NOTES

INTRODUCTION

1. Louis-Joseph Janvier, La république d’Haïti et ses visiteurs (1840–1882) (Paris: Mappon et Flammarion, 1883), i.

2. Ibid., 11–12, 22, 56, 67, 74.

3. David Brooks, “The Underlying Tragedy,” New York Times, January 14, 2010.

4. I tell the story of Haiti’s colonial history and its revolution in Laurent Dubois, Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2004). The slave trade to Haiti reflects the broader pattern of the Middle Passage, which brought 90 percent of enslaved Africans to either the Caribbean or Brazil. For the precise numbers of known arrivals from Africa to Saint-Domingue, see the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database at http://www.slavevoyages.org. Additional slaves were brought, often illegally, through transshipment from nearby colonies.

5. My interpretation of this process is based on the pioneering work of Jean Casimir, La culture opprimée (Delmas, Haïti: Lakay, 2001)—Casimir uses the term “counter-plantation” system to describe what emerged in Haiti after the revolution; I also draw on Gérard Barthélemy, L’univers rural haïtien: Le pays en dehors (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1990), which draws on and extends Casimir’s approach.

6. My analysis of the state in Haiti draws on the expert analyses presented in Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Haiti, State Against Nation: The Origins and Legacy of Duvalierism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1990); Robert Fatton Jr., The Roots of Haitian Despotism (Boulder Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2007); and Alex Dupuy, Haiti in the World Economy: Class, Race, and Underdevelopment Since 1700 (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1989). The materials collected in Charles Arthur and Michael Dash, eds., Libète: A Haiti Anthology (Princeton: Markus Weiner, 1999), form an excellent introduction and overview of key issues in Haitian history.

7. My interpretation of Haitian political history is guided by the magisterial two-volume work of Claude Moïse, Constitutions et luttes de pouvoir en Haïti, 1804–1987: La faillite des classes dirigeantes (1804–1915) (vol. 1) and Constitutions et luttes de pouvoir en Haïti, 1804–1987: De l’occupation étrangère à la dictature macoute (1915–1987) (vol. 2) (Montréal: Éditions du CIDIHCA, 1988). My analysis differs in its angle of interpretation and emphasis from two other important works of general history: the detailed and influential R. D. Heinl, N. G. Heinl, and M. Heinl, Written in Blood: The Story of the Haitian People, 1492–1995, 2nd ed. (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1996), and the most recent survey, first published in 2005 and reissued in 2010: Philippe R. Girard, Haiti: The Tumultuous History—from Pearl of the Caribbean to Broken Nation (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010).

8. François Blancpain, Un siècle de relations financières entre Haïti et la France (1825–1922) (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2001), 24 and chap. 3. Calculating equivalences between nineteenth-century French and Haitian currency and contemporary dollars is extremely difficult, as is figuring out precisely how much long-term Haitian debt can be directly attributed to the indemnity. In 2004, when Haitian president Jean-Bertrand Aristide demanded that France repay Haiti for the indemnity, he calculated that between the original levy, the debt burden it produced, and the interest on the money that was lost because of it, the former colonial power owed its former colony about $21 billion in today’s currency. More recently, a fake news story announcing that France was repaying the debt—circulated by an activist organization—put the amount owed at 17 billion euros.

9. Janvier, La république d’Haïti, 17.

10. Georges Anglade, Atlas critique d’Haïti (Montréal: Groupe d’études et de recherches critiques d’espace, UQAM, 1982), vividly illustrates the shifts caused by the U.S. occupation.

11. L. Trouillot, Street of Lost Footsteps, trans. Linda Coverdale (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003), 1.

12. Janvier, La république d’Haïti, 15–16.

1: INDEPENDENCE

1. A translation of the declaration is available in Laurent Dubois and John D. Garrigus, Slave Revolution in the Caribbean, 1789–1804: A Brief History with Documents (New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2006), 188–91. Throughout this chapter I draw on Laurent Dubois, Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2004). For a brief overview, see also the introduction to Dubois and Garrigus, Slave Revolution.

2. Dubois and Garrigus, Slave Revolution, 188–91.

3. David Patrick Geggus, Haitian Revolutionary Studies (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002), chap. 13.

4. On the colony’s population and the plantation system, see Dubois, Avengers, chap. 1.

5. On the history of free people of color in the colony, see John D. Garrigus, Before Haiti: Race and Citizenship in French Saint-Domingue (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), and Stewart R. King, Blue Coat or Powdered Wig: Free People of Color in Pre-revolutionary Saint Domingue (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2007).

6. Sidney Wilfred Mintz, Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History (New York: Viking, 1985).

7. Statistics on slave imports are drawn from the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database at http://www.slavevoyages.org. The most detailed exploration of the role of the African-born in shaping Haitian culture is Gérard Barthélemy, Créoles, bossales: Conflit en Haïti (Petit-Bourg, Guadeloupe: Ibis Rouge, 2000). The pioneering studies on the African dimensions of the Haitian Revolution, and particularly on the place of enslaved people from the Kongo in Saint-Domingue, are from John K. Thornton, “I Am the Subject of the King of Congo: African Political Ideology and the Haitian Revolution,” Journal of World History 4 (Fall 1993): 181–214, and John K. Thornton, “African Soldiers in the Haitian Revolution,” Journal of Caribbean History 25, nos. 1 and 2 (n.d.): 58–80. A remarkable reconstruction of the life of one African-born woman in Saint-Domingue is offered in Rebecca Scott and Jean Michel Hébrard, “Les papiers de la liberté: Une mère africaine et ses enfants à l’époque de la révolution haïtienne,” Genèses 66 (March 2007): 4–29.

8. The song was heard by the French anthropologist Odette Mennesson-Rigaud, who wrote out the words in papers now preserved in the Bibliothèque Haïtienne des Pères du Saint-Esprit in Port-au-Prince.

9. The song is recorded on Wawa and Racine Kanga, The Haitian Roots, vol. 1 (Geronimo Records). For analyses of the history of Vodou, see Karen McCarthy Brown, Mama Lola: A Vodou Priestess in Brooklyn (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); Joan Dayan, Haiti, History, and the Gods (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); and Leslie G. Desmangles, The Faces of the Gods: Vodou and Roman Catholicism in Haiti (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992). An excellent introduction is provided in Laënnec Hurbon, Voodoo: Search for the Spirit (New York: H. N. Abrams, 1995).

10. For a detailed and convincing analysis of the history of Haitian Kreyòl, see Michel Degraff, “Relexification: A Reevaluation,” Linguistic Anthropology 44, no. 4 (2002): 321–414, and Michel Degraff, “Against Creole Exceptionalism,” Language 79, no. 2 (2003): 391–410. On Kreyòl theater, see Bernard Camier and Laurent Dubois, “Voltaire et Zaïre, ou le théâtre des lumières dans l’aire atlantique française,” Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine 54, no. 4 (2007): 39–69; on poetry see Deborah Jenson, Beyond the Slave Narrative: Politics, Sex, and Manuscripts in the Haitian Revolution (Liverpool, U.K.: Liverpool University Press, 2011), chaps. 6 and 7.

11. Thornton, “African Soldiers in the Haitian Revolution.”

12. King, Blue Coat or Powdered Wig; Garrigus, Before Haiti; Doris Lorraine Garraway, The Libertine Colony: Creolization in the Early French Caribbean (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2005).

13. Louverture has had many biographers over the years. For some of the most important works, see Victor Schoelcher, Vie de Toussaint Louverture, 2nd ed. (Paris: P. Ollendorff, 1889); Aimé Césaire, Toussaint Louverture: La révolution française et le problème colonial (Paris: Club Français du Livre, 1960); and Madison Smartt Bell, Toussaint Louverture: A Biography, 1st ed. (New York: Pantheon Books, 2007).

14. For a vivid narrative of this process, see Jeremy D. Popkin, You Are All Free: The Haitian Revolution and the Abolition of Slavery (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010). On Sonthonax’s pivotal role, see Robert Louis Stein, Léger Félicité Sonthonax: The Lost Sentinel of the Republic (Rutherford, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1985).

15. Mats Lundahl, Politics or Markets? Essays on Haitian Underdevelopment (London: Routledge, 1992), chap. 8; Michel Hector, “Problèmes du passage à la société postesclavagiste et postcoloniale (1791–1793/1820–1826),” in Genèse de l’état haïtien (1804–1859), ed. Michel Hector and Laënnec Hurbon (Paris: Éditions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 2009), 93–117.

16. On the role of women in these assemblies, see Gérard Barthélemy, L’univers rural haïtien: Le pays en dehors (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1990), 93–94, and Carolyn E. Fick, The Making of Haiti: The Saint Domingue Revolution from Below, 1st ed. (University of Tennessee Press, 1990), 168–80; for firsthand accounts of the assemblies, see the documents in Dubois and Garrigus, Slave Revolution, 138–44.

17. The classic study of slave gardens is Sidney Wilfred Mintz, “The Origins of the Jamaican Market System,” in Caribbean Transformations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989), 180–215.

18. Jean Casimir, La culture opprimée (Delmas, Haïti: Lakay, 2001). See also the discussion of this broad process in Robert Fatton Jr., The Roots of Haitian Despotism (Boulder Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2007), 62–68.

19. Dubois, Avengers, 226–30.

20. On refugees from Saint-Domingue in the United States, see Ashli White, Encountering Revolution: Haiti and the Making of the Early Republic (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010).

21. The best study of the 1801 constitution is Claude Moïse, Le projet national de Toussaint Louverture: La constitution de 1801 (Port-au-Prince: Mémoire, 2001).

22. Lundahl, Politics or Markets?, chap. 8.

23. Paul Roussier, ed., Lettres du général Leclerc, commandant en chef de l’armée de Saint-Domingue en 1802 (Paris: Société de l’Histoire des Colonies Françaises et E. Leroux, 1937), 263–74, 306–7.

24. I recount the war of independence in Dubois, Avengers, chaps. 12 and 13; the most detailed history of the war is C. B. Auguste and M. B. Auguste, L’expédition Leclerc, 1801–1803 (Port-au-Prince: Henri Deschamps, 1985).

25. Deborah Jenson, “From the Kidnapping(s) of the Louvertures to the Alleged Kidnapping of Aristide: Legacies of Slavery in the Post/Colonial World,” Yale French Studies 107 (July 2005).

26. Antoine Métral, Histoire de l’expédition des français à Saint-Domingue: Sous le consulat de Napoléon Bonaparte, 1802–1803 (Paris: Éditions Karthala, 1985), 83; Dubois, Avengers, chap. 13.

27. Dubois, Avengers, 285–86; Roussier, Lettres, 199–206, 219.

28. Dubois, Avengers, 288–89.

29. Ibid., 291–92; Auguste and Auguste, L’expédition Leclerc, 1801–1803.

30. Dubois, Avengers, 289–92; Marcus Rainsford, An Historical Account of the Black Empire of Hayti (London: J. Cundee, 1805).

31. Dayan, Haiti, 40.

32. Thomas Madiou, Histoire d’Haïti, vol. 3 (Port-au-Prince: Henri Deschamps, 1985), 324.

33. Ibid., 3:139–91; Philippe R. Girard, “Caribbean Genocide: Racial War in Haiti, 1802–4,” Patterns of Prejudice 39, no. 2 (2005): 138–61. Firsthand accounts of the killings are presented in Jeremy D. Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution: Eyewitness Accounts of the Haitian Insurrection (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007).

34. Dubois, Avengers, 1, 300; Rayford Whittingham Logan, The Diplomatic Relations of the United States with Haiti, 1776–1891 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1941), 173.

35. Dubois and Garrigus, Slave Revolution, 191–96. For examples of a white French officer serving in Dessalines’s regime, see Madiou, Histoire d’Haïti, 3:367–68.

