, vol. 53 (2000), pp. 29–59, especially 29–34.

47. Munn, Corinthian Trade, pp. 78, 84, 95–6, 111; cf. M. Finley, The Ancient Economy (London, 1973).

48. Andrewes, Greek Tyrants, pp. 45–9.

49. Herodotos 5:92; Aristotle, Politics, 1313a35–37; Salmon, Wealthy Corinth, p. 197; also Andrewes, Greek Tyrants, pp. 50–53.

50. Salmon, Wealthy Corinth, pp. 199–204.

51. C. Riva, The Urbanisation of Etruria: Funerary Practices and Social Change, 700–600 BC (Cambridge, 2010), pp. 70–71; A. Carandini, Re Tarquinio e il divino bastardo (Milan, 2010).

52. A. J. Graham, Colony and Mother City in Ancient Greece (Manchester, 1964), p. 220.

53. Diodoros the Sicilian 15:13.1; Munn, Corinthian Trade, p. 35.

54. Graham, Colony and Mother City, pp. 218–23.

3. The Triumph of the Tyrrhenians, 800 BC–400 BC

  1. J. Boardman, Pre-classical: from Crete to Archaic Greece (Harmondsworth, 1967), p. 169.

  2. D. Briquel, Origine lydienne des Étrusques: histoire de la doctrine dans l’antiquité (Rome, 1991).

  3. Herodotos 1:94.

  4. Tacitus, Annals 4:55; R. Drews, ‘Herodotos I. 94, the drought ca. 1200 BC, and the origin of the Etruscans’, Historia, vol. 41 (1992), p. 17.

  5. D. Briquel, Tyrrhènes, peuple des tours: Denys d’Halicarnasse et l’autochtonie des Étrusques (Rome, 1993).

  6. Dionysios of Halikarnassos 1:30.

  7. M. Pallottino, The Etruscans (2nd edn, London, 1975), pp. 78–81; but the point about Tarhun is mine.

  8. Beginning with Ciba Foundation Symposium on Medical Biology and Etruscan Origins, ed. G. E. W. Wolstenholme and C. M. O’Connor (London, 1958).

  9. G. Barbujani et al., ‘The Etruscans: a population-genetic study’, American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 74 (2004), pp. 694–704; A. Piazza, A. Torroni et al., ‘Mitochondrial DNA variation of modern Tuscans supports the Near Eastern origin of Etruscans’, American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 80 (2007), pp. 759–68.

10. C. Dougherty, ‘The Aristonothos krater: competing stories of conflict and collaboration’, in C. Dougherty and L. Kurke (eds.), The Cultures within Ancient Greek Culture: Contact, Conflict, Collaboration (Cambridge, 2003), pp. 35–56.

11. C. Riva, The Urbanisation of Etruria: Funerary Practices and Social Change, 700–600 BC (Cambridge, 2010), pp. 142–6; R. Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes: Greeks and Their Myths in the Epic Age of Homer (London, 2008), pp. 142–6.

12. Homeric Hymn no. 8, to Dionysos; see also M. Iuffrida Gentile, La pirateria tirrenica: momenti e fortuna, Supplementi a Kókalos, no. 6 (Rome and Palermo, 1983), pp. 33–47.

13. M. Cristofani, Gli Etruschi del mare (Milan, 1983), pp. 57–8 and plate 37 – cf. plate 68 (late 4th c.); G. Pettena, Gli Etruschi e il mare (Turin, 2002); Iuffrida Gentile, Pirateria tirrenica, p. 37.

14. M. Torelli, ‘The battle for the sea-routes, 1000–300 BC’, in D. Abulafia (ed.), The Mediterranean in History (London and New York, 2003), pp. 101–3.

15. Herodotos 1:57; also 4:145, 5:26; Thucydides 4:14.

16. M. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens archaïques (Rome, 1985), pp. 648–9; cf. Iuffrida Gentile, Pirateria tirrenica, p. 47.

17. Dionysios of Halikarnassos 1:30; they called themselves Rasna.

18. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, p. 629; Lemnian aviz = Etruscan avils, ‘years’.

19. Ibid., generally, and pp. 628, 637, 650; Il commercio etrusco arcaico (Quaderni del Centro di Studio per l’Archeologia etrusco-italica, vol. 9, Rome, 1985); G. M. della Fina (ed.), Gli Etruschi e il Mediterraneo: commercio e politica (Annali della Fondazione per il Museo Claudio Faina, vol. 13, Orvieto and Rome, 2006); cf. Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, pp. 56–60.

20. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, p. 615.

21. Riva, Urbanisation of Etruria, p. 67; H. Hencken, Tarquinia and Etruscan Origins (London, 1968), pp. 78–84.

22. Pallottino, Etruscans, pp. 91–4.

23. Hencken, Tarquinia and Etruscan Origins, p. 99 and plates 54, 90–93.

24. R. Leighton, Tarquinia: an Etruscan City (London, 2004), pp. 56–7; Hencken, Tarquinia and Etruscan Origins, pp. 66–73.

25. Hencken, Tarquinia and Etruscan Origins, plates 139–41.

26. Ibid., p. 72, fig. 31c, and p. 119.

27. Dougherty, ‘Aristonothos krater’, pp. 36–7; Hencken, Tarquinia and Etruscan Origins, pp. 116, 230, and plates 76–7.

28. Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, pp. 28–9 and plate 15.

29. Hencken, Tarquinia and Etruscan Origins, p. 122, and plate 138.

30. Ibid., p. 123.

31. G. Camporeale et al., The Etruscans outside Etruria (Los Angeles, CA, 2004), p. 29.

32. S. Bruni, Pisa Etrusca: anatomia di una città scomparsa (Milan, 1998), pp. 86–113.

33. Camporeale et al., Etruscans outside Etruria, p. 37; also Riva, Urbanisation of Etruria, p. 51 (Bronze Age contact).

34. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, pp. 254–390.

35. Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, p. 30.

36. Hencken, Tarquinia and Etruscan Origins, pp. 137–41.

37. E.g. Pallottino, Etruscans, plate 11.

38. D. Diringer, ‘La tavoletta di Marsiliana d’Albegna’, Studi in onore di Luisa Banti (Rome, 1965), pp. 139–42; Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes, p. 159.

39. A. Mullen, ‘Gallia Trilinguis: the multiple voices of south-eastern Gaul’ (Ph.D. dissertation, Cambridge University, 2008), p. 90; H. Rodríguez Somolinos, ‘The commercial transaction of the Pech Maho lead: a new interpretation’, Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, vol. 111 (1996), pp. 74–6; Camporeale et al., Etruscans outside Etruria, p. 89.

40. E. Acquaro, ‘Phoenicians and Etruscans’, in S. Moscati (ed.), The Phoenicians (New York, 1999), p. 613; Pallottino, Etruscans, p. 221.

41. Pallottino, Etruscans, p. 112 and plate 11 (original in Museo Nazionale Etrusco, Tarquinia); Herodotos 4:152.

42. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, pp. 523–5.

43. Announced in Corriere della Sera, 5 August 2010; La Stampa, 6 August 2010.

44. J. D. Beazley, Etruscan Vase-Painting (Oxford, 1947), p. 1.

45. Ibid., p. 3.

46. So named by J. D. Beazley, Attic Red-figure Vase-Painters (2nd edn, Oxford, 1964).

47. Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, p. 30 and plate 13.

48. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, pp. 393–475; Torelli, ‘Battle for the sea-routes’, p. 117.

49. Herodotos 1:165–7.

50. Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, p. 83 and plates 54, 58; cf. O. W. von Vacano, The Etruscans in the Ancient World (London, 1960), p. 121.

51. L. Donati, ‘The Etruscans and Corsica’, in Camporeale et al., Etruscans outside Etruria, pp. 274–9.

52. Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, pp. 70, 84.

53. A. G. Woodhead, The Greeks in the West (London, 1962), p. 78.

54. Pindar, Pythian Odes, 1:72–4, trans. M. Bowra.

55. C. and G. Picard, The Life and Death of Carthage (London, 1968), p. 81.

56. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, pp. 514–22.

57. Diodoros the Sicilian 11:88.4–5; Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, pp. 114–15.

58. Thucydides 6:88.6.

59. Thucydides 7:57.11.

60. Leighton, Tarquinia, p. 133 and fig. 56, p. 140; Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, pp. 521, 686; Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, p. 115.

61. Cf. T. J. Dunbabin, The Western Greeks: the History of Sicily and South Italy from the Foundation of the Greek Colonies to 480 BC (Oxford, 1968), p. 207.

62. Cited by J. Heurgon, Daily Life of the Etruscans (London, 1964), p. 33.

63. Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, p. 95.

64. C. Riva, ‘The archaeology of Picenum’, in G. Bradley, E. Isayev and C. Riva (eds.), Ancient Italy: Regions without Boundaries (Exeter, 2007), pp. 96–100 (for Matelica).

65. Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, p. 93.

66. Ibid., p. 101 and plate 66, p. 103, pp. 128–9; Heurgon, Daily Life, p. 140; cf. J. Boardman, The Greeks Overseas: their Early Colonies and Trade (2nd edn, London, 1980), pp. 228–9; Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, pp. 103, 129.

67. Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, p. 128.

4. Towards the Garden of the Hesperides, 1000 BC–400 BC

  1. M. Guido, Sardinia (Ancient Peoples and Places, London, 1963), pp. 59–60; cf. M. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens archaïques (Rome, 1985), pp. 87–91.

  2. M. Pallottino, La Sardegna nuragica (2nd edn, with an introduction by G. Lilliu, Nuoro, 2000), pp. 109–14.

  3. Ibid., pp. 91–102.

  4. Ibid., p. 162; Guido, Sardinia, pp. 106–7, 142.

  5. Guido, Sardinia, p. 156.

  6. Ibid., pp. 112–18; Pallottino, Sardegna nuragica, pp. 141–7.

  7. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, pp. 113–15, and fig, 19, p. 114, also pp. 164–7, figs. 29–30, and pp. 185–6.

  8. Guido, Sardinia, pp. 172–7; Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, p. 145 (Vulci).

  9. Guido, Sardinia, plates 56–7; Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, pp. 115–19, 123–40; Bible Lands Museum, Jerusalem, Guide to the Collection (3rd edn, Jerusalem, 2002), p. 84.

10. V. M. Manfredi and L. Braccesi, I Greci d’Occidente (Milan, 1966), pp. 184–9; D. Puliga and S. Panichi, Un’altra Grecia: le colonie d’Occidente tra mito, arte a memoria (Turin, 2005), pp. 203–14.

11. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, p. 402.

12. Herodotos 1.163–7; A. J. Graham, Colony and Mother City in Ancient Greece (Manchester, 1964), pp. 111–12; M. Sakellariou, ‘The metropolises of the western Greeks’, in G. Pugliese Carratelli (ed.), The Western Greeks (London, 1996), pp. 187–8; Manfredi and Braccesi, Greci d’Occidente, pp. 179–81, 184–5; Puliga and Panichi, Un’altra Grecia, pp. 203–4.

13. G. Pugliese Carratelli, ‘An outline of the political history of the Greeks in the West’, in Pugliese Carratelli, Western Greeks, pp. 154–5.

14. M. Bats, ‘The Greeks in Gaul and Corsica’, in Pugliese Carratelli, Western Greeks, pp. 578–80, and plate, p. 579; V. Kruta, ‘The Greek and Celtic worlds: a meeting of two cultures’, in Pugliese Carratelli, Western Greeks, pp. 585–90; Puliga and Panichi, Un’altra Grecia, pp. 206–7.

15. J. Boardman, The Greeks Overseas: their Early Colonies and Trade (2nd edn, London, 1980), pp. 216–17; Manfredi and Braccesi, Greci d’Occidente, p. 187.

16. Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus, 43:4; Boardman, Greeks Overseas, p. 218; Manfredi and Braccesi, Greci d’Occidente, p. 186.

17. L. Foxhall, Olive Cultivation in Ancient Greece: Seeking the Ancient Economy (Oxford, 2007), and other studies by the same author.

