PREFACE
Epigraph: John Steinbeck, Log from the Sea of Cortez (New York: Penguin Books, 1995), 61–62.
1. Dean Falk, Frederick E. Lepore, and Adrianne Noe, “The Cerebral Cortex of Albert Einstein: A Description and Preliminary Analysis of Unpublished Photographs,” Brain: A Journal of Neurology 136, no. 4 (2012): 1304–1327.
2. J. Maslin, “John Grisham: An Interview,” New York Times Book Review, June 4, 2017.
3. Lewis Carroll, Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland (London: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1916), 81–82.
4. K. Brodmann, Brodmann’s Localisation in the Cerebral Cortex, trans. and ed. Garey J. Laurence (New York: Springer, 2006), i–298.
5. Lisa Harris, “The Dogs Bark,” New York Times, October 28, 1973.
1 A NEUROLOGIST WALKS IN PRINCETON
1. Abraham Pais, Einstein Lived Here (Oxford: Clarendon, 1994), 199.
2. Sandra F. Witelson, Debra L. Kigar, and Thomas S. Harvey, “The Exceptional Brain of Albert Einstein,” Lancet 353, no. 9170 (1999): 2149–2153.
3. Steven Pinker, “His Brain Measured Up,” New York Times, June 24, 1999.
4. Frederic Golden, “Albert Einstein,” Time, December 31, 1999.
5. Frederick E. Lepore, “Dissecting Genius—Einstein’s Brain and the Search for the Neural Basis of Intellect,” Cerebrum 3, no. 1 (2001), http://www.dana.org/Cerebrum/Default.aspx?id=39337.
6. Michael Paterniti, “Driving Mr. Albert: A Trip across America with Einstein’s Brain,” Harper’s Magazine, October 1997, 35–58.
7. Michael Paterniti, Driving Mr. Albert: A Trip across America with Einstein’s Brain (New York: The Dial Press, 2000).
8. Ibid., 183.
9. Thomas S. Harvey, interview by Frederick E. Lepore, 2000.
10. Lepore, “Dissecting Genius.”
11. Carolyn Abraham, Possessing Genius: The Bizarre Odyssey of Einstein’s Brain (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2001), 345–347.
12. Jorge A. Colombo et al., “Cerebral Cortex Astroglia and the Brain of a Genius: A Propos of A. Einstein’s,” Brain Research Reviews 52, no. 2 (2006): 257–263.
13. Sandra Witelson, personal communication to Thomas S. Harvey, December 2005.
14. Witelson, Kigar, and Harvey, “Exceptional Brain of Albert Einstein.”
15. Dean Falk, “New Information about Einstein’s Brain,” Frontiers in Evolutionary Neuroscience 1, no. 3 (2009), https://doi.org/10.3389/neuro.18.003.2009.
16. Jane Bosveld, “Re-analyzing One of the Greatest Brains in History,” Discover, December 17, 2009.
17. Lepore, “Dissecting Genius.”
18. M. A. Ledger, “What Ever Happened to Einstein’s Brain?,” Penn Medicine, Fall 2011, 22–25.
19. Thomas S. Harvey, interview by Frederick E. Lepore, 2000.
20. Abraham, Possessing Genius, 347.
21. David LaBerge, “Sustained Attention and Apical Dendrite Activity in Recurrent Circuits,” Brain Research Reviews 50, no. 1 (2005): 86–99.
22. David LaBerge, e-mail message to author, May 21, 2009.
23. David LaBerge, e-mail message to author, 2011.
24. LaBerge, e-mail message to author, July 1, 2009.
25. Katrin Amunts, Axel Schleicher, and Karl Zilles, “Outstanding Language Competence and Cytoarchitecture in Broca’s Speech Region,” Brain and Language 89, no. 2 (2004): 346–353.
26. Alison McCook, “Shelved,” Nature 476, no. 7360 (2011): 270–272.
27. Thomas J. Harvey, personal communication to Frederick E. Lepore, 2010.
28. Frederick E. Lepore et al., “Supranuclear Disturbances of Ocular Motility in Lytico-Bodig,” Neurology 38, no. 12 (1988): 1849.
2 APRIL 18, 1955
1. Jon R. Cohen and L. Michael Graver, “The Ruptured Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm of Albert Einstein,” Surgery, Gynecology & Obstetrics 170 (1990): 455–458.
2. Kevin P. Conway et al., “Prognosis of Patients Turned Down for Conventional Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm Repair in the Endovascular and Sonographic Era: Szilagyi Revisited?,” Journal of Vascular Surgery 33, no. 4 (2001): 752–757.
3. Cohen and Graver, “The Ruptured Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm of Albert Einstein.”
4. Walter Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe (New York: Simon & Schuster 2007), 543.
5. “Dr. Albert Einstein Dies in Sleep at 76: World Mourns Loss of a Great Scientist,” New York Times, April 19, 1955; R. Apple, “Einstein Dies! Scientist, 76, Succumbs After Brief Hospital Illness,” Daily Princetonian, April 18, 1955.
6. Carolyn Abraham, Possessing Genius: The Bizarre Odyssey of Einstein’s Brain (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2001), 68.
7. Thomas S. Harvey, interview by Frederick E. Lepore, June 4, 2000, Titusville, New Jersey.
8. J. J. Chandler, “The Einstein Sign: The Clinical Picture of Acute Cholecystitis Caused by Ruptured Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm,” New England Journal of Medicine 310, no. 23 (1984): 1538.
9. Abraham, Possessing Genius, 59.
10. “Dr. Albert Einstein Dies in Sleep at 76.”
11. James D. Watson and Francis H. C. Crick, “Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids,” Nature 171, no. 4356 (1953): 737–738.
12. Abraham, Possessing Genius, 230.
13. “Dr. Albert Einstein Dies in Sleep at 76.”
14. Harvey, interview by Lepore, 2000.
15. Abraham, Possessing Genius, 74.
16. Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe, 544.
17. Abraham, Possessing Genius, 75.
18. Robert Allen Farmer, The Last Will and Testament (New York: Arco, 1968), 24–29.
19. Jacques Hadamard, The Mathematician’s Mind: The Psychology of Invention in the Mathematical Field (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 142–143.
20. “Geniuses Aid Tests of Brain Processes; Einstein’s Brain Waves Being Recorded,” New York Times, February 24, 1951.
21. Paul A. Schilpp, ed., Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist (New York: MJF Books, 1970), 33.
22. “Son Asked Study of Einstein Brain: Scientist’s Will Includes No Specific Bequest of Body—His Neighbors Mourn,” New York Times, April 20, 1955.
23. William L. Laurence, “Key Clue Sought in Einstein’s Brain,” New York Times, April 20, 1955.
24. Harvey, interview by Lepore, 2000.
25. “Son Asked Study of Einstein Brain.”
26. “Einstein Study Called,” New York Times, April 22, 1955.
27. Abraham, Possessing Genius, 85.
28. Harvey, interview by Lepore, 2000.
29. Percival Bailey, Up from Little Egypt (Tryon, NC: Buckskin Press, 1984), i–265.
30. Percival Bailey and Gerhardt von Bonin, The Isocortex of Man (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1951), ix.
31. Korbinian Brodmann, Localisation in the Cerebral Cortex (New York: Springer, 2006), 108.
32. Alfred Walter Campbell, Histological Studies on the Localisation of Cerebral Function (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1905), 292–293.
33. Bailey and von Bonin, The Isocortex of Man, 189.
34. Nobel Lectures: Physiology or Medicine 1901–1921 (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1967), 220–253.
35. Ibid., 189–217.
36. Abraham, Possessing Genius, 33.
37. Michel Goedert et al., “100 Years of Lewy Pathology,” Nature Reviews Neurology 9, no. 1 (2013): 13–24.
38. M. A. Ledger, “What Ever happened to Einstein’s Brain?,” Penn Medicine 23 (Fall 2011): 22–25.
39. Ibid.
40. Harvey, interview by Lepore, 2000.
41. Einstein Brain Atlas, http://nmhmchicago.org/harvey.
42. Loane Skene, “Ownership of Human Tissue and the Law,” Nature Reviews Genetics 3, no. 2 (2002): 145–148.
43. Unpublished correspondence, National Museum of Health and Medicine, Otis Historical Archives, Harvey Collection, Silver Spring, MD.