36. Jenson, Beyond the Slave Narrative, chaps. 2 and 3.

37. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, chaps. 4 and 5; Tim Matthewson, A Proslavery Foreign Policy: Haitian-American Relations During the Early Republic (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2003). A detailed analysis of Dessalines’s foreign policy and diplomatic negotiations is presented in the recent work of Julia Gaffield: “‘The good understanding which ought always to subsist between the two islands’: Haiti and Jamaica in the Atlantic World, 1803–1804,” presented at “Haiti’s History: Foundations for the Future” at Duke University, April 22–24, 2010; and “‘Liberté, Indépendance’: Haitian Antislavery and National Independence,” presented at “Anti-slavery in the 19th Century,” a symposium at the University College of Dublin, April 30–May 1, 2010.

38. On the French occupation of Santo Domingo, see Jenson, Beyond the Slave Narrative, chap. 3.

39. Dubois and Garrigus, Slave Revolution, 191; Claude Moïse, Constitutions et luttes de pouvoir en Haïti, 1804–1987: La faillite des classes dirigeantes (1804–1915), vol. 1 (Montréal: Éditions du CIDIHCA, 1988), 29–33.

40. Madiou, Histoire d’Haïti, 3:351; Gaétan Mentor, Histoire d’un crime politique: Le Général Etienne Victor Mentor (Port-au-Prince: Fondation Sogebank, 1999).

41. Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston: Beacon Press, 1995), chap. 3; Vergniaud Leconte, Henri Christophe dans l’histoire d’Haïti (Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1931), 144.

42. I am indebted to Jean Casimir, who pointed out this feature of the declaration to me and who sees it as an intentional marker of exclusion. For the text of the declaration, see Dubois and Garrigus, Slave Revolution, 188–91.

43. Moïse, Constitutions, 1:34; Lundahl, Politics or Markets?, chap. 9; Madiou, Histoire d’Haïti, 3:330.

44. Madiou, Histoire d’Haïti, 3:344–45, 349, 368–72, 404–5. On the economic history of the south, see Garrigus, Before Haiti.

45. Madiou, Histoire d’Haïti, 3:405; Dayan, Haiti, 39–45.

46. On Ogou and Dessalines, see Dayan, Haiti, esp. 30–31, and Brown, Mama Lola, chap. 4.

2: THE CITADEL

1. Earl Leslie Griggs and Clifford H. Prator, eds., Henry Christophe and Thomas Clarkson: A Correspondence (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1952), 88.

2. Ibid., 134–35.

3. H. Trouillot, Le gouvernement du Roi Henri Christophe (Port-au-Prince: Imprimerie Centrale, 1972), 11.

4. For detailed analyses, see Vergniaud Leconte, Henri Christophe dans l’histoire d’Haïti (Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1931), 367–70, and H. Trouillot, Gouvernement, 1–27. One of the best-known literary accounts of the construction of the Citadel is Alejo Carpentier, The Kingdom of This World, trans. Harriet De Onís (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2006).

5. The Voltaire quote appeared on the masthead of the Gazette Royal d’Hayti for several months in 1807; copies are in the British National Archives, Colonial Office, 137/120.

6. Claude Moïse, Constitutions et luttes de pouvoir en Haïti, 1804–1987: La faillite des classes dirigeantes (1804–1915), vol. 1 (Montréal: Éditions du CIDIHCA, 1988), 35.

7. Dantès Bellegarde, “President Alexandre Pétion,” Phylon 2, no. 3 (3rd qtr. 1941): 205–6; Laurent Dubois, Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2004), 65–67, 234, 254; Leconte, Christophe, 2; Hubert Cole, Christophe, King of Haiti (New York: Viking, 1967), 31; Thomas Madiou, Histoire d’Haïti, vol. 3 (Port-au-Prince: Henri Deschamps, 1985), 328–29; Claude Moïse, Constitutions et luttes de pouvoir en Haïti, 1804–1987: De l’occupation étrangère à la dictature macoute (1915–1987), vol. 2 (Montréal: Éditions du CIDIHCA, 1988), 29–33.

8. Cole, Christophe, 31–32; Leconte, Christophe, 1–3.

9. Moïse, Constitutions, 1:39–44.

10. Cole, Christophe, 162–90; Leconte, Christophe, 205–45.

11. Beaubrun Ardouin, Études sur l’histoire d’Haïti, vol. 7 (Paris: Chez l’Auteur, 1856), 14–15, 21, 24.

12. Ibid., 7:21; Georges Corvington, Port-au-Prince au cours des ans (Montréal: Éditions du CIDIHCA, 2007), 2:50–52.

13. Ardouin, Études, 7:12, 31–43.

14. Robert K. Lacerte, “The First Land Reform in Latin America: The Reforms of Alexandre Pétion, 1809–1814,” Inter-American Economic Affairs 28, no. 4 (Spring 1975): 77–85.

15. William F. Lewis, “Simón Bolívar and Xavier Mina: A Rendezvous in Haiti,” Journal of Inter-American Studies 11, no. 3 (July 1969): 458–60. The most detailed study of the relationship with Bolívar is Paul Verna, Pétion y Bolívar: Cuarenta años (1790–1830) de relaciones haitianovenezolanas y su aporte a la emancipación de Hispanoamérica (Caracas, 1969), quote p. 524.

16. Moïse, Constitutions, 1:45, 53.

17. Ibid., 1:53–58. For a comparative analysis of Haiti’s early constitutions, see Julia Gaffield, “Complexities of Imagining Haiti: A Study of National Constitutions, 1801–1807,” Journal of Social History 41, no. 1 (Fall 2007): 81–103.

18. Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston: Beacon Press, 1995), chap. 3; Leconte, Christophe, 144.

19. Cole, Christophe, 190–93; Clive Cheesman and Marie-Lucie Vendrynes, eds., The Armorial of Haiti: Symbols of Nobility in the Reign of Henry Christophe (London: College of Arms, 2007), 18.

20. H. Trouillot, Gouvernement, 61–63; Leconte, Christophe, 397.

21. Cheesman and Vendrynes, The Armorial of Haiti, 72, 90, 168.

22. H. Trouillot, Gouvernement, 72–77. On the theater in Le Cap, see Moreau de Saint-Méry’s note from October 19, 1816, in Centre des Archives d’Outre-Mer, F3 141 bis fol. 316.

23. Chris Bongie, Friends and Enemies: The Scribal Politics of Post/Colonial Literature (Liverpool, U.K.: Liverpool University Press, 2008), 115–16.

24. Cheesman and Vendrynes, Armorial of Haiti, 6.

25. Aimé Césaire, The Tragedy of King Christophe: A Play (New York: Grove, 1970). The 1997 performance, which I attended, was at the Théâtre de la Colline in the 20th arrondissement of Paris.

26. Michel Hector, “Une autre voie de construction de l’état-nation: L’expérience christophienne (1806–1820),” in Genèse de l’état haïtien (1804–1859), ed. Michel Hector and Laënnec Hurbon (Paris: Éditions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 2009), 248.

27. Henry Christophe, “Loi concernant la Culture,” in Code Henry, vol. 7 (Au Cap-Henry: Chez P. Roux, Imprimeur du Roi, 1812), 10, 14, http://www.archive.org/details/codehenry00hait.

28. Ibid., 5.

29. Ibid., 5–6.

30. Ibid., 2.

31. Ibid., 11; Leconte, Christophe, 322.

32. Prince Sanders, Haytian Papers: A Collection of the Very Interesting Proclamations and Other Official Documents, Together with Some Account of the Rise, Progress, and Present State of the Kingdom of Hayti (Boston: Caleb Bingham, 1818); Griggs and Prator, Christophe and Clarkson, 45.

33. Alyssa Goldstein Sepinwall, The Abbé Grégoire and the French Revolution: The Making of Modern Universalism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 182.

34. Ibid.

35. Deborah Jenson, Beyond the Slave Narrative: Politics, Sex, and Manuscripts in the Haitian Revolution (Liverpool, U.K.: Liverpool University Press, 2011), 195–98.

36. Ibid., 199–206.

37. Griggs and Prator, Christophe and Clarkson, 70–71. H. Trouillot, Gouvernement, 49, 108.

38. Job B. Clement, “History of Education in Haiti: 1804–1915,” Revista de Historia de América, no. 88 (December 1979): 35; Madiou, Histoire d’Haïti, 3:328–29; Hector, “Une autre voie,” 255.

39. Rayford W. Logan, “Education in Haiti,” Journal of Negro History 15, no. 4 (October 1930): 412–16; Hector, “Une autre voie,” 255; Leslie François Manigat, “Le Roi Henry Christophe et l’éducation nationale 1807–1820,” in Éventail d’histoire vivante d’Haïti, vol. 1, Collection du CHUDAC (Port-au-Prince: CHUDAC, 2001), 293–309; Cole, Christophe, 256–57; H. Trouillot, Gouvernement, 87–91.

40. Hector, “Une autre voie,” 255; Logan, “Education in Haiti,” 416; Manigat, “Roi Henry Christophe,” 293–309; Cole, Christophe, 256–57; H. Trouillot, Gouvernement, 87–91.

41. Griggs and Prator, Christophe and Clarkson, 187.

42. William Woodis Harvey, Sketches of Hayti: From the Expulsion of the French, to the Death of Christophe (London: L. B. Seeley and Son, 1827), 249–51.

43. Griggs and Prator, Christophe and Clarkson, 162; Sanders, Haytian Papers; Arthur O. White, “Prince Saunders: An Instance of Social Mobility Among Antebellum New England Blacks,” Journal of Negro History 60, no. 4 (October 1975): 526–35. On the history of African American emigration to Haiti, see Chris Dixon, African America and Haiti: Emigration and Black Nationalism in the Nineteenth Century (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2000).

44. Griggs and Prator, Christophe and Clarkson, 162.

45. Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Haiti, State Against Nation: The Origins and Legacy of Duvalierism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1990), 57–58; François Blancpain, Un siècle de relations financières entre Haïti et la France (1825–1922) (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2001), 43–44.

46. Jean-François Brière, Haïti et la France, 1804–1848: Le rêve brisé (Paris: Kharthala, 2008), 19, 23.

47. Ibid., 22.

48. Ibid., 27.

49. Griggs and Prator, Christophe and Clarkson, 200.

50. Blancpain, Un siècle, 43–44.

51. Ibid., 45.

52. Ibid., 45–46.

53. Ibid., 46.

54. Ibid., 47.

55. Ibid., 49; Brière, Haïti et la France, illustration facing 156.

56. Griggs and Prator, Christophe and Clarkson, 155, 173.

57. Ibid., 174–75.

58. Ibid., 175–76.

59. Ibid., 196, 202.

60. Ibid., 202.

61. Leconte, Christophe, 370; George E. Simpson and J. B. Cinéas, “Folk Tales of Haitian Heroes,” Journal of American Folklore 54, no. 213/214 (December 1941): 176–85.

62. Cole, Christophe, 260–74; Griggs and Prator, Christophe and Clarkson, 213–19; H. Trouillot, Gouvernement, 168–70.

63. Griggs and Prator, Christophe and Clarkson, 238; Cole, Christophe, 274.

64. Cole, Christophe, 274–75; Clement, “History of Education in Haiti,” 38–39.

65. For a detailed examination of the question of color in Haitian politics, see the classic work by David Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour, and National Independence in Haiti, rev. ed. (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996), xliii, 1. Nicholls admits that some Haitian friends consider him a bit too obsessed with color; one teased him that he always wore “bi-color” glasses when looking at Haitian history. But he insists, as others have, that the question of color has been a major cause of political conflict in Haiti.

66. Madiou, Histoire d’Haïti, 3:330.

67. Lacerte, “First Land Reform,” 82–83; Ardouin, Études, 7:32, 43; Corvington, Port-au-Prince, 49, 59; Mimi Sheller, Democracy After Slavery: Black Publics and Peasant Radicalism in Haiti and Jamaica (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2000), 93.

3: STALEMATE

1. Hérard Dumesle, Voyage dans le nord d’Hayti; ou, révélation des lieux et des monuments historiques (Aux Cayes: Imprimerie du Gouvernement, 1824), 2. For biographical details, see Daniel Supplice, Dictionnaire biographique des personnalités politiques de la république d’Haïti, 1804–2001, 1st ed. (Haïti: D. Supplice, 2001), 235.