18. Boardman, Greeks Overseas, p. 219.

19. Ibid., p. 224.

20. Kruta and Bats in Pugliese Carratelli, Western Greeks, pp. 580–83; Boardman, Greeks Overseas, p. 224.

21. P. Dixon, The Iberians of Spain and Their Relations with the Aegean World (Oxford, 1940), p. 38.

22. Ibid., pp. 35–6.

23. A. Arribas, The Iberians (London, 1963), pp. 56–7.

24. B. Cunliffe, The Extraordinary Voyage of Pytheas the Greek (London, 2001).

25. Avienus, Ora Maritima, ed. J. P. Murphy (Chicago, IL, 1977); L. Antonelli, Il Periplo nascosto: lettura stratigrafica e commento storico-archeologico dell’Ora Maritima di Avieno (Padua, 1998) (with edition); F. J. González Ponce, Avieno y el Periplo (Ecija, 1995).

26. Avienus ll. 267–74.

27. Ibid. ll. 80–332, especially ll. 85, 113–16, 254, 308, 290–98.

28. Ibid. ll. 309–12, 375–80, 438–48, 459–60.

29. Cunliffe, Extraordinary Voyage, pp. 42–8; Dixon, Iberians of Spain, pp. 39–40.

30. Avienus ll. 481–2, 485–9, 496–7, 519–22.

31. Dixon, Iberians of Spain; Arribas, Iberians; A. Ruiz and M. Molinos, The Archaeology of the Iberians (Cambridge, 1998).

32. Avienus l. 133.

33. Arribas, Iberians, pp. 89, 93, 95, figs. 24, 27, 28, and pp. 102–4, 120, bearing in mind Foxhall, Olive Cultivation.

34. Arribas, Iberians, pp. 146–9.

35. Ibid., plates 35–8, 52–4.

36. Ibid., p. 160; also plates 22–3; Dixon, Iberians of Spain, pp. 106–7, 113–15 and frontispiece.

37. Dixon, Iberians of Spain, p. 107.

38. Ibid., p. 82 and plate 12b.

39. Arribas, Iberians, p. 131 and plate 21; also Dixon, Iberians of Spain, p. 11.

40. Dixon, Iberians of Spain, pp. 85–8, plates 10, 11a and b.

41. Ibid., pp. 54–60; Arribas, Iberians, pp. 73–87.

5. Thalassocracies, 550 BC–400 BC

  1. N. G. L. Hammond, A History of Greece to 322 BC (Oxford, 1959), p. 226.

  2. Thucydides 1:5.

  3. Aeschylus, The Persians (Persae), trans. Gilbert Murray (London, 1939), ll. 230–34, p. 30.

  4. A. R. Burn, The Pelican History of Greece (Harmondsworth, 1966), pp. 146, 159; Hammond, History of Greece, pp. 176, 202; J. Morrison and J. Oates, The Athenian Trireme: the History and Reconstruction of an Ancient Greek Warship (Cambridge, 1986).

  5. Thucydides 1:21; Herodotos 3:122; C. Constantakopolou, The Dance of the Islands: Insularity, Networks, the Athenian Empire and the Aegean World (Oxford, 2007), p. 94.

  6. Herodotos 5:31.

  7. Burn, Pelican History, p. 158.

  8. P. Cartledge, The Spartans: an Epic History (London, 2002), pp. 101–17.

  9. Burn, Pelican History, p. 174 – cf. Hammond, History of Greece, p. 202.

10. On numbers: W. Rodgers, Greek and Roman Naval Warfare (Annapolis, MD, 1937), pp. 80–95.

11. Ibid., p. 86.

12. Aeschylus, Persians, ll. 399–405, p. 39.

13. J. Hale, Lords of the Sea: the Triumph and Tragedy of Ancient Athens (London, 2010).

14. Thucydides 1:14.

15. Ibid. 1:13 and 3:104; Constantakopolou, Dance of the Islands, pp. 47–8.

16. Thucydides. 3.104 (trans. Rex Warner); cf. Homeric Hymn to Delian Apollo, ll. 144–55.

17. Constantakopolou, Dance of the Islands, p. 70.

18. Displayed on the modern doors of the library that commemorates his name in the History Faculty, Cambridge University.

19. A. Moreno, Feeding the Democracy: the Athenian Grain Supply in the Fifth and Fourth Centuries BC (Oxford, 2007), pp. 28–31.

20. Aristophanes, Horai, fragment 581, cited in Moreno, Feeding the Democracy, p. 75.

21. Cf. P. Garnsey, Famine and Food Supply in the Graeco-Roman World: Responses to Risk and Crisis (Cambridge, 1988), and M. Finley, The Ancient Economy (London, 1973).

22. Isokrates 4:107–9, cited in Moreno, Feeding the Democracy, p. 77.

23. Moreno, Feeding the Democracy, p. 100.

24. Thucydides 8:96; cf. Moreno, Feeding the Democracy, p. 126.

25. Herodotos 7:147.

26. R. Meiggs, The Athenian Empire (Oxford, 1972), pp. 121–3, 530; Moreno, Feeding the Democracy, p. 318.

27. Moreno, Feeding the Democracy, p. 319; cf. P. Horden and N. Purcell, The Corrupting Sea: a Study of Mediterranean History (Oxford, 2000), p. 121.

28. P. J. Rhodes, The Athenian Empire (Greece and Rome, New Surveys in the Classics, no. 17) (Oxford, 1985).

29. Thucydides 1 (trans. Rex Warner).

30. Ibid. 1:2; J. Wilson, Athens and Corcyra: Strategy and Tactics in the Peloponnesian War (Bristol, 1987); D. Kagan, The Peloponnesian War: Athens and Sparta in Savage Conflict 431–404 BC (London, 2003), p. 25.

31. Thucydides 1:2 (adapted from version by Rex Warner).

32. Kagan, Peloponnesian War, p. 27.

33. Thucydides 1:3.

34. Ibid.

35. Thucydides 1:4; Kagan, Peloponnesian War, pp. 34–6, and map 8, p. 35.

36. Thucydides 1:67.2; Kagan, Peloponnesian War, p. 41, n.1.

37. Thucydides 1:6.

38. Kagan, Peloponnesian War, pp. 100–101; Constantakopolou, Dance of the Islands, pp. 239–42.

39. Thucydides 3:13.

40. Ibid. 4:1.

41. Kagan, Peloponnesian War, pp. 142–7.

42. Thucydides 4:2.

43. Ibid. 3:86.4.

44. Ibid. 6:6.1; Kagan, Peloponnesian War, pp. 118–20.

45. Cf. Thucydides 6:6.1.

46. Ibid. 6:46.3.

47. W. M. Ellis, Alcibiades (London, 1989), p. 54.

48. Kagan, Peloponnesian War, p. 280.

49. Rodgers, Greek and Roman Naval Warfare, pp. 159–67.

50. Kagan, Peloponnesian War, p. 321.

51. Ibid., pp. 402–14.

52. Ibid., pp. 331–2.

53. Xenophon, Hellenika, 2:1; Cartledge, Spartans, pp. 192–202.

54. Xenophon, Hellenika, 3:2, 3:5, 4:2, 4:3, 4:4, 4:5, 4:7, 4:8, 4:9, etc.

6. The Lighthouse of the Mediterranean, 350 BC–100 BC

  1. R. Lane Fox, Alexander the Great (3rd edn, Harmondsworth, 1986), pp. 181–91.

  2. Serious account: P. M. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 3 vols. (Oxford, 1972), vol. 1, p. 3; popular account: J. Pollard and H. Reid, The Rise and Fall of Alexandria, Birthplace of the Modern Mind (New York, 2006), pp. 6–7.

  3. Lane Fox, Alexander the Great, p. 198.

  4. Pollard and Reid, Rise and Fall of Alexandria, pp. 2–3.

  5. Strabo, Geography, 17:8; J.-Y. Empereur, Alexandria: Past, Present and Future (London, 2002), p. 23.

  6. Lane Fox, Alexander the Great, pp. 461–72.

  7. S.-A. Ashton, ‘Ptolemaic Alexandria and the Egyptian tradition’, in A. Hirst and M. Silk (eds.), Alexandria Real and Imagined (2nd edn, Cairo, 2006), pp. 15–40.

  8. J. Carleton Paget, ‘Jews and Christians in ancient Alexandria from the Ptolemies to Caracalla’, in Hirst and Silk, Alexandria Real and Imagined, pp. 146–9.

  9. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, p. 255; Empereur, Alexandria, pp. 24–5.

10. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, p. 252; also pp. 116–17.

11. Ibid., p. 259.

12. Strabo, Geography, 17:7; cf. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, pp. 132, 143.

13. M. Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Hellenistic World, 3 vols. (Oxford, 1941), vol. 1, p. 29.

14. L. Casson, The Ancient Mariners: Seafarers and Sea Fighters of the Mediterranean in Ancient Times (2nd edn, Princeton, NJ, 1991), pp. 131–3.

15. Ibid., p. 130.

16. Ibid., p. 135, and pl. 32.

17. Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic History, vol. 1, pp. 367, 387; Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, pp. 137–9.

18. Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic History, vol. 1, pp. 395–6.

19. Casson, Ancient Mariners, p. 160; cf. Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic History, vol. 1, pp. 226–9.

20. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, p. 150.

21. Ibid., pp. 176, 178–81.

22. Empereur, Alexandria, p. 35.

23. Bosphoran grain: G. J. Oliver, War, Food, and Politics in Early Hellenistic Athens (Oxford, 2007), pp. 22–30.

24. Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic History, vol. 1, pp. 359–60, 363.

25. Diodoros the Sicilian 1:34.

26. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, p. 315; H. Maehler, ‘Alexandria, the Mouseion, and cultural identity’, in Hirst and Silk, Alexandria Real and Imagined, pp. 1–14.

27. Irenaeus, cited in M. El-Abbadi, ‘The Alexandria Library in history’, in Hirst and Silk, Alexandria Real and Imagined, p. 167.

28. El-Abbadi, ‘The Alexandria Library in history’, p. 172; Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, p. 329.

29. Empereur, Alexandria, pp. 38–9.

30. Maehler, ‘Alexandria, the Mouseion, and cultural identity’, pp. 9–10.

31. Comments by E. V. Rieu in his translation of Apollonius of Rhodes, The Voyage of Argo (Harmondsworth, 1959), pp. 25–7; cf. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, p. 627.

32. Pollard and Reid, Rise and Fall of Alexandria, p. 79.

33. Empereur, Alexandria, p. 43.

34. El-Abbadi, ‘The Alexandria Library in history’, p. 174.

35. N. Collins, The Library in Alexandria and the Bible in Greek (Leiden, 2000), p. 45: Philo, Josephus (Jewish authors); Justin, Tertullian (Christian authors – also Irenaeus and Clement of Alexandria, attributing the work to the reign of Ptolemy I).

36. Carleton Paget, ‘Jews and Christians’, pp. 149–51.

37. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, pp. 331, 338–76, 387–9.

38. Pollard and Reid, Rise and Fall of Alexandria, pp. 133–7.

39. N. K. Rauh, Merchants, Sailors and Pirates in the Roman World (Stroud, 2003), pp. 65–7.

40. P. de Souza, Piracy in the Graeco-Roman World (Cambridge, 1999), pp. 80–84.

41. Casson, Ancient Mariners, pp. 138–40.

42. Rauh, Merchants, p. 66.

43. Diodoros the Sicilian 22:81.4, cited by Rauh, Merchants, p. 66.

44. Rauh, Merchants, p. 68.

45. Casson, Ancient Mariners, p. 163.

46. Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic History, vol. 1, pp. 230–32; for its early development, see G. Reger, Regionalism and Change in the Economy of Independent Delos, 314–167 BC (Berkeley, CA, 1994); later developments in: N. Rauh, The Sacred Bonds of Commerce: Religion, Economy, and Trade Society at Hellenistic-Roman Delos, 166–87 BC (Amsterdam, 1993).

47. Rauh, Merchants, pp. 53–65, 73–4; Casson, Ancient Mariners, p. 165.

7. ‘Carthage Must Be Destroyed’, 400 BC–146 BC

  1. B. H. Warmington, Carthage (London, 1960), pp. 74–5, 77; R. Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed: the Rise and Fall of an Ancient Civilization (London, 2010), pp. 121–3.

  2. Xenophon, Hellenika, 1:1.

  3. A. Andrewes, The Greek Tyrants (London, 1956), p. 137; Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, pp. 123–4.

  4. Warmington, Carthage, p. 80.

  5. M. Finley, Ancient Sicily (London, 1968), p. 71; Andrewes, Greek Tyrants, p. 129; Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, p. 126 (for a Carthaginian inscription commemorating the fall of Akragas).