44. Abraham, Possessing Genius, 111–114.
45. Rebecca Skloot, The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks (New York: Crown, 2010), 317.
46. Rebecca Skloot, “The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks, the Sequel,” New York Times, March 23, 2013.
47. Ewen Callaway, “Deal Done over HeLa Cell Line,” Nature 500, no. 7461 (2013): 132–133.
48. Kathy L. Hudson and Francis S. Collins, “Family Matters,” Nature 500, no. 7461 (2013): 141–142.
49. D. W. Batts, “Cancer Cells Killed Henrietta Lacks—Then Made Her Immortal,” Virginian-Pilot, May 5, 2010.
50. “Einstein Brain Atlas,” https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/einstein-brain-atlas/id555722456?mt=8.
51. A. E. Nutt. “The Secret Life of Einstein’s Brain,” Star Ledger Inside Jersey Magazine, March 2013.
3 WHAT THE NEUROPATHOLOGIST KNEW … AND DIDN’T KNOW
Epigraph: Donald Rumsfeld, Known and Unknown: A Memoir (New York: Sentinel, 2011), xiii.
1. Andreas Vesalius, De Humani Corporis Fabrica, book 7 (Padua, Italy: Padua School of Medicine, 1543).
2. James Henry Breasted, ed. The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus: Published in Facsimile and Hieroglyphic Transliteration with Translation and Commentary in Two Volumes, vol. 4 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1930).
3. Stanley Finger, Minds behind the Brain: A History of the Pioneers and Their Discoveries (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 30.
4. Ibid., 92–93.
5. Frederick E. Lepore, “The Beer-Glass Full of Water—Leeuwenhoek and the Optic-Nerve,” Neurology 36, no. 4 (1986): 534.
6. Finger, Minds behind the Brain, 197.
7. J. G. Greenfield and A. Meyer, “Preface” and “General Pathology of the Nerve Cell and Neuroglia,” in Greenfield’s Neuropathology (Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 1963): v–70.
8. Orville T. Bailey, “Neuropathology—Then and Now,” Journal of the American Medical Association 260, no. 19 (1988): 2891–2893.
9. John. F. Fulton, Physiology of the Nervous System (New York: Oxford University Press, 1949), viii.
10. Thomas Stoltz Harvey, “A Developmental Analysis of the Rolling Behavior of Infants” (diss., Yale University, 1941).
11. Cécile Vogt, “Allgemeinere Ergebnisse unserer Hirnforschung,” Journal für Psychologie und Neurologie, no. 25 (1919): 279–462; Karl Zilles and Katrin Amunts, “Centenary of Brodmann’s Map—Conception and Fate,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11, no. 2 (2010): 139–145; Constantino Sotelo, “Viewing the Brain through the Master Hand of Ramón y Cajal,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 4, no. 1 (2003): 71–77.
12. Vernon B. Mountcastle, “Brain Science at the Century’s Ebb,” Daedalus 127, no. 2 (1998): 1–36.
13. Gordon M. Shepherd, Foundations of the Neuron Doctrine (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 117–126.
14. Alastair Compston, “Dorsal Column: From the Archives,” Brain 138 (2015): 232–236.
15. John F. Fulton, Selected Readings in the History of Physiology (Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1930), 209–213.
16. Alan L. Hodgkin and Andrew F. Huxley, “Action Potentials Recorded from Inside a Nerve Fibre,” Nature 144, no. 3651 (1939): 710–711.
17. Mountcastle, “Brain Science at the Century’s Ebb,” 282–283.
18. Finger, Minds behind the Brain, 275.
19. Stephen W. Kuffler and John G. Nicholls, From Neuron to Brain (Sunderland, MA: Sinauer, 1977), 145–176.
20. Donald O. Hebb, Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1957), 62.
21. Eric R. Kandel, In Search of Memory: The Emergence of a New Science of Mind (New York: W. W. Norton, 2006), 187–197.
22. Howard M. Spiro and Priscilla Waters Norton, “Dean Milton C. Winternitz at Yale,” Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 46, no. 3 (2003): 403–412.
23. Robert D. Terry, “Harry M. Zimmerman,” Surgical Neurology 21, no. 5 (1984): 425–426.
24. Warren S. McCulloch, Embodiments of Mind (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1970).
25. Vernon B. Mountcastle, “The Columnar Organization of the Neocortex,” Brain: A Journal of Neurology 120, no. 4 (1997): 701–722.
26. David H. Hubel, “Evolution of Ideas on the Primary Visual Cortex, 1955–1978: A Biased Historical Account,” Nature 299, no. 5883 (1982): 515–524.
27. Thomas S. Harvey, interview by Frederick E. Lepore, June 4, 2000, Titusville, NJ.
28. Wilder Penfield and H. Jasper, Epilepsy and the Functional Anatomy of the Human Brain (Boston: Little, Brown, 1954).
29. Wilder Penfield and T. Rasmussen, The Cerebral Cortex of Man (New York: McMillan, 1955), 44, 57.
30. Eric R. Kandel, James H. Schwartz, and Thomas M Jessell, Principles of Neural Science, 4th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000), 349–380.
31. William Richard Gowers, A Manual of Diseases of the Nervous System (Philadelphia: Blakiston, 1888), 711.
32. Macdonald Critchley, The Parietal Lobes (London: Edward Arnold, 1953), 406–421.
33. M.-Marsel Mesulam, Principles of Behavioral and Cognitive Neurology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 174–255.
34. John F. Fulton, Functional Localization in the Frontal Lobes and Cerebellum: … Being the William Withering Memorial Lectures Delivered at the Birmingham Medical School, 1948 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1949), 62–66.
35. John F. Fulton, Frontal Lobotomy and Affective Behavior, a Neurophysiological Analysis (New York: W. W. Norton, 1951), 90–95.
36. Fulton, Functional Localization in the Frontal Lobes and Cerebellum.
37. Michael R. Trimble, “Psychopathology of Frontal Lobe Syndromes,” Seminars in Neurology 10, no. 3 (1990): 287–294.
38. Critchley, Parietal Lobes, 407.
39. Carolyn Abraham, Possessing Genius: The Bizarre Odyssey of Einstein’s Brain (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2001), 71.
40. Jochen Richter, “Pantheon of Brains: The Moscow Brain Research Institute 1925–1936,” Journal of the History of the Neurosciences 16, no. 1–2 (2007): 138–149.
41. Robert J. White, “Lenin’s Brain,” Journal of Neurosurgery 110, no. 6 (2009): 1327–1328.
42. Wilder Penfield, No Man Alone: A Neurosurgeon’s Life (Boston: Little, Brown, 1977), 172–174.
43. Macdonald Critchley, “Neurology’s Debt to FJ Gall (1758–1828),” British Medical Journal 2, no. 5465 (1965): 775–781.
44. Brian Burrell, Postcards from the Brain Museum: The Improbable Search for Meaning in the Matter of Famous Minds (New York: Broadway, 2004), 71.
45. Ibid., 305.
46. Ibid., 88.
47. R. Wagner, Über den Hirnbau der Mikrocephalen mit vergleichender Rucksicht auf den Bau des Gehirns der nomalen Menschen und der Quadrumanen. Vorstudien zu einer wissenschaftlichen Moorphologie und Physiologie des menschlichen Gehirns als Seelenorgan (Göttingen, Germany: Verlag der Dietrichschen Buchhandlung, 1862).
48. “Variation Newly Identifies the Brains of CF Gauss and CH Fuchs in a Collection at the University of Göttingen,” Brain: A Journal of Neurology 137, no. 4 (2014): e269–e269.
49. Ibid.
50. Karl Pearson, “The Brain of Laplace,” Nature 119 (1927): 560.
51. Edward Anthony Spitzka, “The Study of the Brains of Six Eminent Scientists and Scholars Belonging to the American Anthropometric Society, Together with a Description of the Skull of Professor E.D. Cope,” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 21, no. 4 (1907): 175–308.
52. Ibid.
53. Michael S. Gazzaniga, Tales from Both Sides of the Brain: A Life in Neuroscience (New York: Ecco, 2015), 42.
54. Michael S. Gazzaniga, “Forty-Five Years of Split-Brain Research and Still Going Strong,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 6, no. 8 (2005): 653–659.