2. Dumesle, Voyage, 7–8, 333. On Buffon, see Joan Dayan, Haiti, History, and the Gods (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 228, 237–40.

3. For the Dalmas account, which was written in 1793 but not published until 1814, see Laurent Dubois and John D. Garrigus, Slave Revolution in the Caribbean, 1789–1804: A Brief History with Documents (New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2006), 89–90. On the different accounts of this ceremony, see Léon-François Hoffman, “Un mythe national: La cérémonie du Bois-Caïman,” in La république haïtienne: État des lieux et perspectives, ed. Gérard Barthélemy and Christian Girault (Paris: Kharthala, 1993), 434–48; the essays in Laënnec Hurbon, ed., L’insurrection des esclaves de Saint-Domingue (22–23 août 1791) (Paris: Kharthala, 2000); and the detailed analysis of the sources provided by David Patrick Geggus, Haitian Revolutionary Studies (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002), chap. 6. For narratives that place the ceremony within the broader context of the 1791 insurrection, see Laurent Dubois, Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2004), 94–102, and Carolyn E. Fick, The Making of Haiti: The Saint Domingue Revolution from Below, 1st ed. (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1990), chap. 4.

4. Dumesle, Voyage, 88; Dubois and Garrigus, Slave Revolution, 87–88. Dumesle published two versions of the speech, one in French and one in Kreyòl, which raises complex issues regarding the precise translation of one line. The phrase “Bondié blancs mandé crime, et part nous vlé bienfets” is usually translated as “The God of the whites pushes them to crime, but ours wants good deeds,” suggesting that there are two gods, one white and one black, asking for different things. In the French, however, Boukman is quoted as saying “Leur culte leur engage au crime, et le nôtre aux bienfaits,” which can be translated as “Their religion pushes them to crime, and ours to good deeds.” Rather than suggesting that there are two gods, the French version emphasizes a difference of interpretation of God’s will between two religions—the one practiced by the whites versus that practiced by the blacks. The question of translation is thus also one of theology: in one case there are two gods with different messages, in the other, one god whose message is understood differently by different groups of humans. Since Catholicism and Vodou share a belief in the existence of one God—known as bondyé in Kreyòl—it seems likely to me that Boukman’s speech was meant in the latter sense, contrasting whites using religion to justify slavery and the insurgents drawing on religion to overthrow it. But the exact meaning of this line remains open to debate and interpretation.

5. For a description of one contemporary Vodou priest’s vision of the Bois Caïman ceremony, see Laurent Dubois, A Colony of Citizens: Revolution and Slave Emancipation in the French Caribbean, 1787–1804 (Chapel Hill: Published for the Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, Williamsburg, Virginia, by the University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 432–34.

6. Rayford W. Logan, Haiti and the Dominican Republic (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), 32–33; Job B. Clement, “History of Education in Haiti: 1804–1915,” Revista de Historia de América, no. 88 (December 1979): 39.

7. Chris Dixon, African America and Haiti: Emigration and Black Nationalism in the Nineteenth Century (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2000), 39–46.

8. Ibid., 47; Claude Moïse, Constitutions et luttes de pouvoir en Haïti, 1804–1987: La faillite des classes dirigeantes (1804–1915), vol. 1 (Montréal: Éditions du CIDIHCA, 1988), 59.

9. Victor Schoelcher, Colonies étrangères et Haïti: Résultats de l’émancipation anglaise, vol. 2 (Paris: Pagnerre, 1843), 180–81.

10. Ibid., 2:197–207; Benoît Joachim, Les racines du sous développement en Haïti (Port-au-Prince: Henri Deschamps, 1979), 104; Clement, “History of Education in Haiti,” 38–39.

11. Joseph-Anténor Firmin, M. Roosevelt, président des États-Unis et la république d’Haïti (Paris: F. Pichon et Durand-Auzias, 1905), 339–40.

12. Jean-François Brière, Haïti et la France, 1804–1848: Le rêve brisé (Paris: Kharthala, 2008).

13. Ibid., 111–12, 121–22.

14. Ibid., 108–9.

15. Ibid., 109, 328–29.

16. Ibid., 111–12.

17. Ibid., 113–14.

18. Ibid., 118.

19. François Blancpain, Un siècle de relations financières entre Haïti et la France (1825–1922) (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2001), 66; Brière, Haïti et la France, 156.

20. Brière, Haïti et la France, 117.

21. Blancpain, Un siècle, 66–67.

22. Brière, Haïti et la France, 133.

23. Schoelcher, Colonies, 2:279–80; Gusti-Klara Gaillard, L’expérience haïtienne de la dette extérieure; ou, une production caféière pillée: 1875–1915 (Port-au-Prince: Henri Deschamps, 1990).

24. On the idea of the “counter-plantation” system, see Jean Casimir, La culture opprimée (Delmas, Haïti: Lakay, 2001); on métayage see Alex Dupuy, Haiti in the World Economy: Class, Race, and Underdevelopment Since 1700 (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1989), esp. 91.

25. Mimi Sheller, Democracy After Slavery: Black Publics and Peasant Radicalism in Haiti and Jamaica (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2000), 96–97; Blancpain, Un siècle, 63–64; Dupuy, Haiti in the World Economy, 95–96.

26. Dupuy, Haiti in the World Economy, 96.

27. Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Haiti, State Against Nation: The Origins and Legacy of Duvalierism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1990), 74–75.

28. Rémy Bastien, Le paysan haïtien et sa famille: Vallée de Marbial (Paris: Kharthala, 1985), 150–54.

29. Ibid., 21–22.

30. Gérard Barthélemy, L’univers rural haïtien: Le pays en dehors (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1990), 28.

31. Bastien, Paysan haïtien, 56.

32. Barthélemy, L’univers, 38; Leslie François Manigat, La révolution de 1843: Essai d’analyse historique d’une conjoncture de crise, Les cahiers du CHUDAC vol. 1, no. 5 and 6 (Port-au-Prince, 1997), 22; Trouillot, Haiti, 75.

33. The most detailed study of the complex patterns of land ownership in Haiti is Drexel G. Woodson, “Tout Mounn Se Mounn, Men Tout Mounn Pa Menm: Microlevel Sociocultural Aspects of Land Tenure in a Northern Haitian Locality” (Ph.D. dissertation: Johns Hopkins University, 1990).

34. Barthélemy, L’univers, 31; Bastien, Paysan haïtien, 59.

35. Bastien, Paysan haïtien, 62–66; Barthélemy, L’univers, 33.

36. Barthélemy, L’univers, 31. An excellent exploration of the relationships to ancestors in Haitian Vodou is provided in Karen McCarthy Brown, Mama Lola: A Vodou Priestess in Brooklyn (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991).

37. Anglade’s atlas remains the classic work of historical geography on Haiti: Georges Anglade, Atlas critique d’Haïti (Montréal: Groupe d’Études et de Recherches Critiques d’Espace, UQAM, 1982), notes p. 37. For an excellent study of merchant women in Jamaica see Gina A. Ulysse, Downtown Ladies: Informal Commercial Importers, a Haitian Anthropologist, and Self-Making in Jamaica (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007).

38. On different groups of immigrants, see Eugène Aubin, En Haïti: Planteurs d’autrefois, nègres d’aujourd’hui (Paris: A. Colin, 1910), xxii.

39. Schoelcher, Colonies, 2:171.

40. Ibid., 2:261, 266.

41. Ibid., 2:243–244.

42. Louis-Joseph Janvier, La république d’Haïti et ses visiteurs (1840–1882) (Paris: Mappon et Flammarion, 1883), 23; Schoelcher, Colonies, 2:215.

43. Trouillot, Haiti, 59; Alex Dupuy describes this process in detail and dubs it a “stalemate” in Haiti in the World Economy: Class, Race, and Underdevelopment Since 1700 (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1989), chap. 4.

44. Trouillot, Haiti, 60.

45. Ibid., 36–38. For an overview of the agricultural and environmental history of coffee in Haiti, see Roger Michel, L’espace caféier en Haïti (Genève: IUED, 2005), chap. 1. On the history of coffee during colonial times, see Stewart R. King, Blue Coat or Powdered Wig: Free People of Color in Pre-revolutionary Saint Domingue (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2007).

46. Trouillot, Haiti, 71.

47. Ibid., 61; Blancpain, Un siècle, 17.

48. For an excellent analysis of this process that argues that it created a durable “political habitus” in Haiti, see Robert Fatton Jr., The Roots of Haitian Despotism (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2007), 7.

49. Sheller, Democracy, 113–14; David Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour, and National Independence in Haiti, rev. ed. (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996), 42–43; Schoelcher, Colonies, 2:182–83.

50. Moïse, Constitutions, 1:71.

51. Ibid; Sheller, Democracy, 115–17; Manigat, La révolution de 1843, 12; Schoelcher, Colonies, 2:184–89. The 1838 address is printed in full in F. E. Dubois, Précis historique de la révolution haïtienne de 1843 (Paris: Bourdier, 1866), 11–17. Dubois, one of the members of the opposition, provides a rich firsthand account of the political activism of the period.

52. Schoelcher, Colonies, 2:180.

53. Sheller, Democracy, 118–19; Manigat, La révolution de 1843, 12–14.

54. Schoelcher, Colonies, 2:268–70; Sheller, Democracy, 119–20.

55. Manigat, La révolution de 1843, 25; Logan, Haiti and the Dominican Republic, 33.

56. Moïse, Constitutions, 1:79–81.

57. Sheller, Democracy, 122–25; Moïse, Constitutions, 1:83–85.

58. Sheller, Democracy, 126–27; Manigat, La révolution de 1843, 28.

59. Moïse, Constitutions, 1:91.

60. Ibid., 1:93–94.

61. Ibid., 1:88–90; Sheller, Democracy, 133.

62. Moïse, Constitutions, 1:102–3.

63. Manigat, La révolution de 1843, 29.

64. Maxime Reybaud, L’empereur Soulouque et son empire (Paris: Michel Lévy Frères, 1860), 111–13; Sheller, Democracy, 135–36.

65. Sheller, Democracy, 137; Moïse, Constitutions, 1:169–70; Nicholls, Haiti in Caribbean Context, 167, 174–76.

66. Sheller, Democracy, 132–39; Nicholls, Haiti in Caribbean Context, 171–72; Moïse, Constitutions, 1:170; Manigat, La révolution de 1843, 39.

67. Reybaud, Soulouque; Sheller, Democracy, 136–39; Nicholls, Haiti in Caribbean Context, 176.

68. Sheller, Democracy, 136–37; Moïse, Constitutions, 1:105–6.

69. Moïse, Constitutions, 1:109–10; Sheller, Democracy, 138; Clive Cheesman and Marie-Lucie Vendrynes, eds., The Armorial of Haiti: Symbols of Nobility in the Reign of Henry Christophe (London: College of Arms, 2007), 50.

70. Moïse, Constitutions, 1:119–20.

71. Sheller, Democracy, 138; Moïse, Constitutions, 1:111–12.

72. Leslie François Manigat, “La dichotomie Villes-Campagnes en Haïti à l’époque de la société traditionelle épanouie (1838–1896),” in Éventail d’histoire vivante d’Haïti, vol. 2, Collection du CHUDAC (Port-au-Prince: CHUDAC, 2002), 78.

73. Sheller, Democracy, 135–36; Manigat, La révolution de 1843, 44; Blancpain, Un siècle, 189.

4: THE SACRIFICE

1. John E. Baur, “The Presidency of Nicolas Geffrard of Haiti,” The Americas 10, no. 4 (April 1954): 438–39; Matthew J. Clavin, Toussaint Louverture and the American Civil War: The Promise and Peril of a Second Haitian Revolution (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010), 53–54.

2. Clavin, Toussaint Louverture, 51–53, 204n85.

3. Ibid., 48, 54.

4. Alain Turnier, Les États-Unis et le marché haïtien (Montréal: Saint-Joseph, 1955), 23–26.

5. Laurent Dubois, Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2004), 268; Rayford Whittingham Logan, The Diplomatic Relations of the United States with Haiti, 1776–1891 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1941), 173–74; David Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour, and National Independence in Haiti, rev. ed. (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996), 37.

6. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 173.

7. Turnier, Marché, 121–136.

8. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 187, 197–98, 214–15.

9. Ibid., 195–96, 200.

10. Ibid., 207–9.

11. Ibid., 214.

12. Ibid., 223–27.

13. Clavin, Toussaint Louverture, 73. Louverture was celebrated by contemporaries such as William Wordsworth in a poem originally published in the Morning Post, reprinted in the online version of William Wordsworth, The Complete Poetical Works (London: Macmillan, 1888), http://www.bartleby.com/br/145.html, as well as in the widely read account of Marcus Rainsford, An Historical Account of the Black Empire of Hayti (London: J. Cundee, 1805). In the 1850s his memoirs were published in France by Joseph Saint-Remy, ed., Mémoires du général Toussaint-Louverture, écrits par lui-même, pouvant servir à l’histoire de sa vie (Paris: Pagnerre, 1853), and translated into English in John Relly Beard, Toussaint L’Ouverture: A Biography and Autobiography (Boston: J. Redpath, 1863).

14. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 233–34.

15. Laënnec Hurbon, Religions et lien social: L’église et l’état moderne en Haïti (Paris: Cerf, 2004), 136–41; Philippe Delisle, Le catholicisme en Haïti au XIXe siècle (Paris: Kharthala, 2003), 15, 20. The most detailed study of the negotiations with the papacy is Adolphe Cabon, Notes sur l’histoire religieuse d’Haïti de la révolution au concordat (1789–1860) (Port-au-Prince: Petit Séminaire Collège Saint-Martial, 1933).

16. Hurbon, Religions, 145–50; Delisle, Catholicisme, 15–16, 33; Micial M. Nérestant, Religions et politique en Haïti (1804–1990) (Paris: Karthala, 1994), 69–75.

17. Delisle, Catholicisme, 15–16; Thomas F. O’Connor and Joseph Bp, “Joseph Rosati, C. M., Apostolic Delegate to Haiti, 1842, Two Letters to Bishop John Hughes,” The Americas 1, no. 4 (April 1945): 492–93.

18. Delisle, Catholicisme, 20; Hurbon, Religions, 139–41.

19. Hurbon, Religions, 159; Murdo J. Macleod, “The Soulouque Regime in Haiti, 1847–1859: A Reevaluation,” Caribbean Studies 10, no. 3 (October 1970): 35–48, quotes p. 47. For negative depictions of Soulouque, see Maxime Reybaud, L’empereur Soulouque et son empire (Paris: Michel Lévy frères, 1860), and Cham [pseud.], Soulouque et sa cour: Caricatures (Paris: Au Bureau du Journal Le Charivari, 1850).

20. Macleod, “Soulouque,” 35–36; Hurbon, Religions, 141.

21. Macleod, “Soulouque,” 36, 44; Joan Dayan, Haiti, History, and the Gods (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 10.

22. Dayan, Haiti, 12; Spenser St. John, Hayti; or, The Black Republic (New York: Scribner & Welford, 1889), 187.

23. Millery Polyné, From Douglass to Duvalier: U.S. African Americans, Haiti and Pan Americanism, 1870–1964 (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2010), 29. On Panama, see Aims McGuinness, Path of Empire: Panama and the California Gold Rush (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2008), and David G. McCullough, The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870–1914 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1977).

24. Robert E. May, The Southern Dream of a Caribbean Empire, 1854–1861, 2nd ed. (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2002), 5–6.

25. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 249–50.

26. Ibid., 249–55.

27. Macleod, “Soulouque,” 46; Rayford W. Logan, Haiti and the Dominican Republic (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), 33–42.

28. Leslie François Manigat, “L’Essentiel sur la question de la navase,” in Éventail d’histoire vivante d’Haïti, vol. 2, Collection du CHUDAC (Port-au-Prince: CHUDAC, 2002), 224–41. See also Ted Widmer, “Little America,” New York Times, June 30, 2007.

29. Ibid. See also Widmer, “Little America.”

30. Manigat, “Navase.”

31. Ibid., 236–41.

32. Clavin, Toussaint Louverture, 2.

33. Ibid., 3, 58–59.

34. Ibid., chap. 3.

35. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 293–302.

36. Ibid., 297–98.

37. Ibid., 303–5.

38. J. C. Dorsainvil, Manuel d’histoire d’Haïti (Port-au-Prince: Henri Deschamps, 1924), 228–38; David M. Dean, Defender of the Race: James Theodore Holly, Black Nationalist and Bishop (Newton Center, Mass.: Lambeth Press, 1979), 33–38; Chris Dixon, African America and Haiti: Emigration and Black Nationalism in the Nineteenth Century (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2000), chap. 4 and p. 186.

39. Dean, Defender, 18, 36–38, 41; Dixon, African America and Haiti, 187–90; Howard Holman Bell, ed., Black Separatism and the Caribbean, 1860 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1970).

40. Dean, Defender, 44, 67, 96; Dixon, African America and Haiti, 190.

41. Dean, Defender, chaps. 5 and 6, esp. pp. 66–71.

42. Delisle, Catholicisme, 20–22; Nérestant, Religions et politique en Haïti (1804–1990), 105–21.

43. Delisle, Catholicisme, 39–43.

44. Ibid., 33, 44–48. For a detailed study of the plaçage system, see Serge-Henri Vieux, Le plaçage, droit coutumier et famille en Haïti (Paris: Publisud, 1989).

45. Delisle, Catholicisme, 49–70; Rayford W. Logan, “Education in Haiti,” Journal of Negro History 15, no. 4 (October 1930): 436–37; Job B. Clement, “History of Education in Haiti: 1804–1915,” Revista de Historia de América, no. 88 (December 1979): 51–52.

46. Delisle, Catholicisme, 61–67.

47. Philippe Delisle, Catholicisme, 22.

48. Laënnec Hurbon, Le barbare imaginaire (Paris: Cerf, 1988), 112–14; Kate Ramsey, “Prohibition, Persecution, Performance: Anthropology and the Penalization of Vodou in Mid-20th-Century,” Gradhiva 1 (2005): 165n2.

49. Delisle, Catholicisme, 83–84; Hurbon, Religions, 145, 153.

50. On the issue of witchcraft within Vodou, see Hurbon, Barbare. The best study of secret societies in contemporary Haiti is Rachel Beauvoir-Dominique, Savalou E (Havana: Casa de las Americas, 2003); see also Pierre Pluchon, Vaudou, sorciers, empoisonneurs: De Saint-Domingue à Haïti (Paris: Karthala, 1987).

51. St. John, Hayti, 216.

52. Ibid., 215–18.

53. Hurbon, Barbare, 116–17; St. John, Hayti, 218.

54. St. John, Hayti, 208.

55. Ibid., 192–208.

56. Ibid., 222; Delisle, Catholicisme, 88–90.

57. Samuel Hazard, Santo Domingo, Past and Present: With a Glance at Hayti (New York: Harper & Bros., 1873), 419.

5: LOOKING NORTH

1. Joseph-Anténor Firmin, M. Roosevelt, président des États-Unis et la république d’Haïti (Paris: F. Pichon et Durand-Auzias, 1905), 463.

2. Joseph-Anténor Firmin, Lettres de Saint-Thomas: Études sociologiques, historiques et littéraires (Port-au-Prince: Imprimerie Centrale, 1976), 91–92; Firmin, Roosevelt, 468–69.

3. Firmin, Roosevelt, 478, 480.

4. Ibid., 131; Watson Denis, “Les 100 ans de Monsieur Roosevelt et Haïti,” Revue de la société haïtienne d’histoire et de géographie 81è année, no. 226 (September 2006): 17–18.

5. Firmin, Roosevelt, 477, 480.

6. Jean Price-Mars, Anténor Firmin (Port-au-Prince: Séminaire Adventiste, 1964), 14–17; J. C. Dorsainvil, Manuel d’histoire d’Haïti (Port-au-Prince: Henri Deschamps, 1924), 239–42; Rayford Whittingham Logan, The Diplomatic Relations of the United States with Haiti, 1776–1891 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1941), 319.

7. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 320–21; Alain Turnier, Les États-Unis et le marché haïtien (Montréal: Saint-Joseph, 1955), 198–201.

8. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 320–21; Ludwell Lee Montague, Haiti and the United States, 1714–1938 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1940), 100–101.

9. Claude Moïse, Constitutions et luttes de pouvoir en Haïti, 1804–1987: La faillite des classes dirigeantes (1804–1915), vol. 1 (Montréal: Éditions du CIDIHCA, 1988), chap. 7; Dorsainvil, Histoire d’Haïti, 243–51; Price-Mars, Anténor Firmin, 14–23; Turnier, Marché, 202.

10. Moïse, Constitutions, 1:272.

11. Eugène Aubin, En Haïti: Planteurs d’autrefois, nègres d’aujourd’hui (Paris: A. Colin, 1910), 14–15.

12. Alain Turnier, Avec Mérisier Jeannis: Une tranche de vie jacmélienne et nationale (Port-au-Prince: Le Natal, 1982), 23–24. Turnier’s book provides a detailed biography of one general who rose from relative poverty as a peasant to become a significant regional power holder.

13. For the clearest analysis of the regional system of Haiti in the nineteenth century, see Georges Anglade, Atlas Critique d’Haïti (Montréal: Groupe d’Études et de Recherches Critiques d’Espace, UQAM, 1982).

14. Moïse, Constitutions, 1:176, 261, 264–65.

15. Kethly Millet, Les paysans haïtiens et l’occupation américaine d’Haïti, 1915–1930 (La Salle, Québec: Collectif Paroles, 1978), 10.

16. Moïse, Constitutions, 1:258–60, 268; for a detailed analysis of the long-term construction of an “authoritarian political habitus” in Haiti, see Robert Fatton Jr., The Roots of Haitian Despotism (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2007).

17. Moïse, Constitutions, 1:258.

18. Turnier, Avec Mérisier Jeannis, provides the most detailed local account of the military and political conflicts of this era.

19. Rémy Bastien, Le paysan haïtien et sa famille: Vallée de Marbial (Paris: Kharthala, 1985), 166.

20. Brenda Gayle Plummer, Haiti and the United States: The Psychological Moment (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992), 78–79; see also Fatton, Roots, 138–39.

21. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 356–57; David Nicholls, Haiti in Caribbean Context: Ethnicity, Economy, and Revolt (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1985), 109; François Blancpain, Un siècle de relations financières entre Haïti et la France (1825–1922) (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2001), 81; Fatton, Roots, 138–39.

22. Moïse, Constitutions, 1:214.

23. Blancpain, Un siècle, 81–88.

24. Ibid., 23; François Blancpain, Haïti et les Etats-Unis, 1915–1934: Histoire d’une occupation (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1999), 35. For a detailed examination of state corruption during this period, see Leslie J. R. Péan, Haïti: Économie politique de la corruption, vol. 2: L’état marron (1870–1915) (Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 2005).

25. Blancpain, Un siècle, 89–103.

26. Millery Polyné, From Douglass to Duvalier: U.S. African Americans, Haiti and Pan Americanism, 1870–1964 (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2010), 35; Montague, Haiti, 94.

27. Polyné, Douglass to Duvalier, 25–26, 38.

28. Rayford W. Logan, Haiti and the Dominican Republic (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), 39–46; Polyné, Douglass to Duvalier, 34.

29. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 345–46.

30. Logan, Haiti and the Dominican Republic, 45; Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 352; Polyné, Douglass to Duvalier, 35. For the newspaper report, see New York Herald, February 2, 1869.

31. Montague, Haiti, 107–10; Polyné, Douglass to Duvalier, 36–40.

32. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 349–50.

33. Ibid., 351.

34. Denis, “100 Ans,” 22–24.

35. Leslie F. Manigat, “La substitution de la prépondérance américaine à la prépondérance française en Haïti au début du XXe siècle: La conjoncture de 1910–1911,” Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine 14, no. 4 (December 1967): 323.

36. Denis, “100 Ans,” 10–11; David Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour, and National Independence in Haiti, rev. ed. (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996), 102–7.

37. Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier, 113–17.

38. Denis, “100 Ans,” 10–11.

39. Firmin, Lettres de Saint-Thomas, 111–15; Joseph-Anténor Firmin, The Equality of the Human Races (New York: Garland, 2000), xvi. The arguments in Louis-Joseph Janvier, La république d’Haïti et ses visiteurs (1840–1882) (Paris: Mappon et Flammarion, 1883), were also shaped by his encounter with contemporary French anthropology.

40. Firmin, Equality, 325–28.

41. Ibid., 198.

42. On the broader history of Firmin’s work and impact, see Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban’s introduction to Firmin, Equality.

43. Dorsainvil, Histoire d’Haïti, 267–70; Moïse, Constitutions, 1:226.

44. Georges J. Benjamin, La Diplomatie d’Anténor Firmin: Ses péripéties, ses aspects (Nancy, France: Grandville, 1957), 43–45; Denis, “100 Ans,” 31–32.

45. Polyné, Douglass to Duvalier, 30, 46–47; Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 398–400.

46. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 416–17, 425–26.

47. Ibid., 420; Dorsainvil, Histoire d’Haïti, 269–71.

48. Denis, “100 Ans,” 32; Montague, Haiti, 146–47; Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 408.

49. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 411–14; Montague, Haiti, 147.

50. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 426; Polyné, Douglass to Duvalier, 6.

51. On the role of descendants of migrants from Saint-Domingue in politics in Louisiana, see Rebecca J. Scott, Degrees of Freedom: Louisiana and Cuba After Slavery (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2005).

52. Mimi Sheller, Democracy After Slavery: Black Publics and Peasant Radicalism in Haiti and Jamaica (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2000), 69.

53. Moïse, Constitutions, 1:246.

54. Ibid., 1:247.

55. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 429–30.

56. Ibid., 432–33; Montague, Haiti, 147.

57. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 438.

58. Frederick Douglass, “Haïti and the United States. Inside History of the Negotiations for the Môle St. Nicolas. II,” North American Review 153, no. 419 (October 1891): 456–57; Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 406–7, 433–34.

59. Frederick Douglass, “Haïti and the United States. Inside History of the Negotiations for the Môle St. Nicolas. I,” North American Review 153, no. 418 (September 1891): 339–40; Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 447–48.

60. Montague, Haiti, 148–49; Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 436, 442, 447–48; Douglass, “Haïti and the United States. Inside History of the Negotiations for the Môle St. Nicolas. I,” 343–44.

61. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 441–44.

62. Ibid., 448–49.

63. The full correspondence is published in Firmin, Roosevelt, 497–501. See also Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 448–50, and Benjamin, Diplomatie, 91–96.

64. Firmin, Roosevelt, 498–500.

65. Denis, “100 Ans,” 14; Marc Péan, L’échec du Firminisme (Port-au-Prince: Henri Deschamps, 1987), 52–53.

66. Firmin, Roosevelt, 497–501; Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 437–38, 451.

67. Denis, “100 Ans,” 14; Firmin, Lettres de Saint-Thomas, 117–18.

68. Denis, “100 Ans,” 14.

69. Dorsainvil, Histoire d’Haïti, 274–75; Montague, Haiti, 178–79.

70. Dorsainvil, Histoire d’Haïti, 275–78; Péan, Firminisme, 66.

71. Péan, Firminisme, 69–71, 81.

72. Ibid., 100–105.

73. Price-Mars, Anténor Firmin, 20–23.

74. Péan, Firminisme, 110–19.

75. Ibid., 122–30.

76. Ibid., 133–34.

77. Ibid., 157–59.

78. Denis, “100 Ans,” 38, 39; Marc Péan, La ville éclatée (Décembre 1902–Juillet 1915), vol. 3 (Port-au-Prince: Imprimeur II, 1993), 93–95.

79. Denis, “100 Ans.”; Firmin, Roosevelt, 477; Patrick Bellegarde-Smith, In the Shadow of Powers: Dantès Bellegarde in Haitian Social Thought (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press International, 1985), xiv.

80. Firmin, Roosevelt, 472–73.

81. Claude Moïse, Constitutions et luttes de pouvoir en Haïti, 1804–1987: De l’occupation étrangère à la dictature macoute (1915–1987), vol. 2 (Montréal: Éditions du CIDIHCA, 1988), 12.

6: OCCUPATION

1. François Blancpain, Haïti et les États-Unis: 1915–1934: Histoire d’une occupation (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1999), 33–34.

2. Ibid., 33–35; François Blancpain, Un siècle de relations financières entre Haïti et la France (1825–1922) (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2001), 75–76.

3. Hans Schmidt, The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1995), 33, 61. The most detailed study of the shift in financial power is Leslie François Manigat, “La substitution de la prépondérance américaine à la prépondérance française en Haïti au début du XXe siècle: La conjoncture de 1910–1911,” Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine 14, no. 4 (December 1967): 321–55.

4. Blancpain, Un siècle, 32; Alain Turnier, Les États-Unis et le marché haïtien (Washington, 1955), 209; Manigat, “La substitution,” 322–23.

5. Blancpain, Haïti et les États-Unis, 32.

6. Ibid., 36–37.

7. Ibid., 37–38.

8. Kethly Millet, Les paysans haïtiens et l’occupation américaine d’Haïti, 1915–1930 (La Salle, Québec: Collectif Paroles, 1978).

9. For an excellent textual and visual overview of this economy, see Georges Anglade, Atlas critique d’Haïti (Montréal: Groupe d’Études et de Recherches Critiques d’Espace, UQAM, 1982).

10. Millet, Les paysans, 44, 52.

11. Roger Gaillard, Charlemagne Péralte le caco (Port-au-Prince: R. Gaillard, 1982), 119–23.

12. J. C. Dorsainvil, Manuel d’histoire d’Haïti (Port-au-Prince: Henri Deschamps, 1924), 287–89; Mary A. Renda, Taking Haiti: Military Occupation and the Culture of U.S. Imperialism, 1915–1940 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 91.

13. Gaillard, Charlemagne, 124–25; Schmidt, Occupation, 64–65, 71; Renda, Taking Haiti, 80–81; Claude Moïse, Constitutions et luttes de pouvoir en Haïti, 1804–1987: De l’occupation étrangère à la dictature macoute (1915–1987), vol. 2 (Montréal: Éditions du CIDIHCA, 1988), 26–27. For a detailed study of Bobo’s biography and movement, see Roger Gaillard, Les cent-jours de Rosalvo Bobo; ou, une mise à mort politique, 2nd ed. (Port-au-Prince: R. Gaillard, 1987).

14. Roger Gaillard, Premier écrasement du cacoïsme (Port-au-Prince: R. Gaillard, 1981), 12.

15. Ibid., 11.

16. Renda, Taking Haiti, 96; Schmidt, Occupation, 57.

17. Schmidt, Occupation, 48.

18. Ibid., 55.

19. Renda, Taking Haiti, 99–100.

20. Schmidt, Occupation, 66; Dantès Bellegarde, L’occupation américaine d’Haïti, ses conséquences morales et économiques (Port-au-Prince: Chéraquit, 1929), 5.

21. Rayford Logan, Haiti and the Dominican Republic (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), 125–27.

22. Gage Averill, A Day for the Hunter, a Day for the Prey: Popular Music and Power in Haiti (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), 36.

23. Renda, Taking Haiti, 84–85.

24. Gaillard, Écrasement, 13, 21; Schmidt, Occupation, 67.

25. Gaillard, Écrasement, 14–15; Schmidt, Occupation, 67.

26. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:28; Gaillard, Écrasement, 53.

27. Roger Gaillard, La destinée de Carl Brouard: Essai accompagné de documents photographiques (Port-au-Prince: Henri Deschamps, 1966), 6; Renda, Taking Haiti, 85.

28. Gaillard, Écrasement, 20.

29. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:28–30; Schmidt, Occupation, 71–72.

30. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:28–30; Schmidt, Occupation, 71–72.

31. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:30–31; Gaillard, Écrasement, 111–12. On Dartiguenave’s background and presidency, see Barthelemieux Danache, Le président Dartiguenave et les américains (Port-au-Prince: Imprimerie de l’État, 1950).

32. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:32.

33. Gaillard, Écrasement, 53–55; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:28.

34. Gaillard, Écrasement, 57–58.

35. Ibid., 59–60.

36. Ibid., 100–103.

37. Ibid., 113.

38. Ibid., 98–99.

39. Danache, Le président Dartiguenave, 47; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:36–39; Blancpain, Haïti et les États-Unis, 64–65; Gaillard, Écrasement, 141–42.

40. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:39–40; Claude Moïse, Constitutions et luttes de pouvoir en Haïti, 1804–1987: La faillite des classes dirigeantes (1804–1915), vol. 1 (Montréal: Éditions du CIDIHCA, 1988), 301.

41. The song is reprinted in full, and translated into French, in Gaillard, Écrasement, 148–51, 227–29. See also Averill, Hunter, 48–49, and Moïse, Constitutions, 2:40–41.

42. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:40–41; Select Committee on Haiti and Santo Domingo Congress, Inquiry into Occupation and Administration of Haiti and Santo Domingo (Washington, D.C.: United States Congress, 1921), 395.

43. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:42–43.

44. Gaillard, Écrasement, 144.

45. Ibid., 38–39.

46. Ibid., 38–40.

47. Ibid., 105, 109.

48. Ibid., 117, 152.

49. Renda, Taking Haiti, 78–80.

50. Hans Schmidt, Maverick Marine: General Smedley D. Butler and the Contradictions of American Military History (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1987), 84, 87; Renda, Taking Haiti, 155–56; Schmidt, Occupation, 144–45.

51. Renda, Taking Haiti, 141, 155, 156; H. P. Davis, Black Democracy: The Story of Haiti (New York: L. MacVeagh, Dial Press, 1929), 224.

52. Renda, Taking Haiti, 140–43; Gaillard, Écrasement, 162.

53. Gaillard, Écrasement, 167; Renda, Taking Haiti, 117, 142.

54. Schmidt, Maverick Marine, 75, 78; Schmidt, Occupation, 146; Renda, Taking Haiti, 13.

55. Gaillard, Charlemagne, 108.

56. Gaillard, Écrasement, 184–89; Schmidt, Maverick Marine, 81.

57. Gaillard, Écrasement, 184–88; Renda, Taking Haiti, 146; Lowell Jackson Thomas, Old Gimlet Eye: The Adventures of Smedley D. Butler as Told to Lowell Thomas (New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1933); Schmidt, Maverick Marine, 90.

58. Gaillard, Écrasement, 188.

59. Congress, Inquiry, 398; Renda, Taking Haiti, 135; Gaillard, Charlemagne, 200.

60. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:46. The most detailed institutional history of the Gendarmerie (later renamed the Garde d’Haïti) is James H. McCrocklin, Garde d’Haiti, 1915–1934: Twenty Years of Organization and Training by the United States Marine Corps (Annapolis: United States Naval Institute, 1956). On Butler, see Schmidt, Maverick Marine, 83–84.

61. B. Davis, Marine! The Life of Lt. Gen. Lewis B. (Chesty) Puller, USMA (ret.) (Boston: Little, Brown, 1962), 27.

62. François Blancpain, Louis Borno, président d’Haïti (Port-au-Prince: Éditions Regain, 1998), 172.

63. Renda, Taking Haiti, 147–48; Schmidt, Occupation, 148.

64. Gaillard, Charlemagne, 44; Renda, Taking Haiti, 150.

65. Renda, Taking Haiti, 166–67.

66. Ibid., 80, 171.

67. Gaillard, Charlemagne, 34–36.

68. Ibid., 33–38.

69. Congress, Inquiry, 553; Roger Gaillard, Hinche mise en croix (Port-au-Prince: Le Natal, 1982), 29.

70. Renda, Taking Haiti, 154; Schmidt, Occupation, 146.

71. This transformation is emphasized in Anglade, Atlas critique d’Haïti.

72. Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Haiti, State Against Nation: The Origins and Legacy of Duvalierism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1990), 106.