  6. Warmington, Carthage, pp. 83, 87; Finley, Ancient Sicily, pp. 71–2, 91–3.

  7. Warmington, Carthage, p. 91; Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, pp. 127–8.

  8. Warmington, Carthage, pp. 93–5; Finley, Ancient Sicily, pp. 76, 78, 80, 82.

  9. Warmington, Carthage, p. 94.

10. Plutarch, Parallel Lives, ‘Timoleon’; Finley, Ancient Sicily, p. 96.

11. Warmington, Carthage, pp. 102–3; Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, pp. 136–7.

12. R. J. A. Talbert, Timoleon and the Revival of Greek Sicily, 344–317 BC (Cambridge, 1974), pp. 151–2; Finley, Ancient Sicily, p. 99.

13. Plutarch, ‘Timoleon’; Talbert, Timoleon, pp. 156–7, 161–5; Finley, Ancient Sicily, p. 99.

14. Finley, Ancient Sicily, p. 104; Warmington, Carthage, p. 107.

15. Warmington, Carthage, p. 113.

16. Finley, Ancient Sicily, p. 105.

17. J. Serrati, ‘The coming of the Romans: Sicily from the fourth to the first centuries BC’, in Sicily from Aeneas to Augustus: New Approaches in Archaeology and History, ed. C. Smith and J. Serrati (Edinburgh, 2000), pp. 109–10.

18. Livy 2:34.4; B. D. Hoyos, Unplanned Wars: the Origins of the First and Second Punic Wars (Berlin, 1998), p. 28; G. Rickman, The Corn Supply of Ancient Rome (Oxford, 1980), p. 31.

19. R. Cowan, Roman Conquests: Italy (London, 2009), pp. 8–11, 21–5.

20. R. Meiggs, Roman Ostia (2nd edn, Oxford, 1973), p. 24.

21. Rickman, Corn Supply, p. 32.

22. K. Lomas, Rome and the Western Greeks 350 BC–AD 200 (London, 1993), p. 50.

23. Livy 9:30.4.

24. Disagreeing with Lomas, Rome and the Western Greeks, p. 51.

25. Lomas, Rome and the Western Greeks, p. 56.

26. Hoyos, Unplanned Wars, pp. 19–20.

27. J. F. Lazenby, The First Punic War: a Military History (London, 1996), p. 34; Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, pp. 162–5.

28. Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, pp. 107–11, 160–61.

29. E.g. A. Goldsworthy, The Fall of Carthage (London, 2000), pp. 16, 65, 322.

30. Hoyos, Unplanned Wars, pp. 1–4; Goldsworthy, Fall of Carthage, pp. 19–20.

31. Polybios 1:63; Hoyos, Unplanned Wars, p. 1; on devastation: Goldsworthy, Fall of Carthage, pp. 363–4.

32. J. Serrati, ‘Garrisons and grain: Sicily between the Punic Wars’, in Sicily from Aeneas to Augustus, ed. Smith and Serrati, pp. 116–19.

33. Lazenby, First Punic War, pp. 35–9; Goldsworthy, Fall of Carthage, pp. 66–8; Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, pp. 171–3.

34. Polybios 10:3; Lazenby, First Punic War, p. 37; Hoyos, Unplanned Wars, pp. 33–66.

35. Polybios 20:14; Lazenby, First Punic War, p. 48; Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, p. 174.

36. Diodoros 23:2.1.

37. Lazenby, First Punic War, pp. 51, 55.

38. Polybios 20:1–2; Hoyos, Unplanned Wars, p. 113; Lazenby, First Punic War, p. 60; Goldsworthy, Fall of Carthage, p. 81.

39. Cf. though Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, p. 175.

40. Polybios 20:9; Lazenby, First Punic War, pp. 62–3.

41. Polybios 20:9–12.

42. Ibid. 22:2.

43. Lazenby, First Punic War, pp. 64, 66 and 69, fig. 5.1; Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, pp. 181–3.

44. J. H. Thiel, Studies on the History of Roman Sea-power in Republican Times (Amsterdam, 1946), p. 19; Goldsworthy, Fall of Carthage, pp. 109–15; also Lazenby, First Punic War, pp. 83, 86–7.

45. Cf. Lazenby, First Punic War, p. 94.

46. J. Morrison, Greek and Roman Oared Warships, 339–30 BC (Oxford, 1996), pp. 46–50.

47. Goldsworthy, Fall of Carthage, p. 115.

48. Polybios 37:3; Lazenby, First Punic War, p. 111; Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, p. 181.

49. Polybios 62:8–63.3; Lazenby, First Punic War, p. 158.

50. Warmington, Carthage, pp. 167–8; Hoyos, Unplanned Wars, pp. 131–43.

51. M. Guido, Sardinia (Ancient Peoples and Places, London, 1963), p. 209.

52. B. D. Hoyos, Hannibal’s Dynasty: Power and Politics in the Western Mediterranean, 247–183 BC (London, 2003), pp. 50–52, 72, 74–6; Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, pp. 214–22.

53. Hoyos, Hannibal’s Dynasty, p. 53.

54. Ibid., pp. 55, 63–7, 79–80; Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, p. 224, citing Polybios 10:10.

55. Hoyos, Unplanned Wars, pp. 150–95, especially p. 177 and p. 208.

56. Goldsworthy, Fall of Carthage, pp. 253–60.

57. Serrati, ‘Garrisons and grain’, pp. 115–33.

58. Finley, Ancient Sicily, pp. 117–18; Goldsworthy, Fall of Carthage, p. 261.

59. Thiel, Studies on the History of Roman Sea-power, pp. 79–86; Goldsworthy, Fall of Carthage, pp. 263, 266.

60. Finley, Ancient Sicily, p. 119.

61. Goldsworthy, Fall of Carthage, p. 308.

62. Thiel, Studies on the History of Roman Sea-power, pp. 255–372.

63. Goldsworthy, Fall of Carthage, p. 331.

64. Warmington, Carthage, pp. 201–2.

65. Goldsworthy, Fall of Carthage, pp. 338–9.

66. Rauh, Merchants, pp. 38–53.

67. Virgil, Aeneid, 4:667–71, in Dryden’s translation.

8. ‘Our Sea’, 146 BC–AD 150

  1. N. K. Rauh, Merchants, Sailors and Pirates in the Roman World (Stroud, 2003), pp. 136–41.

  2. Lucan, Pharsalia, 7:400–407, trans. Robert Graves.

  3. R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (Oxford, 1939), pp. 78, 83–8.

  4. P. de Souza, Piracy in the Graeco-Roman World (Cambridge, 1999), pp. 92–6.

  5. L. Casson, The Ancient Mariners: Seafarers and Sea Fighters of the Mediterranean in Ancient Times (2nd edn, Princeton, NJ, 1991), p. 191; de Souza, Piracy, pp. 140–41, 162, 164.

  6. Cited in de Souza, Piracy, pp. 50–51.

  7. Livy 34:32.17–20; Polybios 13:6.1–2; both cited in de Souza, Piracy, pp. 84–5.

  8. de Souza, Piracy, pp. 185–95.

  9. Rauh, Merchants, pp. 177, 184; but maybe these tyrannoi (and not Etruscans) were the Tyrrhenoi active near Rhodes – an easy etymological confusion.

10. Strabo, Geography, 14.3.2; Rauh, Merchants, pp. 171–2.

11. Plutarch, Parallel Lives, ‘Pompey’, 24.1–3, trans. John Dryden.

12. de Souza, Piracy, pp. 165–6.

13. Plutarch, Parallel Lives, ‘Pompey’, 25:1, trans. John Dryden.

14. Syme, Roman Revolution, p. 28.

15. Cicero, Pro Lege Manilia, 34; G. Rickman, The Corn Supply of Ancient Rome (Oxford, 1980), pp. 51–2.

16. de Souza, Piracy, pp. 169–70.

17. Rickman, Corn Supply, p. 51; Syme, Roman Revolution, p. 29.

18. Plutarch, Parallel Lives, ‘Pompey’, 28:3; de Souza, Piracy, pp. 170–71, 175–6.

19. Syme, Roman Revolution, p. 30.

20. Hoc voluerunt: Suetonius, Twelve Caesars, ‘Divus Julius’, 30:4.

21. Syme, Roman Revolution, p. 260.

22. F. Adcock in Cambridge Ancient History, 12 vols. (Cambridge, 1923–39), vol. 9, The Roman Republic, 133–44 BC, p. 724; Syme, Roman Revolution, pp. 53–60.

23. Syme, Roman Revolution, pp. 260, 270.

24. Ibid., pp. 294–7; C. G. Starr, The Roman Imperial Navy 31 BC–AD 324 (Ithaca, NY, 1941), pp. 7–8; J. Morrison, Greek and Roman Oared Warships, 339–30 BC (Oxford, 1996), pp. 157–75.

25. Virgil, Aeneid, 8:678–80, 685–8, in Dryden’s rather loose version.

26. Syme, Roman Revolution, pp. 298–300; Rickman, Corn Supply, pp. 61, 70.

27. Res Gestae Divi Augusti, ed. P. A. Brunt and J. M. Moore (Oxford, 1967), 15:2.

28. Rickman, Corn Supply, pp. 176–7, 187, 197, 205–8.

29. Ibid., p. 12.

30. Rauh, Merchants, pp. 93–4.

31. Plutarch, Parallel Lives, ‘Cato the Elder’, 21.6; Rauh, Merchants, p. 104.

32. Rauh, Merchants, p. 105.

33. Rickman, Corn Supply, pp. 16, 121.

34. Ibid., pp. 6–7; also P. Erdkamp, The Grain Market in the Roman Empire: a Social and Political Study (Cambridge, 2005); P. Garnsey, Famine and Food Supply in the Graeco-Roman World: Responses to Risk and Crisis (Cambridge, 1988).

35. Rickman, Corn Supply, p. 16.

36. Museu de la Ciutat de Barcelona, Roman section.

37. Rickman, Corn Supply, pp. 15, 128.

38. Acts of the Apostles, 27 and 28.

39. Rickman, Corn Supply, pp. 17, 65.

40. Josephus, Jewish War, 2:383–5; Rickman, Corn Supply, pp. 68, 232.

41. Rickman, Corn Supply, pp. 61, 123.

42. Ibid., pp. 108–12; S. Raven, Rome in Africa (2nd edn, Harlow, 1984), pp. 84–105. Other sources included Sicily: Rickman, Corn Supply, pp. 104–6; Sardinia: ibid., pp. 106–7; Spain: ibid., pp. 107–8.

43. Rickman, Corn Supply, pp. 67, 69.

44. Raven, Rome in Africa, p. 94.

45. Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 18:35; Rickman, Corn Supply, p. 111.

46. Raven, Rome in Africa, pp. 86, 93.

47. Ibid., p. 95.

48. Ibid., pp. 95, 100–102.

49. Rickman, Corn Supply, pp. 69–70 and Appendix 4, pp. 231–5.

50. Ibid., p. 115 (AD 99).

51. Ibid., pp. 76–7, and Appendix 11, pp. 256–67.

52. Seneca, Letters, 77:1–3, cited in D. Jones, The Bankers of Puteoli: Finance, Trade and Industry in the Roman World (Stroud, 2006), p. 26.

53. Jones, Bankers of Puteoli, p. 28.

54. Ibid., pp. 23–4; and Strabo, Geography, 5:4.6.

55. Jones, Bankers of Puteoli, p. 33.

56. Cited in R. Meiggs, Roman Ostia (Oxford, 1960), p. 60.

57. Jones, Bankers of Puteoli, p. 34.

58. Petronius, Satyricon, 76; Jones, Bankers of Puteoli, p. 43.

59. Jones, Bankers of Puteoli, p. 11.

60. Ibid., pp. 102–17.

61. Ibid., Appendix 9, p. 255.

62. Rickman, Corn Supply, pp. 21–4, 134–43; G. Rickman, Roman Granaries and Store Buildings (Cambridge, 1971).

63. Rickman, Corn Supply, p. 23; Rickman, Roman Granaries, pp. 97–104.

64. Meiggs, Roman Ostia, pp. 16–17, 41–5, 57–9, 74, 77.

65. M. Reddé, Mare Nostrum: les infrastructures, le dispositif et l’histoire de la marine militaire sous l’empire romain (Rome, 1986).