55. Gazzaniga, Tales from Both Sides, 113.
56. Weiwei Men et al., “The Corpus Callosum of Albert Einstein’s Brain: Another Clue to His High Intelligence?,” Brain: A Journal of Neurology 137, no. 4 (2014): e268–e268.
4 THE LOST DECADES (1955–1985), THE CIDER BOX, AND THE MICROSCOPE
Epigraph: Nicholas Wade, “The Editorial Notebook: Einstein’s Papers, and Brain; The Physicist’s Legacy Remains Veiled to Millions,” New York Times, July 27, 1987.
1. Carolyn Abraham, Possessing Genius: The Bizarre Odyssey of Einstein’s Brain (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2001), 113.
2. Ibid., 87–91.
3. Thomas S. Harvey, interview by Frederick E. Lepore, June 4, 2000, Titusville, NJ.
4. Tom Avril, “Albert Einstein’s Gray Matter Finds a Home in Philadelphia,” Philadelphia Inquirer, November 18, 2011.
5. Christof Koch, Biophysics of Computation (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 87.
6. Abraham, Possessing Genius, 115.
7. Ibid., 108.
8. Albert Einstein, Investigations on the Theory of the Brownian Movement (New York: Dover, 1956).
9. Abraham, Possessing Genius, 124.
10. National Museum of Health and Medicine, Otis Historical Archives 00008: Medical Licensing 9, Silver Spring, MD.
11. Abraham, Possessing Genius, 250.
12. Nicholas Wade, “Brain That Rocked Physics Rests in Cider Box,” Science 201, no. 4357 (1978): 696.
13. Nicholas Wade, “Brain of Einstein Continues Peregrinations,” Science 213, no. 4507 (1981): 521.
14. Ibid.
15. Relics: Einstein’s Brain, Dir. Kevin Hull. Perf. William S Burroughs and Kenji Sugimoto. BBC Films, 1994.
16. Marian C. Diamond, “Why Einsten’s Brain?,” lecture at Doe Library, School of Education at Johns Hopkins University—Graduate Education Programs, School of Education, Johns Hopkins University, January 8, 1999.
17. Ibid.
18. Marian C. Diamond et al., “On the Brain of a Scientist: Albert Einstein,” Experimental Neurology 88, no. 1 (1985): 198–204.
19. Ibid.
20. Abraham, Possessing Genius, 178.
21. Walter Reich, “Scientists Probe Brain Cells for Keys to Genius,” Chicago Tribune, September 1, 1985, 15, 17.
22. Robert Terry, “Response to a Brief History of Einstein’s Brain,” Einstein Quarterly Journal of Biology and Medicine 19 (2002): 79.
23. Diamond, “Why Einsten’s Brain?”
24. Terence Hines, “Further on Einstein’s Brain,” Experimental Neurology 150, no. 2 (1998): 343–344.
25. Terence Hines, “Neuromythology of Einstein’s Brain,” Brain and Cognition 88 (2014): 21–25.
26. Ibid.
27. Diamond, “Why Einsten’s Brain?”
28. Sandra F. Witelson, Debra L. Kigar, and Thomas Harvey, “The Exceptional Brain of Albert Einstein,” Lancet 353, no. 9170 (1999): 2149–2153.
29. Britt Anderson, personal communication to author, 2015.
30. Abraham, Possessing Genius, 253–254.
31. Britt Anderson and Thomas Harvey, “Alterations in Cortical Thickness and Neuronal Density in the Frontal Cortex of Albert Einstein,” Neuroscience Letters 210, no. 3 (1996): 161–164.
32. Hines, “Neuromythology of Einstein’s Brain,” 21–25.
33. Britt Anderson, “G Explained,” Medical Hypotheses 45, no. 6 (1995): 602–604.
34. Britt Anderson, personal communication to author, 2015.
35. Sandra F. Witelson, Ilya I. Glezer, and Debra L. Kigar, “Women Have Greater Density of Neurons in Posterior Temporal Cortex,” Journal of Neuroscience 15, no. 5 (1995): 3418–3428.
36. Thomas Harvey and Sandra Witelson, personal communication, October 26, 1995.
37. Eri Schubert, personal communication to author, December 1, 2017.
38. Abraham, Possessing Genius, 301–302.
39. Witelson, Kigar, and Harvey, “The Exceptional Brain of Albert Einstein.”
40. Debra L. Kigar et al., “Estimates of Cell Number in Temporal Neocortex in the Brain of Albert Einstein,” Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 23 (1997): 213.
41. Ibid.
42. Ibid.
43. Thomas Harvey and Sandra Witelson, personal communication, October 26, 1995.
44. Abraham, Possessing Genius, 316.
45. James W. Papez, “A Proposed Mechanism of Emotion,” Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 38, no. 4 (1937): 725–743.
46. Dahlia Zaidel, “Neuron Soma Size in the Left and Right Hippocampus of a Genius,” 2001, http://cogprints.org/1927/.
47. Dahlia Zaidel, personal communication to author, October 8, 2015.
48. Jorge A. Colombo et al., “Cerebral Cortex Astroglia and the Brain of a Genius: A Propos of A. Einstein’s,” Brain Research Reviews 52, no. 2 (2006): 257–263.
49. Ibid.
50. Ibid.
51. Nancy Ann Oberheim, Steven A. Goldman, and Maiken Nedergaard, “Heterogeneity of Astrocytic Form and Function,” Methods in Molecular Biology 814 (2012): 23–45.
52. Helmut Kettenmann and Alexei Verkhratsky, “Neuroglia: The 150 Years After,” Trends in Neurosciences 31, no. 12 (2008): 653–659.
53. Diamond, “Why Einsten’s Brain?”
54. Eric R. Kandel, James H. Schwartz, and Thomas M. Jessell, Principles of Neural Science, 4th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000), 20.
55. Diamond, “Why Einsten’s Brain?”
56. Suzana Herculano-Houzel, “The Glia/Neuron Ratio: How It Varies Uniformly across Brain Structures and Species and What That Means for Brain Physiology and Evolution,” Glia 62, no. 9 (2014): 1377–1391.
57. Ibid.
58. Kettenmann and Verkhratsky, “Neuroglia: The 150 Years After.”
59. Oberheim, Goldman, and Nedergaard, “Heterogeneity of Astrocytic Form.”
60. Kettenmann and Verkhratsky, “Neuroglia: The 150 Years After.”
61. Patricia S. Churchland, Christof Koch, and Terrence J. Sejnowski, “What Is Computational Neuroscience?,” in Computational Neuroscience, ed. Eric L. Schwartz (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990), 46–55.
62. Oberheim, Goldman, and Nedergaard, “Heterogeneity of Astrocytic Form.”
63. Abraham, Possessing Genius, 301–302.
5 THE EXCEPTIONAL BRAIN(S) OF ALBERT EINSTEIN
Epigraphs: B. Hoffmann and H. Dukas, Albert Einstein, Creator and Rebel (New York: New American Library, 1972), 139.
Christof Koch and Gilles Laurent, “Complexity and the Nervous System,” Science 284, no. 5411 (1999): 96–98.
1. Rebecca Blumenstein, “It’s Partly in Your Head,” Wall Street Journal, April 11, 2011.
2. Elizabeth Ghaffari, Women Leaders at Work: Untold Tales of Women Achieving Their Ambitions (New York: Apress, 2011), 143–160.
3. Carolyn Abraham, Possessing Genius: The Bizarre Odyssey of Einstein’s Brain (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2001), 307.
4. Sandra F. Witelson, Debra L. Kigar, and Thomas Harvey, “The Exceptional Brain of Albert Einstein,” Lancet 353, no. 9170 (1999): 2149–2153.
5. D. Falk, “Hominin Paleoneurology: Where Are We Now?,” Progress in Brain Research 195 (2012): 255–272.
6. Witelson, Kigar, and Harvey, “Exceptional Brain of Albert Einstein.”
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid.