73. Gaillard, Hinche, 26–27; Schmidt, Occupation, 110–11.

74. Congress, Inquiry, 606; Gaillard, Hinche, 31.

75. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:63; Renda, Taking Haiti, 148–50; Gaillard, Hinche, 176, chap. 4; Congress, Inquiry, 658.

76. Gaillard, Hinche, 213–14; Renda, Taking Haiti, 148–50.

77. Gaillard, Hinche, 215–16.

78. Ibid., 32, 220, 223–24.

79. Ibid., 217–18; Congress, Inquiry, 658.

80. Gaillard, Hinche, 224.

81. Ibid., 33–39.

82. Roger Gaillard, La république autoritaire (Port-au-Prince: R. Gaillard, 1981), 28.

83. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:59.

84. Ibid., 2:49–57.

85. Ibid., 2:56–59.

86. Ibid., 2:60–61; Schmidt, Occupation, 97–98; Howard Zinn and Anthony Arnove, Voices of a People’s History of the United States, 2nd ed. (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2009), 251–52.

87. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:64; Schmidt, Occupation, 98–99.

88. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:62–65; Schmidt, Occupation, 98–99; Rayford W. Logan, “Education in Haiti,” Journal of Negro History 15, no. 4 (October 1930): 450.

89. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:65–67. On the impact of U.S. investment and commerce in Haiti in the early twentieth century, see Turnier, Marché, esp. chap. 10; on Roosevelt and the constitution, see Schmidt, Maverick Marine.

90. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:67; Mirlande Manigat, Traité de droit constitutionnel haïtien (Port-au-Prince: Université Quisqueya, 2000), 532–43.

91. Gaillard, Hinche, 177–79.

92. Ibid., 180–81.

93. Ibid., 180–81, 187–88, 225.

94. Ibid., 199–209; Millet, Les paysans, 90.

95. Gaillard, Hinche, 175–76; Renda, Taking Haiti, 149–50.

96. Gaillard, Charlemagne, 68–71, 87.

97. Ibid., 68–71.

98. B. Davis, Marine! 43; Renda, Taking Haiti, 151, 156–57; the photograph from the Crisis is reprinted in Gaillard, Charlemagne, 337.

99. Gaillard, Charlemagne, 237.

100. Ibid., 147–48.

101. Ibid., 101, 140.

102. Ibid., 139–48; David Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour, and National Independence in Haiti, rev. ed. (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996), 146.

103. Gaillard, Charlemagne, 98–100; Schmidt, Occupation, 105.

104. Gaillard, Charlemagne, 96.

105. Ibid., 247.

106. Ibid., 188, 292.

107. Ibid., 160–61; Renda, Taking Haiti, 173–74.

108. Gaillard, Charlemagne, 113, 164–65, 187, 214–16; Schmidt, Occupation, 103; Millet, Les paysans, 101.

109. Gaillard, Charlemagne, 126–36.

110. Ibid., 184–86, 201.

111. Ibid., 206.

112. Ibid., 208–12.

113. Ibid., 212–14.

114. Renda, Taking Haiti, 171–72.

115. Gaillard, Charlemagne, 222–23, 333.

116. Ibid., 298–306.

117. Ibid., 308–9.

118. Ibid., 317–18.

119. Renda, Taking Haiti, 150; Congress, Inquiry, 606; Gaillard, Hinche, 26–27; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:63; Millet, Les paysans, 109; Gaillard, Charlemagne, 322–23.

120. Gaillard, Charlemagne, 325–26.

121. Ibid., 334.

122. Ibid., 308, 335.

123. The photograph is reproduced among the illustrations following p. 134 in Schmidt, Occupation.

124. Gaillard, Charlemagne, illustrations following p. 335. My thanks to LeGrace Benson for providing me with these details about Obin’s paintings of Péralte.

7: SECOND INDEPENDENCE

1. François Blancpain, Louis Borno, président d’Haïti (Port-au-Prince: Éditions Regain, 1998), 175–76; Rulhière Savaille, La grève de 29: La première grève des étudiants haïtiens, 31 Octobre 1929 (Port-au-Prince: Ateliers Fardin, 1979), 18–19.

2. Savaille, Grève, 24–34.

3. Claude Moïse, Constitutions et luttes de pouvoir en Haïti, 1804–1987: De l’occupation étrangère à la dictature macoute (1915–1987), vol. 2 (Montréal: Éditions du CIDIHCA, 1988), 158–59; Savaille, Grève, 47–54; Kethly Millet, Les paysans haïtiens et l’occupation américaine d’Haïti, 1915–1930 (La Salle, Québec: Collectif Paroles, 1978), 131. For a summary of the situation in rural Haiti under the occupation see Suzy Castor, L’occupation américaine d’Haïti (Port-au-Prince: Société Haïtienne d’Histoire, 1988), chap. 5.

4. Matthew J. Smith, Red and Black in Haiti: Radicalism, Conflict, and Political Change, 1934–1957 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), 10; Georges Michel, Charlemagne Péralte and the First American Occupation of Haiti, trans. Douglas Henry Daniels (Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt, 1996), 45–47; Andrew Walker, “Contested Sovereignty: Haitian Politics and Protest in the Era of U.S. Occupation, 1915–1934” (B.A. thesis, Duke University, 2011), 4–5.

5. Roger Gaillard, Charlemagne Péralte le caco (Port-au-Prince: R. Gaillard, 1982), 27–28.

6. Alex Dupuy, Haiti in the World Economy: Class, Race, and Underdevelopment Since 1700 (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1989), 136; Millet, Les paysans, 123; Gaillard, Charlemagne, 90–92; Castor, L’occupation américaine d’Haïti, 95–96; Kate Ramsey, The Spirits and the Law: Vodou and Power in Haiti (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011), n. 254.

7. Millet, Les paysans, 107–9; Karen E. Richman, Migration and Vodou (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2005), 102–11; Castor, L’occupation américaine d’Haïti, 91–97; Ramsey, Spirits, 124. For a contemporary critical account of the dispossession of rural land, see Perceval Thoby, Dépossessions: Le latifundia américain contre la petite propriété d’Haiti, vol. 1 (Port-au-Prince: Impr. de “La Presse,” 1930).

8. Blancpain, Borno, 176, 198.

9. Patrick Bellegarde-Smith, In the Shadow of Powers: Dantès Bellegarde in Haitian Social Thought (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press International, 1985), 63–66; Millery Polyné, From Douglass to Duvalier: U.S. African Americans, Haiti and Pan Americanism, 1870–1964 (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2010), 69; Blancpain, Borno, 175–76.

10. Laënnec Hurbon, Le Barbare Imaginaire (Paris: Cerf, 1988), 119–20; David Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour, and National Independence in Haiti, rev. ed. (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996), 155; Eugène Aubin, En Haïti: Planteurs d’autrefois, nègres d’aujourd’hui (Paris: A. Colin, 1910), 54–60.

11. Ramsey, Spirits, 128–30.

12. Hurbon, Barbare, 121–23; John Dryden Kuser, Haiti: Its Dawn of Progress After Years in a Night of Revolution (Boston: R. G. Badger, 1921), 57–58; Ramsey, Spirits, 131, 146, 149, 200.

13. Millet, Les paysans, 108–9; Castor, L’occupation américaine d’Haïti, 97–101.

14. Gaillard, Charlemagne, 31, 93–95, 171–74; Marc C. McLeod, “Undesirable Aliens: Race, Ethnicity, and Nationalism in the Comparison of Haitian and British West Indian Immigrant Workers in Cuba, 1912–1939,” Journal of Social History 31, no. 3 (Spring 1998): 599–623; Catherine C. Legrand, “Informal Resistance on a Dominican Sugar Plantation During the Trujillo Dictatorship,” Hispanic American Historical Review 75, no. 4 (November 1995): 555–96.

15. Ramsey, Spirits, 133–34, 137–38; Mary A. Renda, Taking Haiti: Military Occupation and the Culture of U.S. Imperialism, 1915–1940 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 159–60; Hans Schmidt, The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1995), 119; Gaillard, Charlemagne, 237–39.

16. Polyné, Douglass to Duvalier, 61–62; Renda, Taking Haiti, 186. For Johnson’s statements, see the Crisis (February 1922), p. 182.

17. Polyné, Douglass to Duvalier, 62; Renda, Taking Haiti, 188–96; Schmidt, Occupation, 114–20.

18. Ramsey, Spirits, 134–37, 182, 315n80.

19. Ulysses G. Weatherly, “Haiti: An Experiment in Pragmatism,” American Journal of Sociology 32, no. 3 (November 1926): 366; Robert Fatton Jr., The Roots of Haitian Despotism (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2007), 164–65, 189; Schmidt, Occupation, 124–29; Gaillard, Charlemagne, 239.

20. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:105, 137.

21. Ibid., 2:110–111. The most detailed study of Borno’s political life is Blancpain, Borno.

22. Georges Corvington, Le palais national de la république d’Haïti (Port-au-Prince: Henri Deschamps, 2004); Barthelemieux Danache, Le président Dartiguenave et les américains (Port-au-Prince: Imprimerie de l’État, 1950); cited in Blancpain, Borno, 172–73; Bellegarde-Smith, Shadow, 64–65; Rayford W. Logan, “Education in Haiti,” Journal of Negro History 15, no. 4 (October 1930): 450.

23. Blancpain, Borno, 184–86.

24. Ibid., 175–76; Savaille, Grève, 18–19; Schmidt, Occupation, 184.

25. Bellegarde-Smith, Shadow, 61–62; Magdaline W. Shannon, Jean Price-Mars, the Haitian Elite and the American Occupation, 1915–1935 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996), 23; Polyné, Douglass to Duvalier, 77–79; Philippe Delisle, Le catholicisme en Haïti au XIXe siècle (Paris: Kharthala, 2003), 66.

26. Polyné, Douglass to Duvalier, 76; Logan, “Education in Haiti,” 440–48; Blancpain, Borno, 188.

27. Blancpain, Borno, 179–81; Bellegarde-Smith, Shadow, 122–23, 155–57, 164.

28. Savaille, Grève, 9–14, 47–54, 107; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:158–59; Schmidt, Occupation, 197.

29. Polyné, Douglass to Duvalier, 83–86.

30. Blancpain, Borno, 188–89; Savaille, Grève, 101.

31. Schmidt, Occupation, 149; Gaillard, Charlemagne, 171; Bellegarde-Smith, Shadow, 63–64; Nadève Ménard, “The Occupied Novel: The Representation of Foreigners in Haitian Novels Written During the United States Occupation, 1915–1934” (Ph.D. dissertation: University of Pennsylvania, 2002).

32. Schmidt, Occupation, 138–39; Renda, Taking Haiti, 132–33.

33. Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Haiti, State Against Nation: The Origins and Legacy of Duvalierism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1990), 130–31. For detailed studies of how the occupation shaped the thought of particular Haitian intellectuals, see Bellegarde-Smith, Shadow; Shannon, Price-Mars; and J. Michael Dash, Literature and Ideology in Haiti, 1915–1961 (Totowa, N.J.: Barnes & Noble Books, 1981).

34. Gaillard, Charlemagne, 62–63; Shannon, Price-Mars, 55.

35. On Jeanty, see Michael D. Largey, Vodou Nation: Haitian Art Music and Cultural Nationalism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006), chap. 2. On Candio, see Gage Averill, A Day for the Hunter, a Day for the Prey: Popular Music and Power in Haiti (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), 49–50.

36. Shannon, Price-Mars, 57–61; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:93–94; Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier, 150; Walker, “Contested Sovereignty,” chap. 3. On the history of struggles for women’s rights in Haiti see Madelaine Sylvain Bouchereau, Haïti et ses femmes (Port-au-Prince: Les Presses Libres, 1957).

37. Blancpain, Borno, 171; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:128–35; Schmidt, Occupation, 128, 195.

38. Bellegarde-Smith, Shadow, 66–77.

39. Schmidt, Occupation, 208; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:149; Shannon, Price-Mars, 64; Emily Greene Balch, Occupied Haiti (New York: Writers Publishing, 1927).