66. Tacitus, Histories, 3:8; Starr, Roman Imperial Navy, pp. 181, 183, 185, 189; Rickman, Corn Supply, p. 67.

67. Starr, Roman Imperial Navy, p. 188.

68. Ibid., p. 67.

69. Cited ibid., p. 78.

70. Aelius Aristides, cited ibid., p. 87.

71. Oxyrhyncus papyrus cited ibid., p. 79.

72. Ibid., pp. 84–5.

73. Reddé, Mare Nostrum, p. 402.

74. Raven, Rome in Africa, pp. 75–6; Reddé, Mare Nostrum, pp. 244–8.

75. Reddé, Mare Nostrum, pp. 139, 607, and more generally pp. 11–141.

76. Tacitus, Annals, 4:5; Suetonius, Lives of the Caesars, ‘Augustus’, 49; Reddé, Mare Nostrum, p. 472.

77. Reddé, Mare Nostrum, pp. 186–97; Starr, Roman Imperial Navy, pp. 13–21.

78. Reddé, Mare Nostrum, pp. 177–86; Starr, Roman Imperial Navy, pp. 21–4.

9. Old and New Faiths, AD 1–450

  1. B. de Breffny, The Synagogue (London, 1978), pp. 30–32, 37.

  2. R. Meiggs, Roman Ostia (Oxford, 1960), pp. 355–66, 368–76.

  3. R. Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians in the Mediterranean World from the Second Century AD to the Conversion of Constantine (London, 1986), pp. 428, 438, 453.

  4. M. Goodman, Rome and Jerusalem: the Clash of Ancient Civilisations (London, 2007), pp. 26–8, 421, 440–43.

  5. Ibid., pp. 469–70: coins inscribed FISCI IVDAICI CALVMNIA SVBLATA.

  6. Ibid., pp. 480, 484–91.

  7. S. Sand, The Invention of the Jewish People (London, 2009), pp. 130–46, seriously underestimates the scale of this diaspora.

  8. Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians, pp. 450, 482.

  9. Ibid., p. 487.

10. Sand, Invention, pp. 171–2.

11. Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians, p. 492.

12. A. S. Abulafia, Christian-Jewish Relations, 1000–1300: Jews in the Service of Christians (Harlow, 2011), pp. 4–8, 15–16.

13. R. Patai, The Children of Noah: Jewish Seafaring in Ancient Times (Princeton, NJ, 1998), pp. 137–42.

14. Ibid., pp. 70–71, 85–100.

15. Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians, pp. 609–62.

16. G. Bowersock, Julian the Apostate (London, 1978), pp. 89–90, 120–22; P. Athanassiadi, Julian the Apostate: an Intellectual Biography (London, 1992), pp. 163–5.

17. Bowersock, Julian, pp. 79–93; R. Smith, Julian’s Gods: Religion and Philosophy in the Thought and Action of Julian the Apostate (London, 1995).

18. Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians, p. 31.

19. G. Downey, Gaza in the Early Sixth Century (Norman, OK, 1963), pp. 33–59 – much of this book is the most dreadful waffle.

20. Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians, p. 270.

21. Downey, Gaza, pp. 17–26, 20–21, 25–9.

22. For his career, see Mark the Deacon, Life of Porphyry Bishop of Gaza, ed. G. F. Hill (Oxford, 1913); Marc le Diacre, Vie de Porphyre, évêque de Gaza, ed. H. Grégoire and M.-A. Kugener (Paris, 1930).

23. Sand, Invention, pp. 166–78, though overstated.

24. Severus of Minorca, Letter on the Conversion of the Jews, ed. S. Bradbury (Oxford, 1996), editor’s introduction, pp. 54–5; J. Amengual i Batle, Judíos, Católicos y herejes: el microcosmos balear y tarraconense de Seuerus de Menorca, Consentius y Orosius (413–421) (Granada, 2008), pp. 69–201.

25. C. Ginzburg, ‘The conversion of Minorcan Jews (417–418): an experiment in history of historiography’, in S. Waugh and P. Diehl (eds.), Christendom and its Discontents: Exclusion, Persecution, and Rebellion, 1000–1500 (Cambridge, 1996), pp. 207–19.

26. Severus of Minorca, Letter, pp. 80–85.

27. Bradbury, ibid., pp. 34–6.

28. Severus of Minorca, Letter, pp. 84–5.

29. Ibid., pp. 82–3.

30. Bishop John II of Jerusalem, ibid., p. 18; also Bradbury’s comments, pp. 16–25.

31. Ginzburg, ‘Conversion’, pp. 213–15; Bradbury in Severus of Minorca, Letter, pp. 19, 53.

32. Severus of Minorca, Letter, pp. 124–5.

33. Ibid., pp. 94–101.

34. Ibid., pp. 116–19.

35. Ibid., pp. 92–3; but cf. Bradbury’s comment, p. 32.

36. Bradbury, ibid., pp. 41–2.

10. Dis-integration, 400–600

  1. B. Ward-Perkins, The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilisation (Oxford, 2005), p. 32.

  2. Ibid., pp. 1–10; P. Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire: a New History (London, 2005), p. xii.

  3. C. Wickham, The Inheritance of Rome: a History of Europe from 400 to 1000 (London, 2009).

  4. Heather, Fall of the Roman Empire, p. 130.

  5. G. Rickman, The Corn Supply of Ancient Rome (Oxford, 1980), pp. 69, 118.

  6. B. H. Warmington, The North African Provinces from Diocletian to the Vandal Conquest (Cambridge, 1954), pp. 64–5, 113.

  7. Ward-Perkins, Fall of Rome, pp. 103, 131.

  8. Heather, Fall of the Roman Empire, pp. 277–80.

  9. Warmington, North African Provinces, p. 112; S. Raven, Rome in Africa (2nd ed, Harlow, 1984), p. 207.

10. H. Castritius, Die Vandalen: Etappen einer Spurensuche (Stuttgart, 2007), pp. 15–33; A. Merrills and R. Miles, The Vandals (Oxford, 2010).

11. Raven, Rome in Africa, p. 171.

12. C. Courtois, Les Vandales et l’Afrique (Paris, 1955), p. 157.

13. Ibid., p. 160; cf. H. J. Diesner, Das Vandelenreich: Aufstieg und Untergang (Leipzig, 1966), p. 51 for lower estimates.

14. Courtois, Vandales, pp. 159–63; Castritius, Vandalen, pp. 76–8.

15. Courtois, Vandales, pp. 110, 170; Wickham, Inheritance of Rome, p. 77.

16. A. Schwarcz, ‘The settlement of the Vandals in North Africa’, in A. Merrills (ed.), Vandals, Romans and Berbers: New Perspectives on Late Antique North Africa (Aldershot, 2004), pp. 49–57.

17. Courtois, Vandales, p. 173; A. Merrills, ‘Vandals, Romans and Berbers: understanding late antique North Africa’, in Merrills (ed.), Vandals, Romans and Berbers, pp. 4–5.

18. Merrills, ‘Vandals, Romans and Berbers’, pp. 10–11.

19. R. Hodges and D. Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne and the Origins of Europe (London, 1983), pp. 27–8; also Wickham, Inheritance of Rome, p. 78: ‘the Carthage-Rome tax spine ended’.

20. J. George, ‘Vandal poets in their context’, in Merrills (ed.), Vandals, Romans and Berbers, pp. 133–4; D. Bright, The Miniature Epic in Vandal North Africa (Norman, OK, 1987).

21. Merrills, ‘Vandals, Romans and Berbers’, p. 13.

22. Diesner, Vandalenreich, p. 125.

23. Courtois, Vandales, p. 208.

24. Ibid., p. 186.

25. Heather, Fall of the Roman Empire, p. 373.

26. Castritius, Vandalen, pp. 105–6.

27. Courtois, Vandales, pp. 186–93, 212.

28. Some authors reject the bubonic explanation; see W. Rosen, Justinian’s Flea: Plague, Empire and the Birth of Europe (London, 2007).

29. A. Laiou and C. Morrisson, The Byzantine Economy (Cambridge, 2007), p. 38; C. Morrisson and J.-P. Sodini, ‘The sixth-century economy’, in A. Laiou (ed.), Economic History of Byzantium from the Seventh through the Fifteenth Century, 3 vols. (Washington, DC, 2002), vol. 1, p. 193.

30. C. Vita-Finzi, The Mediterranean Valleys: Geological Change in Historical Times (Cambridge, 1969); Hodges and Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne, pp. 57–9.

31. C. Delano Smith, Western Mediterranean Europe: a Historical Geography of Italy, Spain and Southern France since the Neolithic (London, 1979), pp. 328–92.

32. Morrisson and Sodini, ‘Sixth-century economy’, p. 209; P. Arthur, Naples: from Roman Town to City-state (Archaeological Monographs of the British School at Rome, vol. 12, London, 2002), pp. 15, 35; H. Ahrweiler, Byzance et la mer (Paris, 1966), p. 411; J. Pryor and E. Jeffreys, The Age of the : the Byzantine Navy ca 500–1204 (Leiden, 2006).

33. Morrisson and Sodini, ‘Sixth-century economy’, p. 173.

34. Arthur, Naples, p. 12.

35. Morrisson and Sodini, ‘Sixth-century economy’, pp. 173–4; G. D. R. Sanders, ‘Corinth’, in Laiou (ed.), Economic History of Byzantium, vol. 2, pp. 647–8.

36. Hodges and Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne, p. 28.

37. Morrisson and Sodini, ‘Sixth-century economy’, pp. 174, 190–91; C. Foss, Ephesus after Antiquity: a Late Antique, Byzantine and Turkish City (Cambridge, 1979); M. Kazanaki-Lappa, ‘Medieval Athens’, in Laiou (ed.), Economic History of Byzantium, vol. 2, pp. 639–41; Hodges and Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne, p. 60.

38. W. Ashburner, The Rhodian Sea-law (Oxford, 1909).

39. C. Foss and J. Ayer Scott, ‘Sardis’, in Laiou (ed.), Economic History of Byzantium, vol. 2, p. 615; K. Rheidt, ‘The urban economy of Pergamon’, in Laiou (ed.), Economic History of Byzantium, vol. 2, p. 624.

40. Hodges and Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne, p. 38; J. W. Hayes, Late Roman Pottery (Supplementary Monograph of the British School at Rome, London, 1972) and Supplement to Late Roman Pottery (London, 1980); C. Wickham, Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean, 400–800 (Oxford, 2005), pp. 720–28.

41. Arthur, Naples, p. 141; Morrisson and Sodini, ‘Sixth-century economy’, p. 191.

42. Hodges and Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne, p. 72.

43. Morrisson and Sodini, ‘Sixth-century economy’, p. 211.

44. F. van Doorninck, Jr, ‘Byzantine shipwrecks’, in Laiou (ed.), Economic History of Byzantium, vol. 2, p. 899; A. J. Parker, Ancient Shipwrecks of the Mediterranean and the Roman Provinces (British Archaeological Reports, International series, vol. 580, Oxford, 1992), no. 782, p. 301.

45. Parker, Ancient Shipwrecks, no. 1001, pp. 372–3.

46. Van Doorninck, ‘Byzantine shipwrecks’, p. 899.

47. Parker, Ancient Shipwrecks, no. 1239, pp. 454–5.

48. Van Doorninck, ‘Byzantine shipwrecks’, p. 899.

49. Parker, Ancient shipwrecks, no. 518, p. 217.

PART THREE
THE THIRD MEDITERRANEAN, 600–1350

1. Mediterranean Troughs, 600–900

  1. H. Pirenne, Mohammed and Charlemagne (London, 1939) – cf. R. Hodges and D. Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne and the Origins of Europe (London, 1983); R. Latouche, The Birth of the Western Economy: Economic Aspects of the Dark Ages (London, 1961).

  2. M. McCormick, The Origins of the European Economy: Communications and Commerce AD 300–900 (Cambridge, 2001), pp. 778–98.

  3. A. Laiou and C. Morrisson, The Byzantine Economy (Cambridge, 2007), p. 63.

  4. T. Khalidi, The Muslim Jesus: Sayings and Stories in Islamic Literature (Cambridge, MA, 2001).

  5. Hodges and Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne, pp. 68–9; D. Pringle, The Defence of Byzantine Africa from Justinian to the Arab Conquest (British Archaeological Reports, International series, vol. 99, Oxford, 1981); on Byzantine ships: J. Pryor and E. Jeffreys, The Age of the : The Byzantine Navy ca 500–1204 (Leiden, 2006).