9. Steven Pinker, “His Brain Measured Up,” Op-Ed, New York Times, June 24, 1999.
10. Michael D. Lemonick, “Was Einstein’s Brain Built for Brilliance?,” Time, June 28, 1999.
11. Albert M. Galaburda, “Albert Einstein’s Brain,” Lancet 354, no. 9192 (1999): 1821–1823.
12. Ibid.
13. Dean Falk, Frederick E. Lepore, and Adrianne Noe, “The Cerebral Cortex of Albert Einstein: A Description and Preliminary Analysis of Unpublished Photographs,” Brain: A Journal of Neurology 136, no. 4 (2013): 1304–1327.
14. Lawrence K. Altman, “Key to Intellect May Lie in Folds of Einstein’s Brain … So, Is This Why Einstein Was so Brilliant?,” New York Times, June 18, 1999.
15. MacDonald Critchley, The Parietal Lobes (London: Edward Arnold, 1953), 55.
16. Ibid., v.
17. Frederick E. Lepore, “Dissecting Genius—Einstein’s Brain and the Search for the Neural Basis of Intellect,” Cerebrum 3, no. 1 (2001), http://www.dana.org/Cerebrum/Default.aspx?id=39337Q.
18. Ibid.
19. Oliver Sacks, The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat and Other Clinical Tales (New York: Summit Books, 1985), 73–75.
20. Critchley, Parietal Lobes, 407.
21. M.-Marsel Mesulam, Principles of Behavioral and Cognitive Neurology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 174–255.
22. Stanislas Dehaene, Reading in the Brain: The Science and Evolution of a Human Invention (New York: Viking, 2009), 317–324.
23. Pinker, “His Brain Measured Up.”
24. Witelson, Kigar, and Harvey, “Exceptional Brain of Albert Einstein.”
25. Dehaene, Reading in the Brain.
26. Witelson, Kigar, and Harvey, “Exceptional Brain of Albert Einstein.”
27. Ibid.
28. Dean Falk, e-mail message to author, 2007.
29. Dean Falk, The Fossil Chronicles: How Two Controversial Discoveries Changed Our View of Human Evolution (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011), 23–28.
30. Dean Falk, “New Information about Albert Einstein’s Brain,” Frontiers in Evolutionary Neuroscience 1 (2009): 1–6.
31. Falk, Fossil Chronicles, 76–187.
32. Ewen Callaway, “Tales of the Hobbit,” Nature 514 (2014): 422–426.
33. Hope Jahren, Lab Girl (New York: Knopf, 2016), 116.
34. Elliot Krauss, e-mail message to Dean Falk, 2008.
35. Falk, e-mail message to author, 2008.
36. Ibid.
37. Falk, “New Information.”
38. Witelson, Kigar, and Harvey, “Exceptional Brain of Albert Einstein.”
39. Falk, “New Information.”
40. Alf Brodal, Neurological Anatomy in Relation to Clinical Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), 188.
41. Falk, “New Information.”
42. Ibid.
43. Witelson, Kigar, and Harvey, “Exceptional Brain of Albert Einstein.”
44. T. A. Yousry et al., “Localization of the Motor Hand Area to a Knob on the Precentral Gyrus. A New Landmark,” Brain: A Journal of Neurology 120, no. 1 (1997): 141–157.
45. Marc Bangert and Gottfried Schlaug, “Specialization of the Specialized in Features of External Human Brain Morphology,” European Journal of Neuroscience 24, no. 6 (2006): 1832–1834.
46. Falk, Lepore, and Noe, “Cerebral Cortex of Albert Einstein.”
47. Witelson, Kigar, and Harvey, “Exceptional Brain of Albert Einstein.”
48. Falk, “New Information.”
49. Alastair Compston, e-mail message to Dean Falk, September 17, 2012.
50. Cornelius J. Connolly, External Morphology of the Primate Brain (Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1950); Michio Ono, Stefan Kubik, and Chad D. Abernathey, Atlas of the Cerebral Sulci (Stuttgart, Germany: Thieme Verlag, 1990).
51. Dean Falk, e-mail message to Adrianne Noe, April 10, 2012.
52. Ibid.
53. James D. Watson and Francis H. C. Crick, “Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids,” Nature 171, no. 4356 (1953): 737–738.
54. Galaburda, “Albert Einstein’s Brain.”
55. Dean Falk, e-mail message to author and Adrianne Noe, May 22, 2012.
56. Stanley Finger, Minds behind the Brain: A History of the Pioneers and Their Discoveries (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 91–92.
57. Alastair Compston, “Editorial,” Brain: A Journal of Neurology 131, no. 7 (2008): 1675–1676, doi: 10.1093/brain/awn057.
58. Norman Geschwind, “Disconnexion Syndromes in Animals and Man,” Brain: A Journal of Neurology 88, no. 3 (1965): 237–294, 585–644.
59. Adrianne Noe, e-mail message to author and Dean Falk, September 16, 2011.
60. “How Smart Can We Get?,” Nova, Public Broadcasting Service, October 24, 2012, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/body/how-smart-can-we-get.html.
61. Falk, Lepore, and Noe, “Cerebral Cortex of Albert Einstein.”
62. “National Medical Museum Celebrates 150th Anniversary with Grand Opening Celebration, New Exhibits in New Maryland Home,” http://www.medicalmuseum.mil/index.cfm?p=media.news.article.celebrating_150th_anniversary.
63. Abraham, Possessing Genius, 123–124.
64. Falk, Lepore, and Noe, “Cerebral Cortex of Albert Einstein.”
65. Tom Avril, “Albert Einstein’s Gray Matter Finds a Home in Philadelphia,” Philadelphia Inquirer, November 18, 2011.
66. “Einstein Brain Atlas,” https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/einstein-brain-atlas/id555722456?mt=8.
67. National Museum of Health and Medicine, “Never Before Seen Photos and ‘Maps’ of Albert Einstein’s Brain Go on Display at Medical Museum in Maryland,” March 20, 2013, http://www.medicalmuseum.mil/index.cfm?p=media.news.article.never_before_seen_photos_of_albert_einsteins_brain.
68. Joanne Bell and Dean Falk, e-mail correspondence, July 25, 2012.
69. Ibid.
70. Compston, “Editorial,” 987–989.
71. Dean Falk, e-mail message to author, June 18, 2014.
72. Gary Stix, “Einstein’s Brain: New Insights into the Roots of Genius,” Scientific American, November 16, 2012, https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/talking-back/einsteins-brain-more-special-than-we-ever-knew/.
73. Falk, Lepore, and Noe, “Cerebral Cortex of Albert Einstein.”
74. Stephen W. Hawking, A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes (London: Bantam Press, 1990), vi–viii.
75. Falk, Lepore, and Noe, “Cerebral Cortex of Albert Einstein.”
76. Ibid., 1307.
77. John Farquhar Fulton, Physiology of the Nervous System, 3rd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1951), 447.
78. Ibid.
79. Falk, “New Information.”
80. Falk, Lepore, and Noe, “Cerebral Cortex of Albert Einstein.”
81. Ibid., 1306.
82. Bangert and Schlaug, “Specialization of the Specialized.”
83. Wilder Penfield and Theodore Rasmussen, The Cerebral Cortex of Man: A Clinical Study of Localization of Function (New York: MacMillan, 1955), 57.
84. Ibid.
85. Antonio R. Damasio, “Aphasia,” New England Journal of Medicine 326 (1992): 531–539; Richard L. Strub and F. William Black, The Mental Status Examination in Neurology, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: F. A. Davis, 1985), 58.
86. Walter Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe (New York: Simon & Schuster 2007), 8.
87. Critchley, Parietal Lobes, 10.
88. Gerhardt von Bonin, The Evolution of the Human Brain (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963), 60.
89. David J. Chalmers, “The Puzzle of Conscious Experience,” Scientific American 273, no. 6 (1995): 80–87.
90. Maurice Victor and Allan H. Ropper, Adams and Victors’ Principles of Neurology, 7th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001), 482–487.
91. Critchley, Parietal Lobes, 356–377.
92. Witelson, Kigar, and Harvey, “Exceptional Brain of Albert Einstein.”
93. Ibid.
94. Connolly, External Morphology of the Primate Brain.
95. Ono, Kubik, and Abernathey, Atlas of the Cerebral Sulci.
96. Ibid., 1.
97. Connolly, External Morphology of the Primate Brain, 180.
98. Alastair Compston, e-mail message to Dean Falk, July 2012.
99. Witelson, Kigar, and Harvey, “Exceptional Brain of Albert Einstein.”
100. David C. Van Essen, “A Tension-Based Theory of Morphogenesis and Compact Wiring in the Central Nervous System,” Nature 385, no. 6614 (1997): 313–318.