40. Shannon, Price-Mars, 14–15.

41. Ibid., 16–23.

42. Ibid., 59; Ramsey, Spirits, 126.

43. Hurbon, Barbare, 119–20; Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier, 132, 155; Shannon, Price-Mars, 59; Bellegarde-Smith, Shadow, 104, 127.

44. Jean Price-Mars, Ainsi parla l’oncle: Essai d’ethnographie (Port-au-Prince: Compiègne, 1928), i–ii. While I have largely followed the translation provided in Jean Price-Mars, So Spoke the Uncle, trans. Magdaline Shannon (Washington, D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1983), I have also retranslated some passages. For an analysis of Price-Mars and his relation to Firmin, see Gérarde Magloire-Danton, “Anténor Firmin and Jean Price-Mars: Revolution, Memory, Humanism,” Small Axe 9, no. 2 (September 2005): 150–70.

45. Price-Mars, Ainsi parla l’oncle, 2–3; Price-Mars, Uncle, 8–9.

46. Price-Mars, Ainsi parla l’oncle, 2; Price-Mars, Uncle, 8; Ramsey, Spirits, 178–81.

47. Smith, Red and Black, 9; Schmidt, Occupation, 210–12; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:160–61.

48. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:168.

49. Ibid., 2:191–95; Schmidt, Occupation, 224–26.

50. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:191–95, 212; Schmidt, Occupation, 224–26; Polyné, Douglass to Duvalier, 79–80.

51. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:194–95; Smith, Red and Black, 18.

52. Ramsey, Spirits, 149–50, 162–66; John Houston Craige, Black Bagdad (New York: Minton, Balch, 1933); John Houston Craige, Cannibal Cousins, 1st ed. (New York: Minton, Balch, 1934); Renda, Taking Haiti, chap. 2.

53. Ramsey, Spirits, 171.

54. Ramsey, Spirits, 170–173; Richman, Migration and Vodou, 111; Laënnec Hurbon, “American Fantasy and Haitian Vodou,” in Sacred Arts of Haitian Vodou, ed. Donald Cosentino (Los Angeles: UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural History, 1995). The best discussion of the symbolism and meaning of the zonbi in Haiti is Hurbon, Barbare. Wade Davis argues that the practice of zombification does exist among secret societies in Haiti who use neurotoxins against certain enemies; see Wade Davis, Passage of Darkness: The Ethnobiology of the Haitian Zombie (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988), which was popularized in his The Serpent and the Rainbow (London: Collins, 1986) and later in a rather unfortunate movie version by horror film director Wes Craven.

55. Chantalle Verna, “Haiti’s ‘Second Independence’ and the Promise of Pan-American Cooperation, 1934–1956” (Ph.D. dissertation: Michigan State University, 2005).

56. Jacques Roumain, Oeuvres complètes, ed. Léon-François Hoffmann (Paris: Allca XX, Collection Archivos, 2003), introduction and p. 429; Smith, Red and Black, 18–20. For insights into the broader cultural movements of this time, see Ramsey, Spirits, 178; Roger Gaillard, La destinée de Carl Brouard: Essai accompagné de documents photographiques (Port-au-Prince: Henri Deschamps, 1966); and Dash, Literature and Ideology in Haiti, 1915–1961, chaps. 2–4.

57. Smith, Red and Black, 19–22.

58. Ibid., 20–21.

59. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:194–95; Smith, Red and Black, 22; Averill, Hunter, 50.

60. Sténio Vincent, En posant les jalons (Port-au-Prince: Imprimerie de l’État, 1939), 334–35; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:194–95, 214–15.

61. Smith, Red and Black, 41–43; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:217–23, 235–36.

62. Ramsey, Spirits, 182; Gérard Barthélemy, L’univers rural haïtien: Le pays en dehors (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1990), 47.

63. Richard Lee Turits, “A World Destroyed, a Nation Imposed: The 1937 Haitian Massacre in the Dominican Republic,” Hispanic American Historical Review 82, no. 3 (August 2002): 595.

64. Ibid., 610; Richard Lee Turits, Foundations of Despotism: Peasants, the Trujillo Regime, and Modernity in Dominican History (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003). See also Eric Roorda, The Dictator Next Door: The Good Neighbor Policy and the Trujillo Regime in the Dominican Republic, 1930–1945 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1998), and Lauren Hutchinson Derby, The Dictator’s Seduction: Politics and the Popular Imagination in the Era of Trujillo (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2009).

65. Turits, “World Destroyed,” 613.

66. Ibid., 614; Brenda Gayle Plummer, Haiti and the United States: The Psychological Moment (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992), 154.

67. Plummer, Haiti and the United States, 156–57; Smith, Red and Black, 34; Turits, “World Destroyed.”

68. Roumain, Oeuvres, 682–88.

69. Ramsey, Spirits, 181–91; Hurbon, Barbare, 124.

70. Kate Ramsey, “Without One Ritual Note: Folklore Performance and the Haitian State, 1935–1946,” Radical History Review 84 (Fall 2002): 22.

71. Ramsey, Spirits, 231–32; Ramsey, “Ritual Note,” 20–21.

72. Ramsey, Spirits, 177, 181–91, 231–36; Ramsey, “Ritual Note,” 20–22; Hurbon, Barbare, 124.

73. Ramsey, Spirits, 194, 196, 200–202; and Smith, Red and Black, 49–50.

74. Smith, Red and Black, 48–49; Ramsey, Spirits, 185–86, 198–200.

75. Alfred Métraux, Voodoo in Haiti, trans. Hugo Charteris (New York: Schocken Books, 1972), 17.

76. Roumain, Oeuvres, 745–52.

77. Ibid., 247–54; Jacques Roumain, Masters of the Dew, trans. Langston Hughes and Mercer Cook (New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1947).

78. Roumain, Oeuvres, 88–94.

8: AN IMMATERIAL BEING

1. Marie Vieux-Chauvet, Love, Anger, Madness: A Haitian Trilogy (New York: Modern Library, 2009), xxi–xxii, 160, 230, 265. On Vieux-Chauvet within the broader context of twentieth-century women’s writing in Haiti see Myriam Chancy, Framing Silence: Revolutionary Novels by Haitian Women (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1997), chap. 5.

2. Ibid., 228.

3. Ibid., xiii, 24–25; Patti M. Marxsen, “In Perpetual Revolt,” Women’s Review of Books, April 2010.

4. Vieux-Chauvet, Love, Anger, Madness, xxii; Marxsen, “In Perpetual Revolt”; Bernard Diederich and Al Burt, Papa Doc: The Truth About Haiti Today, 1st ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969), 216–17.

5. Vieux-Chauvet, Love, Anger, Madness, xiv–xv, xxii; Marxsen, “In Perpetual Revolt.”

6. Matthew J. Smith, Red and Black in Haiti: Radicalism, Conflict, and Political Change, 1934–1957 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), 43–44.

7. Ibid., 45–46; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 50–51; Claude Moïse, Constitutions et luttes de pouvoir en Haïti, 1804–1987: De l’occupation étrangère à la dictature macoute (1915–1987), vol. 2 (Montréal: Éditions du CIDIHCA, 1988), 236–37.

8. Smith, Red and Black, 77–79; Patrick Bellegarde-Smith, In the Shadow of Powers: Dantès Bellegarde in Haitian Social Thought (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press International, 1985), 147–48; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:235.

9. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:252–54; Smith, Red and Black, 73, 80–82.

10. Smith, Red and Black, 90–99, 110–13; Patrick Bellegarde-Smith, Haiti: The Breached Citadel, 2nd ed. (Toronto: Canadian Scholars Press, 2004), 121; Edmund Wilson, Red, Black, Blond, and Olive; Studies in Four Civilizations: Zuñi, Haiti, Soviet Russia, Israel (New York: Oxford University Press, 1956), 91; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:282–88; Bellegarde-Smith, Shadow, 148.

11. Millery Polyné, From Douglass to Duvalier: U.S. African Americans, Haiti and Pan Americanism, 1870–1964 (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2010), 138–39; Smith, Red and Black, 114–16.

12. Smith, Red and Black, 107, 143–44; Gage Averill, A Day for the Hunter, a Day for the Prey: Popular Music and Power in Haiti (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), 63–65; Polyné, Douglass to Duvalier, chaps. 4 and 5, esp. 146–47; Katherine Dunham, Island Possessed, 1st ed. (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1969); Polly Pattullo, Last Resorts: The Cost of Tourism in the Caribbean (New York: Monthly Review Press, 2005).

13. Smith, Red and Black, 139, 142, 145–47.

14. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:315; Smith, Red and Black, 149–62; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 68.

15. Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 64–65, 68; Smith, Red and Black, 164–65; James Ferguson, Papa Doc, Baby Doc: Haiti and the Duvaliers (Oxford: B. Blackwell, 1988), 35. On the Schweitzer hospital, see Barry Paris, Song of Haiti: The Lives of Dr. Larimer and Gwen Mellon at Albert Schweitzer Hospital of Deschapelles, 1st ed. (New York: Public Affairs, 2000). For a detailed firsthand account of Magloire’s regime, see Bernard Diederich, Bon Papa: Haiti’s Golden Years (Princeton: Markus Wiener, 2008).

16. Smith, Red and Black, 164–66, 169; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 68.

17. Smith, Red and Black, 161; Ferguson, Duvaliers, 32–33; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:327.

18. Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 30–38.

19. Ibid., 38, 45; Ferguson, Duvaliers, 33. For extended reflections on color in Haitian politics, see David Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour, and National Independence in Haiti, rev. ed. (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996).

20. François Duvalier, Oeuvres essentielles (Port-au-Prince: Presses Nationales d’Haïti, 1966), 1: 311–12; Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier, 194–95.

21. Duvalier, Oeuvres essentielles, 1: 311–12; Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier, 194–95; Smith, Red and Black, 23–24; Robert Fatton Jr., The Roots of Haitian Despotism (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2007), 179.

22. Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier, 185–88; Smith, Red and Black, 97–99, 110–13, 161; Ferguson, Duvaliers, 32–33; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:327.

23. Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier, 113–17, 154–55; Smith, Red and Black, 23–26.

24. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:330, 334–35; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 78–79, 86.

25. Smith, Red and Black, 168–85; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:344–45, 352–58; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, chap. 8; Bellegarde-Smith, Breached Citadel, 125–26.

26. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:344–45, 366–67; Smith, Red and Black, 168–85; Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier, 208–9; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 99–100; Bellegarde-Smith, Breached Citadel, 128.

27. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:366, 381, 396; Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Haiti, State Against Nation: The Origins and Legacy of Duvalierism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1990), 169; Fatton, Roots, 182; Ferguson, Duvaliers, 37, 57.

28. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:372–73; Ferguson, Duvaliers, 39.

29. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:374–77.

30. Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 102, 105; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:380–81.

31. Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 113–20, 145; Ferguson, Duvaliers, 41; Robert Debs Heinl, Nancy Gordon Heinl, and Michael Heinl, Written in Blood: The Story of the Haitian People, 1492–1995, 2nd ed. (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1996), 593; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:385–88.

32. Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 156, 190; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:376; Trouillot, Haiti, 144–45; Fatton, Roots, 107; Bellegarde-Smith, Breached Citadel, 132; Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 557–58.

33. Bellegarde-Smith, Shadow, 86; Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 553; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:396; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 147.

34. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:396; Bellegarde-Smith, Breached Citadel, 133; Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 554, 560; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 159.

35. Trouillot, Haiti, 179; Vieux-Chauvet, Love, Anger, Madness.

36. Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 607; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 187, 198. Most of Duvalier’s speeches and writings are collected in Duvalier, Oeuvres essentielles.

37. Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 183–84; Averill, Hunter, 74–75; Trouillot, Haiti, 194.

38. Fatton, Roots, 102–103; Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 561, 574–75; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:413; Paul Christopher Johnson, “Secretism and the Apotheosis of Duvalier,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 74, no. 2 (2006): 420.

39. Laënnec Hurbon, Religions et lien social: L’église et l’état moderne en Haïti (Paris: Cerf, 2004), 222–23; Fatton, Roots, 102; Averill, Hunter, 74.