  6. X. de Planhol, Minorités en Islam: géographie politique et sociale (Paris, 1997), pp. 95–107.

  7. S. Sand, The Invention of the Jewish People (London, 2009), pp. 202–7.

  8. Pirenne, Mohammed and Charlemagne; A. Lewis, Naval Power and Trade in the Mediterranean A.D. 500–1100 (Princeton, NJ, 1951); McCormick, Origins, p. 118; P. Horden and N. Purcell, The Corrupting Sea: a Study of Mediterranean History (Oxford, 2000), pp. 153–72 (p. 154 for ‘the merest trickle’); also C. Wickham, Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean, 400–800 (Oxford, 2005), pp. 821–3.

  9. McCormick, Origins, p. 65; Horden and Purcell, Corrupting Sea, p. 164.

10. Horden and Purcell, Corrupting Sea, p. 163.

11. Ibid., pp. 164–5; S. Loseby, ‘Marseille: a late Roman success story?’ Journal of Roman Studies, vol. 82 (1992), pp. 165–85.

12. E. Ashtor, ‘Aperçus sur les Radhanites’, Revue suisse d’histoire, vol. 27 (1977), pp. 245–75; Y. Rotman, Byzantine Slavery and the Mediterranean World (Cambridge, MA, 2009), pp. 66–8, 74.

13. Cf. J. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War: Studies in the Maritime History of the Mediterranean 649–1571 (Cambridge, 1988), p. 138.

14. M. Lombard, The Golden Age of Islam (Amsterdam, 1987), p. 212: Rotman, Byzantine Slavery, pp. 66–7.

15. D. Abulafia, ‘Asia, Africa and the trade of medieval Europe’, Cambridge Economic History of Europe, vol. 2, Trade and Industry in the Middle Ages, ed. M. M. Postan, E. Miller and C. Postan (2nd edn, Cambridge, 1987), p. 417.

16. McCormick, Origins, pp. 668, 675; Rotman, Byzantine Slavery, p. 73.

17. P. Sénac, Provence et piraterie sarrasine (Paris, 1982), p. 52.

18. Pryor, Geography, Technology, pp. 102–3.

19. J. Haywood, Dark Age Naval Power: a Reassessment of Frankish and Anglo-Saxon Seafaring Activity (London, 1991), p. 113.

20. Ibid., pp. 114–15.

21. G. Musca, L’emirato di Bari, 847–871 (Bari, 1964); Haywood, Dark Age Naval Power, p. 116.

22. Sénac, Provence et piraterie, pp. 35–48; J. Lacam, Les Sarrasins dans le haut moyen âge français (Paris, 1965).

23. Pryor and Jeffreys, Age of the , pp. 446–7.

24. J. Pryor, ‘Byzantium and the sea: Byzantine fleets and the history of the empire in the age of the Macedonian emperors, c.900–1025 CE’, in J. Hattendorf and R. Unger (eds.), War at Sea in the Middle Ages and Renaissance (Woodbridge, 2003), pp. 83–104; Pryor and Jeffreys, Age of the , p. 354; Pryor, Geography, Technology, pp. 108–9.

25. Pryor and Jeffreys, Age of the , pp. 333–78.

26. Haywood, Dark Age Naval Power, p. 110.

27. McCormick, Origins, pp. 69–73, 559–60.

28. M. G. Bartoli, Il Dalmatico, ed. A. Duro (Rome, 2000).

29. F. C. Lane, Venice: a Maritime Republic (Baltimore, MD, 1973), pp. 3–4.

30. Wickham, Framing the Early Middle Ages, pp. 690, 732–3; McCormick, Origins, pp. 529–30.

31. Lane, Venice, pp. 4–5.

32. Sources in Haywood, Dark Age Naval Power, pp. 195, nn. 88–94.

33. Wickham, Framing the Early Middle Ages, p. 690.

34. Lane, Venice, p. 4.

35. Cf. Wickham, Framing the Early Middle Ages, pp. 73, 75.

36. McCormick, Origins, pp. 361–9, 523–31.

37. P. Geary, Furta Sacra: Thefts of Relics in the Central Middle Ages (Princeton, NJ, 1978).

38. D. Howard, Venice and the East: the Impact of the Islamic World on Venetian Architecture 1100–1500 (New Haven, CT, 2000), pp. 65–7.

39. McCormick, Origins, pp. 433–8.

40. Cf. Lewis, Naval Power and Trade in the Mediterranean, pp. 45–6.

41. McCormick, Origins, pp. 436, 440, 816–51.

2. Crossing the Boundaries between Christendom and Islam, 900–1050

  1. S. Reif, A Jewish Archive from Old Cairo: the History of Cambridge University’s Genizah Collection (Richmond, Surrey, 2000), p. 2 and fig. 1, p. 3.

  2. S. D. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society: the Jewish Communities of the Arab World as Portrayed in the Documents of the Cairo Geniza, vol. 1, Economic Foundations (Berkeley, CA, 1967), p. 7; cf. the puzzling title of Reif’s Jewish Archive.

  3. S. Shaked, A Tentative Bibliography of Geniza Documents (Paris and The Hague, 1964).

  4. Reif, Jewish Archive, pp. 72–95.

  5. On Byzantium: J. Holo, Byzantine Jewry in the Mediterranean Economy (Cambridge, 2009).

  6. R. Patai, The Children of Noah: Jewish Seafaring in Ancient Times (Princeton, NJ, 1998), pp. 93–6; Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1, pp. 280–81.

  7. Shaked, Tentative Bibliography, no. 337.

  8. D. Abulafia, ‘Asia, Africa and the trade of medieval Europe’, Cambridge Economic History of Europe, vol. 2, Trade and Industry in the Middle Ages, ed. M. M. Postan, E. Miller and C. Postan (2nd edn, Cambridge, 1987), pp. 421–3.

  9. Mercantile contacts: Holo, Byzantine Jewry, pp. 201–2.

10. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1, p. 429.

11. Shaked, Tentative Bibliography, nos. 22, 243 (wheat), 248, 254, 279, 281, 339, etc., etc.

12. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1, pp. 229–48, 257–8.

13. S. Goitein, ‘Sicily and southern Italy in the Cairo Geniza documents’, Archivio storico per la Sicilia orientale, vol. 67 (1971), p. 14.

14. Abulafia, ‘Asia, Africa’, p. 431; Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1, p. 102.

15. O. R. Constable, Trade and Traders in Muslim Spain: the Commercial Realignment of the Iberian Peninsula 900–1500 (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 91–2.

16. Ibid., p. 92.

17. Goitein, ‘Sicily and southern Italy’, pp. 10, 14, 16.

18. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1, p. 111; Goitein, ‘Sicily and southern Italy’, p. 31.

19. Goitein, ‘Sicily and southern Italy’, pp. 20–23.

20. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1, pp. 311–12, 314, 317, 325–6; Goitein, ‘Sicily and southern Italy’, pp. 28–30.

21. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1, pp. 315–16.

22. Ibid., pp. 319–22.

23. Reif, Jewish Archive, p. 167.

24. P. Arthur, Naples: from Roman Town to City-state (Archaeological Monographs of the British School at Rome, vol. 12, London, 2002), pp. 149–51.

25. D. Abulafia, ‘Southern Italy, Sicily and Sardinia in the medieval Mediterranean economy’, in D. Abulafia, Commerce and Conquest in the Mediterranean, 1100–1500 (Aldershot, 1993), essay i, pp. 8–9; B. Kreutz, ‘The ecology of maritime success: the puzzling case of Amalfi’, Mediterranean Historical Review, vol. 3 (1988), pp. 103–13.

26. Kreutz, ‘Ecology’, p. 107.

27. M. del Treppo and A. Leone, Amalfi medioevale (Naples, 1977), the views being those of del Treppo.

28. G. Imperato, Amalfi e il suo commercio (Salerno, 1980), pp. 38, 44.

29. C. Wickham, Early Medieval Italy: Central Power and Local Society 400–1000 (London, 1981), p. 150; on Gaeta: P. Skinner, Family Power in Southern Italy: the Duchy of Gaeta and its Neighbours, 850–1139 (Cambridge, 1995), especially pp. 27–42 and p. 288.

30. Imperato, Amalfi, p. 71.

31. H. Willard, Abbot Desiderius of Montecassino and the Ties between Montecassino and Amalfi in the Eleventh Century (Miscellanea Cassinese, vol. 37, Montecassino, 1973).

32. Abulafia, ‘Southern Italy, Sicily and Sardinia’, p. 12.

33. Anna Komnene, Alexiad, 6:1.1.

34. J. Riley-Smith, The Knights of St John in Jerusalem and Cyprus, 1050–1310 (London, 1967), pp. 36–7.

35. C. Cahen, ‘Un texte peu connu relative au commerce orientale d’Amalfi au Xe siècle’, Archivio storico per le province napoletane, vol. 34 (1953–4), pp. 61–7.

36. A. Citarella, Il commercio di Amalfi nell’alto medioevo (Salerno, 1977).

3. The Great Sea-change, 1000–1100

  1. S. A. Epstein, Genoa and the Genoese, 958–1528 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1996), p. 14.

  2. Ibid., pp. 10–11 (with a rather more positive view of its harbour).

  3. Ibid., pp. 22–3.

  4. D. Abulafia, ‘Southern Italy, Sicily and Sardinia in the medieval Mediterranean economy’, in D. Abulafia, Commerce and Conquest in the Mediterranean, 1100–1500 (Aldershot, 1993), essay i, p. 24.

  5. Ibid., pp. 25–6.

  6. J. Day, La Sardegna sotto la dominazione pisano-genovese (Turin, 1986; = J. Day, ‘La Sardegna e i suoi dominatori dal secolo XI al secolo XIV’, in J. Day, B. Anatra and L. Scaraffia, La Sardegna medioevale e moderna, Storia d’Italia UTET, ed. G. Galasso, Turin, 1984), pp. 3–186; F. Artizzu, L’Opera di S. Maria di Pisa e la Sardegna (Padua, 1974).

  7. Epstein, Genoa, pp. 33–6.

  8. Cf. A. Greif, Institutions and the Path to the Modern Economy: Lessons from Medieval Trade (Cambridge, 2006), p. 229; also L. R. Taylor, Party Politics in the Age of Caesar (Berkeley, CA, 1949).

  9. Epstein, Genoa, pp. 19–22, 41; Greif, Institutions, p. 230.

10. G. Rösch, Venedig und das Reich: Handels- und Verkehrspolitische Beziehungen in der deutschen Kaiserzeit (Tübingen, 1982).

11. S. A. Epstein, Wills and Wealth in Medieval Genoa, 1150–1250 (Cambridge, MA, 1984).

12. D. Abulafia, The Two Italies: Economic Relations between the Norman Kingdom of Sicily and the Northern Communes (Cambridge, 1977), pp. 11–22.

13. Q. van Dosselaere, Commercial Agreements and Social Dynamics in Medieval Genoa (Cambridge, 2009).

14. D. Abulafia, ‘Gli italiani fuori d’Italia’, in Storia dell’economia italiana, ed. R. Romano (Turin, 1990), vol. 1, p. 268; repr. in D. Abulafia, Commerce and Conquest in the Mediterranean, 1100–1500 (Aldershot, 1993); D. Nicol, Byzantium and Venice: a Study in Diplomatic and Cultural Relations (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 33, 41.

15. Abulafia, Two Italies, p. 52.

16. H. E. J. Cowdrey, ‘The Mahdia campaign of 1087’, English Historical Review, vol. 92 (1977), pp. 1–29, repr. in H. E. J. Cowdrey, Popes, Monks and Crusaders (London, 1984), essay xii.

17. S. D. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society: the Jewish Communities of the Arab World as Portrayed in the Documents of the Cairo Geniza, vol. 1, Economic Foundations (Berkeley, CA, 1967), pp. 196–200, 204–5.

18. Cowdrey, ‘Mahdia campaign’, p. 8.

19. D. Abulafia, ‘Asia, Africa and the trade of medieval Europe’, Cambridge Economic History of Europe, vol. 2, Trade and Industry in the Middle Ages, ed. M. M. Postan, E. Miller and C. Postan (2nd edn, Cambridge, 1987), pp. 464–5.

20. Abulafia, Two Italies, p. 40.

21. Cowdrey, ‘Mahdia campaign’, pp. 18, 22.

22. D. Abulafia, ‘The Pisan bacini and the medieval Mediterranean economy: a historian’s viewpoint’, Papers in Italian Archaeology, IV: the Cambridge Conference, part iv, Classical and Medieval Archaeology, ed. C. Malone and S. Stoddart (British Archaeological Reports, International Series, vol. 246, Oxford, 1985), pp. 290, repr. in D. Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, 1100–1400 (London, 1987), essay xiii.