101. Roger Penrose, The Emperor’s New Mind: Concerning Computers, Minds, and the Laws of Physics (New York: Penguin, 1991), 447.
102. Christof Koch, The Quest for Consciousness: A Neurobiological Approach (Englewood, CO: Roberts & Co., 2004), 7–8.
103. Weiwei Men et al., “The Corpus Callosum of Albert Einstein’s Brain: Another Clue to His Intelligence?,” Brain: A Journal of Neurology, September 21, 2013, doi:10:1093/brain/awt252.
104. “Michael S. Gazzaniga” in Larry R. Squire, ed., The History of Neuroscience in Autobiography, vol. 7 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 98–139.
105. Michael S. Gazzaniga, Joseph E. Bogen, and Roger W. Sperry, “Some Functional Effects of Sectioning the Cerebral Commissures in Man,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 48, no. 10 (1962): 1765–1769.
106. “Michael S. Gazzaniga.”
107. Ibid.
108. Michael S. Gazzaniga, “Cerebral Specialization and Interhemispheric Communication: Does the Corpus Callosum Enable the Human Condition?,” Brain: A Journal of Neurology 123, no. 7 (2000): 1293–1326.
109. Weiwei Men, “Research of Cerebral Morphology between Chinese and Caucasian and Construction of Large Sample Chinese Brain Templates” (PhD diss., East China Normal University, 2013).
110. Alastair Compston, e-mail message to Weiwei Men, July 29, 2013.
111. Weiwei Men, e-mail message to author, March 21, 2016.
112. Witelson, Kigar, and Harvey, “Exceptional Brain of Albert Einstein.”
113. Sandra F. Witelson, “Hand and Sex Differences in the Isthmus and Genu of the Human Corpus Callosum: A Postmortem Morphological Study,” Brain: A Journal of Neurology 112, no. 3 (1989): 799–835; Sandra F. Witelson, “The Brain Connection: The Corpus Callosum Is Larger in Left-Handers,” Science 229, no. 4714 (1985): 665–668.
114. Edward Anthony Spitzka, “A Study of the Brains of Six Eminent Scientists and Scholars Belonging to the American Anthropometric Society, Together with a Description of the Skull of Professor ED Cope,” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society (1907): 175–308.
6 HOW DOES A GENIUS THINK?
Epigraphs: Brian Greene, “Why He Matters,” Scientific American 313, no. 3 (2015): 34–37.
Paul Arthur Schilpp, ed., Albert Einstein, Philosopher-Scientist (New York: MJF Books, 1970), 1–95.
1. Christof Koch and Gilles Laurent, “Complexity and the Nervous System,” Science 284, no. 5411 (1999): 96–98.
2. Ronald Clark, Einstein: The Life and Times (New York: Avon, 2007), 1–864
3. Banesh Hoffmann and Helen Dukas, Albert Einstein, Creator and Rebel: (New York: New American Library, 1972), 1–272.
4. Walter Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2007), 1–675.
5. Ibid., 8–31.
6. Schilpp, Albert Einstein, Philosopher-Scientist.
7. Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe, 543.
8. Schilpp, Albert Einstein, Philosopher-Scientist.
9. Bertrand Russell, The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell: 1872–1914 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1967), 37–38.
10. Schilpp, Albert Einstein, Philosopher-Scientist.
11. Ibid.
12. Albert Einstein, “Physics and Reality,” Journal of the Franklin Institute 221, no. 3 (1936): 349–382.
13. Schilpp, Albert Einstein, Philosopher-Scientist.
14. Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe, 79–84.
15. Albert Einstein and Leopold Infeld, The Evolution of Physics: The Growth of Ideas from Early Concepts to Relativity and Quanta (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1954), 310–313.
16. Steven Strogatz, “Einstein’s First Proof,” New Yorker, November 19, 2015, https://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/einsteins-first-proof-pythagorean-theorem.
17. Schilpp, Albert Einstein, Philosopher-Scientist.
18. Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe, 8–31.
19. Hoffmann and Dukas, Albert Einstein, Creator and Rebel, 94–95.
20. Dean Falk, Frederick E. Lepore, and Adrianne Noe, “The Cerebral Cortex of Albert Einstein: A Description and Preliminary Analysis of Unpublished Photographs,” Brain: A Journal of Neurology 136, no. 4 (2012): 1304–1327.
21. Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe, 8–31.
22. Brian Foster, “Einstein and His Love of Music,” Physics World 18, no. 1 (2005): 34.
23. Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe, 8–31.
24. Ibid., 32–49.
25. Ibid.
26. Hoffmann and Dukas, Albert Einstein, Creator and Rebel, 37–42.
27. Ibid., 55–59.
28. Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe, 90–106.
29. Ed Regis, Who Got Einstein’s Office?: Eccentricity and Genius at the Institute for Advanced Study (Amsterdam: Addison-Wesley, 1987), 112–114.
30. Hoffmann and Dukas, Albert Einstein, Creator and Rebel, 103–133.
31. Hoffmann and Dukas, Albert Einstein, Creator and Rebel, 37–42.
32. Plato, translator Benjamin Jowett, The Dialogues of Plato (New York: Random House, 1937), 349–380.
33. Ibid.
34. Martin Cohen, Wittgenstein’s Beetle and Other Classic Thought Experiments (Oxford:Blackwell, 2005), viii–ix.
35. Philip Ball, “Tall Tales,” News@nature (2005). http://www.nature.com/news/2005/050613/full/new050613-10.html.
36. Cohen, Wittgenstein’s Beetle, 1–14.
37. Plato, Dialogues of Plato.
38. Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963), 10–22.
39. Hoffmann and Dukas, Albert Einstein, Creator and Rebel, 103–133.
40. “Lights All Askew in the Heavens,” New York Times, November 10, 1919.
41. James Robert Brown, “Peeking into Plato’s Heaven,” Philosophy of Science 71, no. 5 (2004): 1126–1138.
42. Brian Greene, The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory (New York: Vintage Books 2000), 135–165.
43. Ibid.
44. Jules Violle, Lehrbuch der Physik (Berlin: Springer, 1892).
45. Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe, 8–31.
46. Ibid.
47. James Robert Brown, Laboratory of the Mind: Thought Experiments in the Natural Sciences, Philosophical Issues in Science Series (London: Routledge, 1993), 1–32.
48. Ibid.
49. William A. Rushton, Visual Pigments in Man (Springfield: Charles C. Thomas, 1962), 1–7.
50. Brown, Laboratory of the Mind.
51. Malcolm Gladwell, Outliers: The Story of Success (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2008), 35–68.
52. Albert Einstein, “Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper,” Annalen der Physik 17, no. 10 (1905): 891–921.
53. Gladwell, Outliers.
54. Brian Greene, The Fabric of the Cosmos: Space, Time, and the Texture of Reality (New York: Vintage, 2005), 39–76.
55. Albert Einstein, Relativity: The Special and General Theory (New York: Henry Holt, 1921), 25–33.
56. Peter Galison, Einstein’s Clocks, Poincaré’s Maps: Empires of Time (New York: W. W. Norton, 2003), 221–293.
57. Einstein, Relativity: The Special and General Theory.
58. Ibid.
59. Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe, 313–314.
60. Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky, and Nathan Rosen, “Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?,” Physical Review 47, no. 10 (1935): 777–780.
61. Hoffmann and Dukas, Albert Einstein, Creator and Rebel, 60–82.
62. Schilpp, Albert Einstein, Philosopher-Scientist.
63. Sigmund Freud et al., “The Unconscious,” in Sigmund Freud, Collected Papers: Volumes I–V, vol. 4 (London: Hogarth, 1953), 98–136.
64. Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe, 357–383.
65. Thomas Levenson, Einstein in Berlin (New York: Bantam, 2003), 306–325.
66. William J. Cromie, “Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour,” Harvard Gazette (Cambridge, MA), July 15, 1999, https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/1999/07/human-biological-clock-set-back-an-hour/.