40. Hurbon, Religions, 220–26; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 191.

41. Hurbon, Religions, 222–26; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:391–94; Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier, 234; Trouillot, Haiti, 194; Bellegarde-Smith, Breached Citadel, 135.

42. Smith, Red and Black, 172–85; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 99–100; Bellegarde-Smith, Breached Citadel, 125–26.

43. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:366–368; Bellegarde-Smith, Breached Citadel, 123, 132; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 99–100, 126–27, 136–37, 226–27; Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 567.

44. Brenda Gayle Plummer, Haiti and the United States: The Psychological Moment (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992), 184; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:400–401; Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 566–67, 580; Robert David Johnson, “Constitutionalism Abroad and at Home: The United States Senate and the Alliance for Progress, 1961–1967,” International History Review 21, no. 2 (June 1, 1999): 418; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 133.

45. Johnson, “Constitutionalism Abroad and at Home,” 421–22.

46. Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 133, 242; Plummer, Haiti and the United States, 186–87; Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 606.

47. Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 564–67.

48. Plummer, Haiti and the United States, 180; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 202, 224, 240. For Bosch’s own account of his time as president, see Juan Bosch, The Unfinished Experiment: Democracy in the Dominican Republic (New York: Praeger, 1965). On relations with the United States, see Bernardo Vega, Kennedy y Bosch: Aporte al Estudio de las Relaciones Internacionales del Gobierno Constitucional de 1963 (Santo Domingo: Fundación Cultural Dominicana, 1993).

49. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:402–3; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 194–95, 202–3.

50. Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 204–9; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:403.

51. Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 210–14, 223–24, 233.

52. Ibid., 216–17, 223.

53. Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 221–22, 237; Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 578–79.

54. Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 244–45.

55. Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 579–80; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 240, 289–99; Ferguson, Duvaliers, 45–46. On the coup in the Dominican Republic and its effects, see Piero Gleijeses, The Dominican Crisis: The 1965 Constitutionalist Revolt and American Intervention (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978).

56. Robert Heinl was the head of the marine mission in Haiti starting in 1958 but came into conflict with Duvalier and was withdrawn by the United States several years later. Upon his return to the United States, he cowrote a long history of Haiti that presented a damning portrait of the dictator. Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 579–81; Ferguson, Duvaliers, 45–48; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 289–99, 300–312; Plummer, Haiti and the United States, 180, 190. The most detailed account of the repression in Jérémie is Albert D. Chassagne, Bain de sang en Haïti: Les macoutes opèrent à Jérémie, 2nd ed. (n.p.: 1977).

57. Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 582; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 311–12.

58. Alexander Wolff, “The Hero Who Vanished,” Sports Illustrated, March 8, 2010. For documentation on abuses in the prison, see Patrick Lemoine, Fort-Dimanche, Fort–La Mort, 2nd ed. (Port-au-Prince: Éditions Regain, 1996).

59. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:405–11; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 280–82; Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 555, 583.

60. Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 583; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 271, 283; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:412–13; Ferguson, Duvaliers, 53; Averill, Hunter, 8–9.

61. Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 582–83; Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier, 155, 234–35; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:409; Ferguson, Duvaliers, 52–53.

62. Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 583.

63. Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 588; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 320, 328–31; Trouillot, Haiti, 192.

64. Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 583; Polyné, Douglass to Duvalier, 185; Bellegarde-Smith, Breached Citadel, 139. Duvalier harshly attacked Graham Greene, for instance, whose popular novel The Comedians presented a dark portrait of life in Haiti. Ferguson, Duvaliers, 51.

65. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:398; Ferguson, Duvaliers, 53–54; Alex Dupuy, Haiti in the World Economy: Class, Race, and Underdevelopment Since 1700 (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1989), 164–65; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 320–21; Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 570.

66. Ferguson, Duvaliers, 54; Simon M. Fass, Political Economy in Haiti: The Drama of Survival (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1988), 50.

67. Jean Dominique, “La fin du marronage haïtien: Éléments pour une étude des mouvements de contestation populaire en Haïti,” Collectif Paroles 32 (December 1985): 39–46.

68. Ferguson, Duvaliers, 53, 55; Averill, Hunter, 8–9, 94–97; Plummer, Haiti and the United States, 194–95.

69. Ferguson, Duvaliers, 54–55; Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 594, 596, 616.

70. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:415–19; Ferguson, Duvaliers, 56–57; Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 598.

71. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:416; Ferguson, Duvaliers, 53, 55; Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 612.

72. The most detailed account of Jean-Claude Duvalier’s presidency to date is Bernard Diederich, L’Héritier (Port-au-Prince: Henri Deschamps, 2011).

73. Ferguson, Duvaliers, 54–55; Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 594, 596, 616; Fass, Political Economy in Haiti, 39, 43, 67; Cary Hector, “Des ‘prises de démocratie’ de la société civile au renouvellement des pratiques de pouvoir (1975–1983),” Collectif Paroles 32 (December 1985): 12.

74. Fass, Political Economy in Haiti, 22–23; Plummer, Haiti and the United States, 195.

75. Fritz Deshommes, Haïti: La nation écartelée (Port-au-Prince: Éditions Cahiers Universitaires, 2006), 65–69; Bernard Diederich, “Swine Fever Ironies,” Caribbean Review 14:1 (1985): 16–17, 41.

76. Deshommes, Haïti, 65–70; Amy Wilentz, The Rainy Season: Haiti Since Duvalier (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989), 157.

77. Fass, Political Economy in Haiti, 48–49.

78. Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 586–87; Averill, Hunter, 110–11. For rich portraits of aspects of life in the Haitian diaspora, see Karen McCarthy Brown, Mama Lola: A Vodou Priestess in Brooklyn (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), and Nina Glick Schiller and Georges Eugene Fouron, Georges Woke Up Laughing: Long-Distance Nationalism and the Search for Home (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2001). On Catholic institutions and the diaspora, see Regine O. Jackson, “After the Exodus: The New Catholics in Boston’s Old Ethnic Neighborhoods,” Religion and American Culture: A Journal of Interpretation 17, no. 2 (July 1, 2007): 191–212, and Margarita A. Mooney, Faith Makes Us Live: Surviving and Thriving in the Haitian Diaspora (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009).

79. Jean-Pierre Jean, “The Tenth Department,” NACLA Report on the Americas, 1994. On family and migration, see Karen E. Richman, Migration and Vodou (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2005). Edwidge Danticat told the story about the burials during a presentation at Duke University on February 15, 2011; she tells her family’s story in the searing memoir Brother, I’m Dying, 1st ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007).

80. Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 592.

81. For excellent overviews of these changes, see Hector, “Prises de démocratie”; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:420–25; and Dominique, “Fin du marronage.” For the Castro masks, see Bruce Chatwin, Under the Sun: The Letters of Bruce Chatwin, 1st ed. (New York: Viking, 2011), 312.

82. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:425–30; Hector, “Prises de démocratie”; Dominique, “Fin du marronage”; Paul Farmer, The Uses of Haiti, 2nd ed. (Monroe, Maine: Common Courage Press, 2003); Robert Lawless, Haiti’s Bad Press (Rochester, Vt.: Schenkman Books, 1992); Laurent Dubois, “L’accueil des réfugiés haïtiens aux États-Unis,” Hommes et Migrations 1213 (June 1998): 47–59; Richman, Migration and Vodou.

83. Dominique, “Fin du marronage”; Conférence épiscopale d’Haïti, Présence de l’église en Haïti: Messages et documents de l’épiscopat, 1980–1988 (Paris: Éditions S.O.S., 1988); Jean-Bertrand Aristide, Aristide: An Autobiography (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1993); Peter Hallward, Damming the Flood: Haiti, Aristide, and the Politics of Containment (London: Verso, 2007), 23.

84. Elizabeth Abbott, Haiti: The Duvaliers and Their Legacy (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1988), 293–94.

85. Martin-Luc Bonnardot and Gilles Danroc, eds., La chute de la maison Duvalier: Textes pour l’histoire (Paris: Karthala, 1989), 39, 55, 63; Abbott, Haiti, 295–96.

86. David Nicholls, “Haiti: The Rise and Fall of Duvalierism,” Third World Quarterly 8, no. 4 (October 1, 1986): 1239–52; Bonnardot and Danroc, La chute de la maison Duvalier, 55; Hallward, Damming the Flood, 22; Abbott, Haiti, 299; Averill, Hunter, 159.

87. Abbott, Haiti, 302 and chap. 13; Trouillot, Haiti, chap. 7.

88. Bonnardot and Danroc, La chute de la maison Duvalier, 55, 63; Abbott, Haiti, 299.

EPILOGUE

1. Peter Hallward, Damming the Flood: Haiti, Aristide, and the Politics of Containment (London: Verso, 2007), xxxv. For descriptions of events in 1986, see Amy Wilentz, The Rainy Season: Haiti Since Duvalier (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989), and Gage Averill, A Day for the Hunter, a Day for the Prey: Popular Music and Power in Haiti (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), chap. 8. On the constitution, see Claude Moïse, Constitutions et luttes de pouvoir en Haïti, 1804–1987: De l’occupation étrangère à la dictature macoute (1915–1987), vol. 2 (Montréal: Éditions du CIDIHCA, 1988), 463–66. A complete list of members of the Constituent Assembly is available at http://www.haiti-reference.com/histoire/notables/assemb_const87.php (consulted April 14, 2011).

2. See the detailed analysis of the constitution in Moïse, Constitutions, 2:463–80, which reprints the document on pp. 495–548.

3. Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Haiti, State Against Nation: The Origins and Legacy of Duvalierism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1990), 221; Wilentz, Rainy Season, 113; Averill, Hunter, 171; Hallward, Damming the Flood, xxxv.

4. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:463; Trouillot, Haiti, chaps. 7 and 8; Averill, Hunter, 173–75. The most detailed account of Aristide during this period is Wilentz, Rainy Season.

5. Averill, Hunter, 185–90; Robert Fatton Jr., Haiti’s Predatory Republic: The Unending Transition to Democracy (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2002), 77–80.

6. Averill, Hunter, 185–93, 196. For a detailed analysis of the political suppression of this period, and the use of rape as a tool by the military, see Erica Caple James, Democratic Insecurities: Violence, Trauma, and Intervention in Haiti (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010).

7. Philippe R. Girard, Clinton in Haiti: The 1994 U.S. Invasion of Haiti (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004); Bob Shacochis, The Immaculate Invasion (New York: Viking, 1999); Stan Goff, Hideous Dream: A Soldier’s Memoir of the U.S. Invasion of Haiti, 1st ed. (New York: Soft Skull Press, 2000).

8. The most detailed studies of this period are Wiener Kerns Fleurimond, Haïti de la crise à l’occupation: Histoire d’un chaos, 2000–2004 (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2009); Alex Dupuy, The Prophet and Power: Jean-Bertrand Aristide, the International Community, and Haiti (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007); and Fatton, Haiti’s Predatory Republic, chap. 6.

9. The most detailed political analyses of Aristide’s regime are Dupuy, Prophet and Power, and Fatton, Haiti’s Predatory Republic. A powerful critique of U.S. policy in recent years is Paul Farmer, The Uses of Haiti, 2nd ed. (Monroe, Maine: Common Courage Press, 2003). Two works that defend Aristide and insist that foreign governments purposely undermined his regime are Randall Robinson, An Unbroken Agony: Haiti, from Revolution to the Kidnapping of a President (New York: Basic Civitas Books, 2007), and Hallward, Damming the Flood.

10. Edwidge Danticat made this comment during a lecture at Duke University on February 15, 2011.

11. Arnaud Robert, “Haïti est la preuve de l’échec de l’aide internationale,” interview with Ricardo Seitenfus, Le Temps, December 21, 2010; Steven Stoll, “Toward a Second Haitian Revolution,” Harper’s Magazine, April 2010.

12. Robert, “Haïti est la preuve.” For a lucid and illuminating analysis of these issues, see Paul Farmer’s recent Haiti After the Earthquake (New York: Public Affairs, 2011).

13. Robert, “Haïti est la preuve.”