23. Cowdrey, ‘Mahdia campaign’, p. 28, verse 68; also p. 21.

24. G. Berti, P. Torre et al., Arte islamica in Italia: i bacini delle chiese pisane (catalogue of an exhibition at the Museo Nazionale d’Arte Orientale, Rome; Pisa, 1983).

25. Abulafia, ‘Pisan bacini’, p. 289.

26. Ibid., pp. 290–91; J. Pryor and S. Bellabarba, ‘The medieval Muslim ships of the Pisan bacini’, Mariner’s Mirror, vol. 76 (1990), pp. 99–113; G. Berti, J. Pastor Quijada and G. Rosselló Bordoy, Naves andalusíes en cerámicas mallorquinas (Palma de Mallorca, 1993).

27. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1, p. 306.

28. Pastor Quijada in Naves andalusíes en cerámicas mallorquinas, pp. 24–5.

29. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1, pp. 305–6.

30. D. Abulafia, ‘The Crown and the economy under Roger II and his successors’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, vol. 37 (1981), p. 12; repr. in Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean.

31. Anna Komnene, Alexiad, 3:12.

32. Ibid., 4:1–5:1.

33. R.-J. Lilie, Handel und Politik zwischen dem byzantinischen Reich und den italienischen Kommunen Venedig, Pisa und Genua in der Epoche der Komnenen und der Angeloi (1081–1204), (Amsterdam, 1984), pp. 9–16; Abulafia, Two Italies, pp. 54–5; Abulafia, ‘Italiani fuori d’Italia’, pp. 268–9.

34. J. Holo, Byzantine Jewry in the Mediterranean Economy (Cambridge, 2009), pp. 183–6.

35. Abulafia, ‘Italiani fuori d’Italia’, p. 270.

36. D. Howard, Venice and the East: the Impact of the Islamic World on Venetian Architecture 1100–1500 (New Haven, CT, 2000), pp. 65–109.

4. ‘The Profit That God Shall Give’, 1100–1200

  1. For earlier plans, see H. E. J. Cowdrey, ‘Pope Gregory VII’s crusading plans’, in Outremer: Studies in the History of the Crusading Kingdom of Jerusalem Presented to Joshua Prawer, ed. R. C. Smail, H. E. Mayer and B. Z. Kedar (Jerusalem, 1982), pp. 27–40, repr. in H. E. J. Cowdrey, Popes, Monks and Crusaders (London, 1984), essay x.

  2. J. Prawer, Histoire du royaume latin de Jérusalem, 2 vols. (Paris, 1969), vol. 1, pp. 177–238.

  3. S. A. Epstein, Genoa and the Genoese, 958–1528 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1996), pp. 28–9.

  4. Ibid., p. 29.

  5. L. Woolley, A Forgotten Kingdom (Harmondsworth, 1953), pp. 190–91, plate 23.

  6. M.-L. Favreau-Lilie, Die Italiener im Heiligen Land vom ersten Kreuzzug bis zum Tode Heinrichs von Champagne (1098–1197), (Amsterdam, 1989), pp. 43–8.

  7. Epstein, Genoa, p. 30.

  8. Prawer, Histoire, vol. 1, pp. 254, 257.

  9. Favreau-Lilie, Italiener im Heiligen Land, pp. 94–5.

10. R. Barber, The Holy Grail: Imagination and Belief (London, 2004), p. 168.

11. Favreau-Lilie, Italiener im Heiligen Land, pp. 88–9, 106.

12. Epstein, Genoa, p. 32.

13. D. Abulafia, ‘Trade and crusade 1050–1250’, in Cultural Convergences in the Crusader Period, ed. M. Goodich, S. Menache and S. Schein (New York, 1995), pp. 10–11; repr. in D. Abulafia, Mediterranean Encounters: Economic, Religious, Political, 1100–1550 (Aldershot, 2000); J. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War: Studies in the Maritime History of the Mediterranean 649–1571 (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 122, 124.

14. Favreau-Lilie, Italiener im Heiligen Land, pp. 51–61; Prawer, Histoire, vol. 1, p. 258.

15. Abulafia, ‘Trade and crusade’, pp. 10–11.

16. Prawer, Histoire, vol. 1, pp. 258–9.

17. R. C. Smail, The Crusaders in Syria and the Holy Land (Ancient Peoples and Places, London, 1973), p. 17; R. C. Smail, Crusading Warfare (1097–1193), (Cambridge, 1956), pp. 94–6.

18. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War, p. 115.

19. J. Prawer, Crusader Institutions (Oxford, 1980), pp. 221–6; J. Richard, Le royaume latin de Jérusalem (Paris, 1953), p. 218.

20. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War, pp. 115–16.

21. R.-J. Lilie, Handel und Politik zwischen dem byzantinischen Reich und den italienischen Kommunen Venedig, Pisa und Genua in der Epoche der Komnenen und der Angeloi (1081–1204), (Amsterdam, 1984), pp. 17–22.

22. J. Holo, Byzantine Jewry in the Mediterranean Economy (Cambridge, 2009), pp. 183–6.

23. Abulafia, ‘Italiani fuori d’Italia’, pp. 207–10.

24. A. Citarella, Il commercio di Amalfi nell’alto medioevo (Salerno, 1977).

25. D. Abulafia, The Two Italies: Economic Relations between the Norman Kingdom of Sicily and the Northern Communes (Cambridge, 1977), pp. 59–61.

26. G. Imperato, Amalfi e il suo commercio (Salerno, 1980), pp. 179–235.

27. D. Abulafia, ‘Southern Italy, Sicily and Sardinia in the medieval Mediterranean economy’, in D. Abulafia, Commerce and Conquest in the Mediterranean, 1100–1500 (Aldershot, 1993), essay i, pp. 10–14.

28. M. del Treppo and A. Leone, Amalfi medioevale (Naples, 1977).

29. J. Caskey, Art and Patronage in the Medieval Mediterranean: Merchant Culture in the Region of Amalfi (Cambridge, 2004).

30. S. D. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society: the Jewish Communities of the Arab World as Portrayed in the Documents of the Cairo Geniza, vol. 1, Economic Foundations (Berkeley, CA, 1967), pp. 18–19.

31. D. Corcos, ‘The nature of the Almohad rulers’ treatment of the Jews’, Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies, vol. 2 (2010), pp. 259–85.

32. Benjamin of Tudela, The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela, ed. M. N. Adler (London, 1907), p. 5; Abulafia, Two Italies, p. 238.

33. D. Abulafia, ‘Asia, Africa and the trade of medieval Europe’, Cambridge Economic History of Europe, vol. 2, Trade and Industry in the Middle Ages, ed. M. M. Postan, E. Miller and C. Postan (2nd edn, Cambridge, 1987) pp. 437–43; cf. the misconceptions in Holo, Byzantine Jewry, p. 203.

34. H. Rabie, The Financial System of Egypt, AH 564–741/AD 1169–1341 (London and Oxford, 1972), pp. 91–2.

35. Abulafia, ‘Asia, Africa and the trade of medieval Europe’, p. 436.

36. C. Cahen, Makhzūmiyyāt: études sur l’histoire économique et financière de l’Égypte médiévale (Leiden, 1977).

37. C. Cahen, Orient et occident au temps des croisades (Paris, 1983), pp. 132–3, 176.

38. K.-H. Allmendinger, Die Beziehungen zwischen der Kommune Pisa und Ägypten im hohen Mittelalter: eine rechts- und wirtschaftshistorische Untersuchung (Wiesbaden, 1967), pp. 45–54; Cahen, Orient et occident, p. 125.

39. Cahen, Orient et occident, p. 131.

40. L. de Mas Latrie, Traités de paix et de commerce et documents divers concernant les relations des Chrétiens avec les arabes de l’Afrique septentrionale au Moyen Âge (Paris, 1966).

41. D. Abulafia, ‘Christian merchants in the Almohad cities’, Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies, vol. 2 (2010), pp. 251–7; Corcos, ‘The nature of the Almohad rulers’ treatment of the Jews’, pp. 259–85.

42. O. R. Constable, Housing the Stranger in the Mediterranean World: Lodging, Trade, and Travel in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages (Cambridge, 2003), p. 278.

43. Abulafia, Two Italies, pp. 50–51.

44. D. O. Hughes, ‘Urban growth and family structure in medieval Genoa’, Past and Present, no. 66 (1975), pp. 3–28.

45. R. Heynen, Zur Entstehung des Kapitalismus in Venedig (Stuttgart, 1905); J. and F. Gies, Merchants and Moneymen: the Commercial Revolution, 1000–1500 (London, 1972), pp. 51–8.

46. D. Jacoby, ‘Byzantine trade with Egypt from the mid-tenth century to the Fourth Crusade’, Thesaurismata, vol. 30 (2000), pp. 25–77, repr. in D. Jacoby, Commercial Exchange across the Mediterranean: Byzantium, the Crusader Levant, Egypt and Italy (Aldershot, 2005), essay i.

47. D. Abulafia, ‘Ancona, Byzantium and the Adriatic, 1155–1173’, Papers of the British School at Rome, vol. 52 (1984), p. 208, repr. in D. Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, 1100–1400 (London, 1987), essay ix.

48. Gies, Merchants and Moneymen, pp. 57–8.

49. Abulafia, Two Italies, pp. 237–54, showing he was not a Jew; cf. E. H. Byrne, ‘Easterners in Genoa’, Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 38 (1918), pp. 176–87; and V. Slessarev, ‘Die sogennanten Orientalen im mittelalterlichen Genua. Einwänderer aus Südfrankreich in der ligurischen Metropole’, Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, vol. 51 (1964), pp. 22–65.

50. Abulafia, Two Italies, pp. 102–3, 240.

51. Ibid., p. 244.

52. Ibn Jubayr, The Travels of ibn Jubayr, trans. R. Broadhurst (London, 1952), pp. 358–9; Abulafia, Two Italies, pp. 247–51 – in the Genoese documents he appears as ‘Caitus Bulcassem’.

5. Ways across the Sea, 1160–1185

  1. Benjamin of Tudela, The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela, ed. M. N. Adler (London, 1907); also The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela, ed. M. Signer (Malibu, CA, 1983); references here are to the original Adler edition.

  2. J. Prawer, The History of the Jews in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (Oxford, 1988), especially pp. 191–206.

  3. Benjamin of Tudela, Itinerary, p.

  4. Ibid., p. 2.

  5. Ibid., p. 3; cf. H. E. Mayer, Marseilles Levantehandel und ein akkonensisches Fälscheratelier des XIII. Jahrhunderts (Tübingen, 1972), pp. 62–5.

  6. Cf. M. Soifer, ‘ “You say that the Messiah has come …”: the Ceuta Disputation (1179) and its place in the Christian anti-Jewish polemics of the high Middle Ages’, Journal of Medieval History, vol. 31 (2005), pp. 287–307.

  7. Benjamin of Tudela, Itinerary, p. 3.

  8. Ibid., p. 9.

  9. Ibid., pp. 14–15.

10. Ibid., pp. 17–18.

11. Ibid., p. 76, n. 1: twenty-eight groups in one MS, forty in another.

12. Ibid., pp. 75–6.

13. Ibn Jubayr, The Travels of ibn Jubayr, trans. R. Broadhurst (London, 1952).

14. Broadhurst, ibid., p. 15.

15. Ibn Jubayr, Travels, p. 26.

16. Ibid., p. 27.

17. Ibid., p. 28.

18. Roger of Howden, cited in J. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War: Studies in the Maritime History of the Mediterranean 649–1571 (Cambridge, 1988), p. 37.

19. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War, pp. 16–19, and p. 17, figs. 3a–b.

20. Ibn Jubayr, Travels, p. 29.

21. Ibid., pp. 346–7; also J. Riley-Smith, ‘Government in Latin Syria and the commercial privileges of foreign merchants’, in Relations between East and West in the Middle Ages, ed. D. Baker (Edinburgh, 1973), p. 112.