67. Greene, Fabric of the Cosmos.
68. “Albert Einstein,” in Biographical Memoirs, vol. 51 (Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, 1980), https://www.nap.edu/read/574/chapter/7.
69. Jeremy Bernstein, “Einstein: An Exchange,” New York Review of Books, August 17, 2007.
70. Schilpp, Albert Einstein, Philosopher-Scientist, 199–242.
71. Michael S. Gazzaniga, “Cerebral Specialization and Interhemispheric Communication: Does the Corpus Callosum Enable the Human Condition?,” Brain: A Journal of Neurology 123, no. 7 (2000): 1293–1326.
72. Francis Crick and Christof Koch, “Are We Aware of Neural Activity in Primary Visual Cortex?,” Nature 375, no. 6527 (1995): 121–123.
73. Henry More, A Platonick Song of the Soul (Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 1998).
74. Thomas Carlyle, French Revolution (New York: A. L. Burt, 1925), 5.
75. Schilpp, Albert Einstein, Philosopher-Scientist, 1–95.
76. Greene, Fabric of the Cosmos.
77. Schilpp, Albert Einstein, Philosopher-Scientist, 1–95.
78. Einstein, “Physics and Reality.”
79. René Dubos and J. Louis Pasteur, Free Lance of Science (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1950), 19.
80. Walter Isaacson, “The Light-Beam Rider,” New York Times, October 30, 2015.
81. “Einstein Expounds His Theory,” New York Times, December 2, 1919.
82. Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe, 145.
83. “Einstein Expounds His Theory.”
84. Albert Einstein, “How I Created the Theory of Relativity,” trans. Y. A. Ono, Physics Today 35, no. 8 (1982): 45–47.
85. Abraham Pais,“Subtle Is the Lord …”: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein (Oxford: Clarendon, 1982), 177–183.
86. Greene, Elegant Universe, 53–84.
87. Albert Einstein, Relativity: The Special and General Theory, 78–83.
88. Ibid.
89. Peter Galison, Einstein’s Clocks, Poincaré’s Maps, 347.
90. Greene, Fabric of the Cosmos.
91. H. Gutfreund and Jürgen Renn, The Road to Relativity: The History and Meaning of Einstein’s “The Foundation of General Relativity” Featuring the Original Manuscript of Einstein’s Masterpiece (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015), 37–139.
92. Hoffmann and Dukas, Albert Einstein, Creator and Rebel, 103–133.
93. Gutfreund and Renn, The Road to Relativity.
94. Hoffmann and Dukas, Albert Einstein, Creator and Rebel, 103–133.
95. Gutfreund and Renn, The Road to Relativity.
96. Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe, 189–224.
97. William Shakespeare, The Merchant of Venice (Baltimore: Penguin, 1964). 79.
98. Stanislas Dehaene, The Number Sense: How the Mind Creates Mathematics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 207–230.
99. Falk, Lepore, and Noe, “The Cerebral Cortex of Albert Einstein.”
100. Einstein and Infeld, The Evolutuion of Physics, 220–235.
101. Einstein, Relativity: The Special and General Theory, 78–83.
102. Robert W. Baloh and Vincente Honrubia, Clinical Neurophysiology of the Vestibular System (Philadelphia: F. A. Davis, 1990), 3–19.
103. Einstein, “How I Created the Theory of Relativity.”
104. Thomas Brandt, “Man in Motion: Historical and Clinical Aspects of Vestibular Function: A Review,” Brain: A Journal of Neurology 114, no. 5 (1991): 2159–2174.
105. Baloh and Honrubia, Clinical Neurophysiology of the Vestibular System, 44–87.
106. R. Barany, “Some New Methods for Functional Testing of the Vestibular Apparatus and the Cerebellum: Nobel Lecture September 11, 1916,” in Nobel Lectures: Physiology or Medicine 1901–1921 (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1967), 500–511.
107. Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe, 189–224.
108. “Albert Einstein,” in Biographical Memoirs.
109. Hoffmann and Dukas, Albert Einstein, Creator and Rebel, 103–133.
110. Greene, “Why He Matters.”
111. “Albert Einstein,” in Biographical Memoirs.
112. Nicola Twilley, “Gravitational Waves Exist: Inside the Story of How Scientists Finally Found Them,” The New Yorker, February 11, 2016.
113. Albert Einstein, “Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhängig?,” Annalen der Physik 323, no. 18 (1905): 639–641.
114. Hoffmann and Dukas, Albert Einstein, Creator and Rebel, 60–82.
115. Lincoln Barnett, The Universe and Dr. Einstein (New York: William Sloane, 1948), 55–60.
116. Albert Einstein, “E = MC2: The Most Urgent Problem of Our Time,” Science Illustrated, April 1946: 16–17.
117. Hoffmann and Dukas, Albert Einstein, Creator and Rebel, 60–82.
118. Einstein, “E = MC2.”
119. Albert Einstein, “Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt,” Annalen der Physik 17 (1905): 132–148.
120. Manjit Kumar, Quantum: Einstein, Bohr, and the Great Debate about the Nature of Reality (London: Icon Books, 2014), 281–287.
121. Ibid.
122. Hoffmann and Dukas, Albert Einstein, Creator and Rebel, 60–82.
123. John S. Bell, “On the Einstein Podolsky Rosen Paradox,” Physics 1, no. 3 (1964): 195–200.
124. Zeeya Merali. “Toughest Test Yet for Quantum ‘Spookiness,’ ” Nature 15 (2015): 14–15.
125. Albert Einstein, Max Born, and Hedwig Born, The Born-Einstein Letters: Correspondence between Albert Einstein and Max and Hedwig Born from 1916 to 1955 (New York: Walker, 1971), 90–91.
126. Hoffman and Dukas, Albert Einstein, Creator and Rebel, 193–196.
127. “Einstein Believes in ‘Spinoza’s God,’ ” New York Times, April 25, 1929.
128. Hoffman and Dukas, Albert Einstein, Creator and Rebel, 193–196.
129. Schilpp, Albert Einstein, Philosopher-Scientist, 201–241.
130. John Hersey, Hiroshima (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1946), 25.
131. Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986), 233–317.
132. Arthur C. Clarke, Profiles of the Future: An Inquiry into the Limits of the Possible (London: Macmillan, 1973), 36.
133. Rhodes, Making of the Atomic Bomb, 233–317.
134. William Lanouette, Genius in the Shadows: A Biography of Leo Szilard: The Man behind the Bomb (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1992), 194–213.
135. Rhodes, Making of the Atomic Bomb, 357–393.
136. “Science Crossroads” and cover, Time, July 1, 1946.
137. “The War,” Time, August 20, 1945, 8–10.
138. Rhodes, Making of the Atomic Bomb, 617–678.
139. Robert Serber, The Los Alamos Primer: The First Lectures on How to Build an Atomic Bomb (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 5–9.
140. Samuel Glasstone and Philip J. Dolan, Effects of Nuclear Weapons, no. TID-28061 (Washington, DC: Department of Defense, 1977), 12.
141. “Science: Crossroads,” Time, July 1, 1946.
142. Serber, Los Alamos Primer, ix–xxi.
143. Einstein, Relativity: The Special and General Theory, 115–118
144. Roger Penrose, “Introduction,” in A. Einstein, Relativity (New York: Plume, 2006), ix–xxvi.
145. D. C. Dennett, Intuition Pumps and Other Tools for Thinking (New York: W. W. Norton, 2012), 1–16.
146. Ibid.
147. T. S. Eliot, The Complete Poems and Plays: 1909–1950 (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1971), 74–85.
148. Christof Koch, The Quest for Consciousness: A Neurobiological Approach (Englewood, CO: Roberts, 2004), 343.
149. David Chalmers, “The Puzzle of Conscious Experience,” Scientific American 273, no. 6 (1995): 80–86.
150. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, trans. G.E M. Anscombe (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1953), 2.
151. James Joyce and Hans Walter Gabler, Ulysses (New York: Random House, 1986), 608–644.
152. Daniel Dennett, “A Difference That Makes a Difference,” Edge, November 22, 2017, https://www.edge.org/print/node/27405.
153. Jacques Hadamard, The Mathematician’s Mind: The Psychology of Invention in the Mathematical Field (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 142–143.