22. Ibn Jubayr, Travels, pp. 31–2.

23. Ibid., pp. 32–5.

24. Ibid., p. 316.

25. R. C. Smail, The Crusaders in Syria and the Holy Land (Ancient Peoples and Places, London, 1973), p. 75.

26. Ibn Jubayr, Travels, pp. 317–18.

27. Ibid., pp. 318, 320.

28. Usamah ibn Munqidh, Memoirs of an Arab-Syrian Gentleman or an Arab Knight in the Crusades, ed. and trans. P. Hitti (2nd edn, Beirut, 1964), p. 161.

29. Ibn Jubayr, Travels, pp. 320–22.

30. Ibid., pp. 325–8.

31. Koran, 27:44.

32. Ibn Jubayr, Travels, p. 328.

33. Ibid., p. 329.

34. Ibid., pp. 330–31.

35. Ibid., p. 332.

36. Ibid., p. 333.

37. Ibid., p. 334; Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War, p. 36.

38. Ibn Jubayr, Travels, pp. 336–8.

39. Ibid., p. 339.

40. Ibid., pp. 353, 356.

41. Ibid., pp. 360–65.

42. H. Krueger, Navi e proprietà navale a Genova: seconda metà del secolo XII (= Atti della Società ligure di storia patria, vol. 25, fasc. 1, Genoa, 1985).

43. Ibid., pp. 148–9, 160–61.

44. J. Pryor and E. Jeffreys, The Age of the : the Byzantine Navy ca 500–1204 (Leiden, 2006), pp. 423–44.

45. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War, p. 64; Krueger, Navi, p. 26.

46. Krueger, Navi, pp. 24–7.

47. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War, pp. 29–32; R. Unger, The Ship in the Medieval Economy, 600–1600 (London, 1980), pp. 123–7.

48. D. Abulafia, ‘Marseilles, Acre and the Mediterranean, 1200–1291’, in Coinage in the Latin East: the Fourth Oxford Symposium on Coinage and Monetary History, ed. P. Edbury and D. M. Metcalf (British Archaeological Reports, Oxford, 1980), pp. 20–21, repr. in D. Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, 1100–1400 (London, 1987), essay x.

49. Unger, Ship in the Medieval Economy, p. 126.

6. The Fall and Rise of Empires, 1130–1260

  1. Ibn Jubayr, The Travels of ibn Jubayr, trans. R. Broadhurst (London, 1952), p. 338; D. Abulafia, The Two Italies: Economic Relations between the Norman Kingdom of Sicily and the Northern Communes (Cambridge, 1977), pp. 116–19.

  2. D. Abulafia, ‘The Crown and the economy under Roger II and his successors’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, vol. 37 (1981), p. 12; repr. in D. Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, 1100–1400 (London, 1987), essay i.

  3. H. Wieruszowski, ‘Roger of Sicily, Rex-Tyrannus, in twelfth-century political thought’, Speculum, vol. 38 (1963), pp. 46–78, repr. in H. Wieruszowski, Politics and Culture in Medieval Spain and Italy (Rome, 1971).

  4. Niketas Choniates, cited in Abulafia, Two Italies, p. 81.

  5. D. Nicol, Byzantium and Venice: a Study in Diplomatic and Cultural Relations (Cambridge, 1988), p. 87.

  6. D. Abulafia, ‘The Norman Kingdom of Africa and the Norman expeditions to Majorca and the Muslim Mediterranean’, Anglo-Norman Studies, vol. 7 (1985), pp. 26–41, repr. in D. Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, 1100–1400 (London, 1987), essay xii.

  7. Ibn al-Athir, in ibid., p. 34.

  8. Abulafia, ‘Norman Kingdom of Africa’, pp. 36–8.

  9. C. Dalli, Malta: the Medieval Millennium (Malta, 2006), pp. 66–79.

10. C. Stanton, ‘Norman naval power in the Mediterranean in the eleventh and twelfth centuries’ (Ph.D. thesis, Cambridge University, 2008).

11. L.-R. Ménager, Amiratus-’ : l’Émirat et les origines de l’Amirauté (Paris, 1960); L. Mott, Sea Power in the Medieval Mediterranean: the Catalan-Aragonese Fleet in the War of the Sicilian Vespers (Gainesville, FL, 2003), pp. 59–60.

12. Abulafia, ‘Norman Kingdom of Africa’, pp. 41–3.

13. Caffaro, in Abulafia, Two Italies, p. 97.

14. Cf. G. Day, Genoa’s Response to Byzantium, 1155–1204: Commercial Expansion and Factionalism in a Medieval City (Urbana, IL, 1988).

15. Abulafia, Two Italies, pp. 90–98.

16. M. Mazzaoui, The Italian Cotton Industry in the Later Middle Ages, 1100–1600 (Cambridge, 1981).

17. Abulafia, Two Italies, p. 218; Dalli, Malta, p. 84.

18. See Abulafia, Two Italies, pp. 255–6, 283–4; D. Abulafia, ‘Southern Italy, Sicily and Sardinia in the medieval Mediterranean economy’, in D. Abulafia, Commerce and Conquest in the Mediterranean, 1100–1500 (Aldershot, 1993), essay i, pp. 1–32; colonial economy: H. Bresc, Un monde méditerranéen: économie et société en Sicile, 1300–1450, 2 vols. (Rome and Palermo, 1986); another view in S. R. Epstein, An Island for Itself: Economic Development and Social Change in Late Medieval Sicily (Cambridge, 1992).

19. D. Abulafia, ‘Dalmatian Ragusa and the Norman Kingdom of Sicily’, Slavonic and East European Review, vol. 54 (1976), pp. 412–28, repr. in D. Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, 1100–1400 (London, 1987), essay x.

20. C. M. Brand, Byzantium Confronts the West 1180–1204 (Cambridge, MA, 1968), pp. 41–2, 195–6.

21. Ibid., p. 161.

22. Eustathios of Thessalonika, The Capture of Thessaloniki, ed. and trans. J. R. Melville-Jones (Canberra, 1988).

23. Brand, Byzantium Confronts the West, p. 175.

24. G. Schlumberger, Les campagnes du roi Amaury I^er de Jérusalem en Égypte au XII^e siècle (Paris, 1906).

25. E. Sivan, L’Islam et la Croisade: idéologie et propagande dans les réactions musulmanes aux Croisades (Paris, 1968).

26. D. Abulafia, ‘Marseilles, Acre and the Mediterranean 1200–1291’, in Coinage in the Latin East: the Fourth Oxford Symposium on Coinage and Monetary History, ed. P. Edbury and D. M. Metcalf (British Archaeological Reports, Oxford, 1980), p. 20, repr. in D. Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, 1100–1400 (London, 1987), essay xv.

27. J. Prawer, Crusader Institutions (Oxford, 1980), pp. 230–37, 241.

28. R. C. Smail, The Crusaders in Syria and the Holy Land (Ancient Peoples and Places, London, 1973), pp. 74–5 (with map); M. Benvenisti, The Crusaders in the Holy Land (Jerusalem, 1970), pp. 97–102; Prawer, Crusader Institutions, pp. 229–41; P. Pierotti, Pisa e Accon: l’insediamento pisano nella città crociata. Il porto. Il fondaco (Pisa, 1987).

29. J. Riley-Smith, ‘Government in Latin Syria and the commercial privileges of foreign merchants’, in Relations between East and West in the Middle Ages, ed. D. Baker (Edinburgh, 1973), pp. 109–32.

30. C. Cahen, Orient et occident au temps des croisades (Paris, 1983), p. 139.

31. D. Abulafia, ‘Crocuses and crusaders: San Gimignano, Pisa and the kingdom of Jerusalem’, in Outremer: Studies in the History of the Crusading Kingdom of Jerusalem Presented to Joshua Prawer, ed. R. C. Smail, H. E. Mayer and B. Z. Kedar (Jerusalem, 1982), pp. 227–43, repr. in Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, essay xiv.

32. D. Abulafia, ‘Maometto e Carlo Magno: le due aree monetarie dell’oro e dell’argento’, Economia Naturale, Economia Monetaria, ed. R. Romano and U. Tucci, Storia d’Italia, Annali, vol. 6 (Turin, 1983), pp. 223–70.

33. Abulafia, Two Italies, pp. 172–3, 190–92.

34. D. Abulafia, ‘Henry count of Malta and his Mediterranean activities: 1203–1230’, in Medieval Malta: Studies on Malta before the Knights, ed. A. Luttrell (London, 1975), p. 111, repr. in Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, essay iii.

35. Ibid., pp. 112–13.

36. Cited in ibid., pp. 113–14, nn. 43, 46.

37. Brand, Byzantium Confronts the West, p. 16.

38. Abulafia, ‘Henry count of Malta’, p. 106.

39. Brand, Byzantium Confronts the West, p. 209.

40. Ibid., pp. 210–11; Abulafia, ‘Henry count of Malta’, p. 108.

41. J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople (London, 2004); J. Godfrey, 1204: the Unholy Crusade (Oxford, 1980); D. Queller and T. Madden, The Fourth Crusade: the Conquest of Constantinople (2^nd edn, Philadelphia, PA, 1997).

42. D. Howard, Venice and the East: the Impact of the Islamic World on Venetian Architecture 1100–1500 (New Haven, CT, 2000), pp. 103, 108.

43. J. Longnon, L’Empire latin de Constantinople et la principauté de Morée (Paris, 1949); D. Nicol, The Despotate of Epiros (Oxford, 1957); M. Angold, A Byzantine Government in Exile: Government and Society under the Laskarids of Nicaea (1204–1261) (Oxford, 1975).

44. Abulafia, ‘Henry count of Malta’, pp. 115–19.

45. S. McKee, Uncommon Dominion: Venetian Crete and the Myth of Ethnic Purity (Philadelphia, PA, 2000).

46. Howard, Venice and the East, p. 93.

47. Brand, Byzantium Confronts the West, p. 213.

48. Leonardo Fibonacci: il tempo, le opere, l’eredità scientifica, ed. M. Morelli and M. Tangheroni (Pisa, 1994).

49. C. Thouzellier, Hérésie et hérétiques: vaudois, cathares, patarins, albigeois (Paris, 1969).

7. Merchants, Mercenaries and Missionaries, 1220–1300

  1. D. Herlihy, Pisa in the Early Renaissance (New Haven, CT, 1958), pp. 131–3.

  2. D. Abulafia, The Western Mediterranean Kingdoms 1200–1500: the Struggle for Dominion (London, 1997), pp. 35–7.

  3. Benjamin of Tudela, The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela, ed. M. N. Adler (London, 1907), p. 2.

  4. S. Bensch, Barcelona and its Rulers, 1096–1291 (Cambridge, 1995).

  5. J.-E. Ruiz-Domènec, Ricard Guillem: un sogno per Barcellona, with an appendix of documents edited by R. Conde y Delgado de Molina (Naples, 1999); but cf. Bensch, Barcelona, pp. 85–121, 154–5.

  6. S. Orvietani Busch, Medieval Mediterranean Ports: the Catalan and Tuscan Coasts, 1100–1235 (Leiden, 2001).

  7. Abulafia, Western Mediterranean Kingdoms, p. 52.

  8. Bernat Desclot, Llibre del rey En Pere, in Les quatre grans cròniques, ed. F. Soldevila (Barcelona, 1971), chap. 14; D. Abulafia, A Mediterranean Emporium: the Catalan Kingdom of Majorca (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 7–8.

  9. James I, Llibre dels Feyts, in Les quatre grans cròniques, ed. F. Soldevila (Barcelona, 1971), chap. 47, cited here with modifications from the translation of J. Forster, Chronicle of James I of Aragon, 2 vols. (London, 1883); Abulafia, Mediterranean Emporium, p. 7.

10. James I, Llibre dels Feyts, chaps. 54, 56.

11. Abulafia, Mediterranean Emporium, pp. 78–9, 65–8.

12. Ibid., pp. 56–64.

13. See A. Watson, Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World: the Diffusion of Crops and Farming Techniques, 700–1100 (Cambridge, 1983).

14. R. Burns and P. Chevedden, Negotiating Cultures: Bilingual Surrender Treaties on the Crusader-Muslim Frontier under James the Conqueror (Leiden, 1999).

15. L. Berner, ‘On the western shores: the Jews of Barcelona during the reign of Jaume I, “el Conqueridor”, 1213–1276’ (Ph.D. thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, 1986).