154. Schilpp, Albert Einstein, Philosopher-Scientist.
155. Falk, Lepore, and Noe, “The Cerebral Cortex of Albert Einstein.”
156. Randy L. Buckner, “The Cerebellum and Cognitive Function: 25 Years of Insight from Anatomy and Neuroimaging,” Neuron 80, no. 3 (2013): 807–815.
157. Frederick E. Lepore, “Harvey Cushing, Gordon Holmes, and the Neurological Lessons of World War I,” Archives of Neurology 51, no. 7 (1994): 711–722.
158. Jeremy D. Schmahmann, “An Emerging Concept: The Cerebellar Contribution to Higher Function,” Archives of Neurology 48, no. 11 (1991): 1178–1187.
159. Alf Brodal. Neurological Anatomy in Relationto Clinical Medicine, 3rd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), 301–306.
160. Buckner, “The Cerebellum and Cognitive Function.”
161. Hadamard, The Mathematician’s Mind.
162. William James, The Principles of Psychology, vol. 1 (New York: Henry Holt, 1890), 402–458.
163. Christof Koch, Consciousness: Confessions of a Romantic Reductionist (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012), 41–57.
164. Bernard J. Baars, “Metaphors of Consciousness and Attention in the Brain,” Trends in Neuroscience 21 (1998): 58–62.
165. Weiwei Men et al., “The Corpus Callosum of Albert Einstein’s Brain: Another Clue to His High Intelligence?,” Brain: A Journal of Neurology 137, no. 4 (2014): 1–8.
166. Charles Scott Sherrington, Goethe on Nature and on Science (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1949), 16.
167. Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe, 384–391.
168. Schilpp, Albert Einstein, Philosopher-Scientist, 1–95.
169. Einstein, “Physics and Reality.”
170. Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe, 79–84.
171. Abraham Pais, ‘Subtle is the Lord …’:The Science and Life of Albert Einstein (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), 318–320.
172. Pais, ‘Subtle is the Lord …,’ 5–25.
173. Pais, ‘Subtle is the Lord …,’ 454–457.
174. “Genius,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed., vol. 11 (New York: The Encyclopedia Britannica Company, 1910), 594–595.
175. Falk, Lepore, and Noe, “The Cerebral Cortex of Albert Einstein.”
176. Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe, 8–31.
177. Vilayanur S. Ramachandran, The Tell-Tale Brain: A Neuroscientist’s Quest for What Makes Us Human (New York: W. W. Norton, 2011), 183–191.
178. Schilpp, Albert Einstein, Philosopher-Scientist.
179. Einstein and Infeld, The Evolution of Physics, 129–260.
180. Hoffman and Dukas, Albert Einstein, Creator and Rebel, 103–133.
181. Einstein, “Physics and Reality.”
182. Albert Einstein, Ideas and Opinions (New York: Crown, 1954), 18–24.
183. Greene, Fabric of the Cosmos, 219–250.
184. Richard P. Feynman, Robert B. Leighton, and Matthew Sands, Lectures on Physics, vol. 2 (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1964), 42-1–42-14.
185. Greene, Fabric of the Cosmos, 219–250.
186. Einstein, Ideas and Opinions, 18–24.
187. Einstein, “Physics and Reality.”
188. Levenson, Einstein in Berlin, 208–217.
189. Hoffman and Dukas, Albert Einstein, Creator and Rebel, 103–133.
190. Levenson, Einstein in Berlin, 208–217.
191. Gutfreund and Renn, The Road to Relativity.
192. Pais, ‘Subtle is the Lord …,’ vi.
193. David Wessel, “The ‘Eureka’ Moments Happen Later,” Wall Street Journal, September 5, 2012.
194. Benjamin Jones, E. J. Reedy, and Bruce A. Weinberg, “Age and Scientific Genius,” in The Wiley Handbook of Genius, ed. D. K. Simonton (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2014), 422–451.
195. Margaret W. Ferguson, Mary Jo Salter, and Jon Stallworthy, The Norton Anthology of Poetry (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005), 1572–1573.
196. Ian J. Deary, Intelligence (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 19–42.
197. Schilpp, Albert Einstein, Philosopher-Scientist.
198. Bertrand Russell, “Whitehead and Principia Mathematica,” Mind 57, no. 226 (1948): 137–138.
199. Bernard E. Tomlinson, Garry Blessed, and Martin Roth, “Observations on the Brains of Non-demented Old People,” Journal of the Neurological Sciences 7, no. 2 (1968): 331–356.
200. Trey Hedden and John D. E. Gabrieli, “Insights into the Ageing Mind: A View from Cognitive Neuroscience,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 5, no. 2 (2004): 87–96.
201. Ibid.
202. Falk, Lepore, and Noe, “The Cerebral Cortex of Albert Einstein.”
203. Tomlinson, Blessed, and Roth, “Observations on the Brains.”
204. J. H Adams and L. W. Duchen, Greenfield’s Neuropathology, 5th ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 1284–1410.
205. Ibid.
206. Tomlinson, Blessed, and Roth, “Observations on the Brains.”
207. T. Avril, “Albert Einstein’s Gray Matter Finds a Home in Philadelphia,” Philadelphia Inquirer, November 8, 2011; Lucy Rorke-Adams, personal communication to author, 2011.
208. Carolyn Abraham, Possessing Genius: The Bizarre Odyssey of Einstein’s Brain (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2001), 110.
209. Jim Holt, Why Does the World Exist?: An Existential Detective Story (New York: Liveright, 2012), 10–11.
210. Greene, Fabric of the Cosmos, 3–22.
211. Greene, Elegant Universe, 3–20.
212. William L. Laurence, “Einstein Offers a New Theory To Unify Laws of the Cosmos,” New York Times, March 30, 1953.
213. Greene, Elegant Universe, 283–319.
214. Ibid., 3–20.
215. Gutfreund and Renn, The Road to Relativity.
216. Greene, Elegant Universe, 231–262.
217. Greene, Elegant Universe, 3–20.
218. Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe, 189–224.
219. Einstein, “Physics and Reality.”
220. Clark, Einstein: The Life and Times; Hoffmann and Dukas, Albert Einstein, Creator and Rebel; Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe.
221. Levenson, Einstein in Berlin, 1–7.
222. Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe, 394–424.
7 THE PURSUIT OF GENIUS
Epigraph: Harold Bloom, Genius: A Mosaic of One Hundred Exemplary Creative Minds (New York: Warner Books, 2002), 1–12.
1. Frederick E. Lepore, “Dissecting Genius—Einstein’s Brain and the Search for the Neural Basis of Intellect,” Cerebrum 3, no. 1 (2001), http://www.dana.org/Cerebrum/Default.aspx?id=39337.
2. Ibid.
3. Bloom, Genius.
4. Kay R. Jamison, Touched with Fire: Manic-Depressive Illness and the Artistic Temperament (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993), 49–99.
5. Charles Percy Snow, Variety of Men (New York: C. Scribner’s Sons, 1966), 87–122.
6. “Genius,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed., vol. 11 (New York: The Encyclopedia Britannica Company, 1910), 594–595.
7. Samuel Johnson, A Dictionary of the English Language (London: W. Strahan, 1755).
8. Frederick E. Lepore, unpublished research, 2017.
9. Alexander Pope and Henry Walcott Boynton, The Complete Poetical Works of Alexander Pope (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1931), 135.
10. Snow, Variety of Men.
11. Walter Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2007), 309–335.
12. Ibid., 262.
13. Ibid., 309–335.
14. Andrew Robinson, Genius: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 1.
15. Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles A. Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press, 1994), 1–24.
16. Ian J. Deary, Intelligence: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 1–18.
17. Howard Gardner, Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century (New York: Basic Books, 1999), 1–292.
18. Gardner, Intelligence Reframed, 79–114.
19. Ibid.
20. Deary, Intelligence.
21. David Wechsler, The Measurement of Adult Intelligence (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1944), 3–48.
22. Ibid.
23. Catharine M Cox, The Early Mental Traits of Three Hundred Geniuses (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1926), 1–842.
24. David Wallechinsky, Irving Wallace, and Amy Wallace, The People’s Almanac Presents the Book of Lists (New York: Morrow, 1977), 1–521.
25. Robinson, Genius, 40–53.
26. http://www.eoht.info/page/Cox+IQ
27. Wechsler, Measurement of Adult Intelligence.
28. Lewis M. Terman, Mental and Physical Traits of a Thousand Gifted Children (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1925). 1–648.