16. Abulafia, Mediterranean Emporium, pp. 78–9, 204–8; A. Hernando et al., Cartogràfia mallorquina (Barcelona, 1995).

17. R. Vose, Dominicans, Muslims and Jews in the Medieval Crown of Aragon (Cambridge, 2009).

18. R. Chazan, Barcelona and Beyond: the Disputation of 1263 and its Aftermath (Berkeley, CA, 1992).

19. Best edition: O. Limor, Die Disputationen zu Ceuta (1179) und Mallorca (1286): zwei antijüdische Schriften aus dem mittelalterlichen Genua (Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Munich, 1994), pp. 169–300.

20. H. Hames, Like Angels on Jacob’s Ladder: Abraham Abulafia, the Franciscans, and Joachimism (Albany, NY, 2007).

21. Ibid., pp. 33–4.

22. H. Hames, The Art of Conversion: Christianity and Kabbalah in the Thirteenth Century (Leiden, 2000); D. Urvoy, Penser l’Islam: les présupposés islamiques de l’“art” de Lull (Paris, 1980).

23. D. Abulafia, ‘The apostolic imperative: religious conversion in Llull’s Blaquerna’, in Religion, Text and Society in Medieval Spain and Northern Europe: Essays in Honour of J. N. Hillgarth, ed. L. Shopkow et al. (Toronto, 2002), pp. 105–21.

24. Ramon Llull, ‘Book of the Gentile and the three wise men’, in A. Bonner, Doctor Illuminatus: a Ramon Llull Reader (Princeton, NJ, 1993), p. 168.

25. ‘Vita coetanea’, in Bonner, Doctor Illuminatus, pp. 24–5, 28–30.

26. Bonner, Doctor Illuminatus, p. 43.

27. C.-E. Dufourcq, L’Espagne catalane et le Maghrib au XIIIe et XIVe siècles (Paris, 1966), pp. 514–20.

28. D. Abulafia, ‘Catalan merchants and the western Mediterranean, 1236–1300: studies in the notarial acts of Barcelona and Sicily’, Viator: Medieval and Renaissance Studies, vol. 16 (1985), pp. 232–5, repr. in D. Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, 1100–1400 (London, 1987), essay viii.

29. Ibid., pp. 235, 237.

30. Ibid., pp. 220–21.

31. A. Hibbert, ‘Catalan consulates in the thirteenth century’, Cambridge Historical Journal, vol. 9 (1949), pp. 352–8; Dufourcq, L’Espagne catalane et le Maghrib, pp. 133–56.

32. J. Hillgarth, The Problem of a Catalan Mediterranean Empire 1229–1327 (English Historical Review, supplement no. 8, London, 1975), p. 41; A. Atiya, Egypt and Aragon (Leipzig, 1938), pp. 57–60.

33. Hillgarth, Problem, p. 41; J. Trenchs Odena, ‘De alexandrinis (el comercio prohibido con los musulmanes y el papado de Aviñón durante la primera mitad del siglo XIV)’, Anuario de estudios medievales, vol. 10 (1980), pp. 237–320.

34. Abulafia, ‘Catalan merchants’, p. 222.

35. Ibid., pp. 230–31.

36. J. Brodman, Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain: the Order of Merced on the Christian-Islamic Frontier (Philadelphia, PA, 1986); J. Rodriguez, Captives and Their Saviors in the Medieval Crown of Aragon (Washington, DC, 2007).

37. Abulafia, Mediterranean Emporium, pp. 130–39.

38. Ibid., pp. 188–215; A. Ortega Villoslada, El reino de Mallorca y el mundo atlántico: evolución político-mercantil (1230–1349) (Madrid, 2008); also Dufourcq, L’Espagne catalane et le Maghrib, pp. 208–37.

39. Abulafia, ‘Catalan merchants’, pp. 237–8.

40. N. Housley, The Later Crusades: from Lyons to Alcázar 1274–1580 (Oxford, 1992), pp. 7–17.

41. D. Abulafia, Frederick II: a Medieval Emperor (London, 1988), pp. 164–201.

42. Ibid., pp. 346–7.

43. G. Lesage, Marseille angevine (Paris, 1950).

44. Abulafia, Mediterranean Emporium, pp. 240–45.

45. P. Xhufi, Dilemat e Arbërit: studime mbi Shqipërinë mesjetare (Tirana, 2006), pp. 89–172.

46. J. Pryor, ‘The galleys of Charles I of Anjou, king of Sicily, ca. 1269–1284’, Studies in Medieval and Renaissance History, vol. 14 (1993), pp. 35–103.

47. L. Mott, Sea Power in the Medieval Mediterranean: the Catalan-Aragonese Fleet in the War of the Sicilian Vespers (Gainesville, FL, 2003), p. 15.

48. Abulafia, Western Mediterranean Kingdoms, pp. 66–76; S. Runciman, The Sicilian Vespers: a History of the Mediterranean World in the Thirteenth Century (Cambridge, 1958).

49. H. Bresc, ‘1282: classes sociales et révolution nationale’, XI Congresso di storia della Corona d’Aragona (Palermo, 1983–4), vol. 2, pp. 241–58, repr. in H. Bresc, Politique et société en Sicile, XIIe-XVe siècles (Aldershot, 1990).

50. D. Abulafia, ‘Southern Italy and the Florentine economy, 1265–1370’, Economic History Review, ser. 2, 33 (1981), pp. 377–88, repr. in Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, essay vi.

51. Abulafia, Western Mediterranean Kingdoms, pp. 107–71.

52. J. Pryor, ‘The naval battles of Roger de Lauria’, Journal of Medieval History, vol. 9 (1983), pp. 179–216.

53. Mott, Sea Power, pp. 29–30.

54. Ibid., pp. 31–2.

55. From the chronicle of Bernat Desclot: see ibid., pp. 39–40.

56. Mott, Sea Power, pp. 33–4.

57. Abulafia, Mediterranean Emporium, pp. 10–12.

8. Serrata – Closing, 1291–1350

  1. S. Schein, Fideles Cruces: the Papacy, the West and the Recovery of the Holy Land, 1274–1314 (Oxford, 1991).

  2. A. Laiou, Constantinople and the Latins: the Foreign Policy of Andronicus II 1282–1328 (Cambridge, MA, 1972), pp. 68–76, 147–57.

  3. F. C. Lane, Venice: a Maritime Republic (Baltimore, MD, 1973), p. 84.

  4. D. Abulafia, ‘Sul commercio del grano siciliano nel tardo Duecento’, XI^o Congresso della Corona d’Aragona, 4 vols. (Palermo, 1983–4), vol. 2, pp. 5–22, repr. in D. Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, 1100–1400 (London, 1987), essay vii.

  5. D. Abulafia, ‘Southern Italy and the Florentine economy, 1265–1370’, Economic History Review, ser. 2, 33 (1981), pp. 377–88, repr. in Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, essay vi.

  6. G. Jehel, Aigues-mortes, un port pour un roi: les Capétiens et la Méditerranée (Roanne, 1985); K. Reyerson, Business, Banking and Finance in Medieval Montpellier (Toronto, 1985).

  7. P. Edbury, The Kingdom of Cyprus and the Crusades 1191–1374 (Cambridge, 1991); very helpful studies in B. Arbel, Cyprus, the Franks and Venice, 13th–16th Centuries (Aldershot, 2000).

  8. D. Abulafia, ‘The Levant trade of the minor cities in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries: strengths and weaknesses’, in The Medieval Levant. Studies in Memory of Eliyahu Ashtor (1914–1984), ed. B. Z. Kedar and A. Udovitch, Asian and African Studies, vol. 22 (1988), pp. 183–202.

  9. P. Edbury, ‘The crusading policy of King Peter I of Cyprus, 1359–1369’, in P. Holt (ed.), The Eastern Mediterranean Lands in the Period of the Crusades (Warminster, 1977), pp. 90–105; Edbury, Kingdom of Cyprus, pp. 147–79.

10. R. Unger, The Ship in the Medieval Economy, 600–1600 (London, 1980), pp. 176–9; J. Robson, ‘The Catalan fleet and Moorish sea-power (1337–1344)’, English Historical Review, vol. 74 (1959), p. 391.

11. Lane, Venice, p. 46.

12. D. Abulafia, ‘Venice and the kingdom of Naples in the last years of Robert the Wise, 1332–1343’, Papers of the British School at Rome, vol. 48 (1980), pp. 196–9.

13. S. Chojnacki, ‘In search of the Venetian patriciate: families and faction in the fourteenth century’, in Renaissance Venice, ed. J. R. Hale (London, 1973), pp. 47–90.

14. Another project involved an exchange with Albania: D. Abulafia, ‘The Aragonese Kingdom of Albania: an Angevin project of 1311–16’, Mediterranean Historical Review, vol. 10 (1995), pp. 1–13

15. M. Tangheroni, Aspetti del commercio dei cereali nei paesi della Corona d’Aragona, 1: La Sardegna (Pisa and Cagliari, 1981); C. Manca, Aspetti dell’espansione economica catalano-aragonese nel Mediterraneo occidentale: il commercio internazionale del sale (Milan, 1966); M. Tangheroni, Città dell’argento: Iglesias dalle origini alla fine del Medioevo (Naples, 1985).

16. F. C. Casula, La Sardegna aragonese, 2 vols. (Sassari, 1990–91); B. Pitzorno, Vita di Eleanora d’Arborea, principessa medioevale di Sardegna (Milan, 2010).

17. D. Abulafia, A Mediterranean Emporium: the Catalan Kingdom of Majorca (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 15–17, 54.

18. Ibid., pp. 14, 248.

19. L. Mott, Sea Power in the Medieval Mediterranean: the Catalan-Aragonese Fleet in the War of the Sicilian Vespers (Gainesville, FL, 2003), p. 216, table 2, and p. 217; J. Pryor, ‘The galleys of Charles I of Anjou, king of Sicily, ca. 1269–1284’, Studies in Medieval and Renaissance History, vol. 14 (1993), p. 86.

20. Mott, Sea Power, pp. 211–24.

21. Tangheroni, Aspetti del commercio, pp. 72–8.

22. Robson, ‘Catalan fleet’, p. 386.

23. G. Hills, Rock of Contention: a History of Gibraltar (London, 1974), pp. 60–72; M. Harvey, Gibraltar: a History (2nd edn, Staplehurst, Kent, 2000), pp. 37–40.

24. Robson, ‘Catalan fleet’, pp. 389–91, 394, 398.

25. Harvey, Gibraltar, pp. 44–5.

26. J. Riley-Smith, The Knights of St John in Jerusalem and Cyprus, 1050–1310 (London, 1967), p. 225; Edbury, Kingdom of Cyprus, p. 123.

27. K. Setton, The Catalan Domination of Athens, 1311–1388 (2nd edn, London, 1975).

28. E. Zachariadou, Trade and Crusade: Venetian Crete and the Emirates of Menteshe and Aydın (1300–1415) (Venice, 1983), pp. 13–14.

29. Ibid., pp. 27–37.

30. N. Housley, The Later Crusades: from Lyons to Alcázar 1274–1580 (Oxford, 1992), pp. 59–60; Zachariadou, Trade and Crusade, pp. 49–51.

31. W. C. Jordan, The Great Famine: Northern Europe in the Early Fourteenth Century (Princeton, NJ, 1966); cf. D. Abulafia, ‘Un’economia in crisi? L’Europa alla vigilia della Peste Nera’, Archivio storico del Sannio, vol. 3 (1998), pp. 5–24.

32. O. Benedictow, The Black Death 1346–1353: the Complete History (Woodbridge, 2004), p. 281.

33. B. Kedar, Merchants in Crisis: Genoese and Venetian Men of Affairs and the Fourteenth-century Depression (New Haven, CT, 1976).

34. M. Dols, The Black Death in the Middle East (Princeton, NJ, 1977); Benedictow, Black Death, pp. 60–64, 69; for the view that it was not bubonic and pneumonic plague, see B. Gummer, The Scourging Angel: the Black Death in the British Isles (London, 2009).

35. S. Borsch, The Black Death in Egypt and England: a Comparative Study (Cairo, 2005), pp. 1–2.

36. Benedictow, Black Death, pp. 70–71, 93–4.

37. Ibid., pp. 77–82, 89–90, 278–81.

38. Ibid., pp. 82–3.

39. Ibid., pp. 65–6.

40. Ibid., pp. 380–84.

41. D. Abulafia, ‘Carestia, peste, economia’, Le epidemie nei secoli XIV–XVII (Nuova Scuola Medica Salernitana, Salerno, 2006).

42. S. R. Epstein, An Island for Itself: Economic Development and Social Change in Late Medieval Sicily (Cambridge, 1992).