29. Nancy C. Andreasen, The Creative Brain: The Science of Genius (New York: Plume, 2006), 1–17.
30. Ibid.
31. Deary, Intelligence, 102–113.
32. Robinson, Genius, 40–53.
33. Tom Clynes, “How to Raise a Genius,” Nature 537 (2016): 152–155.
34. Francis Galton, Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry into Its Laws and Consequences (London: Julian Friedmann, 1978), 1–3.
35. Ibid., vii–xxvii.
36. Alexander Pope, An Essay on Man: Epistle I in The Complete Works of Pope (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1931), 141.
37. Galton, Hereditary Genius, 316–335.
38. Ibid.
39. Ibid., vii–xxvii.
40. Francis Galton, English Men of Science: Their Nature and Nurture (London: Macmillan, 1874), 12.
41. Robinson, Genius.
42. Thomas J. Bouchard Jr. et al., “Sources of Human Psychological Differences: The Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart,” Science 250, no. 4978 (1990): 223–228.
43. Deary, Intelligence, 67–90.
44. Ibid.
45. Eric R. Kandel, Reductionism in Art and Brain Science (New York: Columbia University Press, 2016), 41–58.
46. Ibid.
47. Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe, 79–84; Paul Arthur Schilpp, Albert Einstein, Philosopher-Scientist (New York MJF Books 1970), 1–95.
48. Dean Falk, Frederick E. Lepore, and Adrianne Noe, “The Cerebral Cortex of Albert Einstein: A Description and Preliminary Analysis of Unpublished Photographs,” Brain: A Journal of Neurology 136, no. 4 (2013): 1304–1327.
49. Stephen Jay Gould, “Nonoverlapping Magisteria,” Natural History 106, no. 2 (1997): 16–22.
50. Colin McGinn, The Mysterious Flame (New York: Basic Books, 1999), 1–29.
51. Ibid., 31–76.
52. Brian D. Burrell, “Genius in a Jar,” Scientific American 313, no. 3 (2015): 82–87
53. Dean Falk “New Information about Albert Einstein’s Brain,” Frontiers in Evolutionary Neuroscience 1 (2009): 1–6.
54. Nancy C. Andreasen et al., “Intelligence and Brain Structure in Normal Individuals,” American Journal of Psychiatry 150, no. 1 (1993): 130–134.
55. Stephen Jay Gould, The Mismeasure of Man (New York: W. W. Norton, 1981), 73–112.
56. Gerhard Roth and Ursula Dicke, “Evolution of the Brain and Intelligence,” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 9, no. 5 (2005): 250–257.
57. Ibid.
58. Suzana Herculano-Houzel, “The Remarkable, Yet Not Extraordinary, Human Brain as a Scaled-Up Primate Brain and Its Associated Cost,” supplement 1, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109 (2012): 10661–10668.
59. Jared Diamond, The Third Chimpanzee (New York: Harper Perennial, 1993), 32–57.
60. Ibid., 11–13.
61. Diamond, Third Chimpanzee, 363–368.
62. Ibid.
63. David Lewis-Williams, The Mind in the Cave (London: Thames and Hudson, 2002), 96–100.
64. Roger Lewin, “Is Your Brain Really Necessary?,” Science 210, no. 4475 (1980): 1232–1234.
65. John H. Menkes, Textbook of Child Neurology, 3rd ed. (Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1985), 197–199.
66. Herculano-Houzel, “The Remarkable, Yet Not Extraordinary, Human Brain.”
67. Randy L. Buckner, “The Cerebellum and Cognitive Function: 25 Years of Insight from Anatomy and Neuroimaging,” Neuron 80, no. 3 (2013): 807–815.
68. Eric R. Kandel, J. H. Schwartz, and T. M. Jessell, Principles of Neural Science, 4th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000), 1041–1062.
69. Dean Falk, “Evolution of Brain and Culture: The Neurological and Cognitive Journey from Australopithecus to Albert Einstein,” Journal of Anthropological Sciences 94 (June 2016): 1–14.
70. A. P. Betran et al., “The Increasing Trend in Caesarean Section Rates: Global, Regional, and National Estimates: 1990–2014,” PLOS One 11, no. 2 (2016), doi:e0148343.doi:10/1371/journal.pone.0148.
71. Ibid.
72. Dean Falk, “Evolution of Brain and Culture.”
73. Herculano-Houzel, “The Remarkable, Yet Not Extraordinary, Human Brain.”
74. Gilbert Ryle, The Concept of Mind (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1949), 11–24.
75. Gould, Mismeasure of Man, 19–29.
76. Deary, Intelligence.
77. Christof Koch, Consciousness: Confessions of a Romantic Reductionist (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012), 41–57.
78. Christof Koch et al., “Neural Correlates of Consciousness: Progress and Problems,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 17, no. 5 (2016): 307–321.
79. Ibid.
80. Ibid.
81. Ibid.
82. John F. Fulton, Selected Readings in the History of Physiology (Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1930), 37–105.
83. Ibid.
84. Ibid.
85. Sara Reardon, “Giant Neuron Encircles Entire Brain of a Mouse,” Nature 543 (March 2017): 14–15.
8 WHERE DO WE GO FROM HERE? (AND WHERE HAVE WE BEEN?)
Epigraph: Christof Koch and Gary Marcus, “Neuroscience in 2064: A Look at the Last Century,” in The Future of the Brain: Essays by the World’s Leading Neuroscientists, ed. Gary Marcus and J. Freeman (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015), 255–284.
1. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, The Complete Works of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, vol. 1 (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1871), 357.
2. David J. Chalmers, “The Puzzle of Conscious Experience,” Scientific American 273, no. 6 (1995): 80–86.
3. Charles P. Snow, The Physicists (Boston: Little, Brown, 1981), 35–50.
4. Dean Falk, Frederick E. Lepore, and Adrianne Noe, “The Cerebral Cortex of Albert Einstein: A Description and Preliminary Analysis of Unpublished Photographs,” Brain: A Journal of Neurology 136, no. 4 (2013): 1304–1327.
5. Andreas Vesalius, De Humani Corporis Fabrica, Book Seven (Basel: Johannes Oporinus, 1543).
6. Z. Josh Huang and L. Luo, “It Takes the World to Understand the Brain,” Science 350, no. 42 (2015): 42–44.
7. James H. Breasted, The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, vol. 1 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1930), 78–224.
8. Antonio Damasio, Descartes’ Error (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1994), 3–19.
9. Hanna Damasio et al., “The Return of Phineas Gage: Clues about the Brain from the Skull of a Famous Patient,” Science 264, no. 5176 (1994): 1102–1105.
10. Damasio, Descartes’ Error.
11. O. Devinsky and M. A. Samuels, “The Brain That Changed Neurology: Broca’s 1861 Case of Aphasia,” Annals of Neurology 80, no. 3 (2016): 321–325.
12. Luke Dittrich, Patient H.M.: A Story of Memory, Madness, and Family Secrets (New York: Random House, 2016), 201–218.
13. Jacopo Annese et al., “Postmortem Examination of Patient H.M.’s Brain Based on Histological Sectioning and Digital 3D Reconstruction,” Nature Communications, January 28, 2014, doi:10.1038/ncomms4122.
14. Ibid.
15. Ibid.
16. Wilder Penfield and T. Rasmussen, Cerebral Cortex of Man: A Clinical Study of Localization of Function (New York: Macmillan, 1955), 164–167.
17. Frederick E. Lepore, “When Seeing Is Not Believing,” Cerebrum: The Dana Forum on Brain Science 4 (2002): 23–38.
18. R. Elder, “Speaking Secrets: Epilepsy, Neurosurgery, and Patient Testimony in the Age of the Explorable Brain,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 89, no. 4 (2015): 761–789.
19. A. Z. Crepeau and J. I. Sirven, “Management of Adult Onset Seizures,” Mayo Clinic Proceedings 92, no. 2 (2017): 306–318.
20. G. Holmes and W. T. Lister, “Disturbances of Vision from Cerebral Lesions, with Special Reference to the Cortical Representation of the Macula,” Brain: A Journal of Neurology 39 (1916): 34–73.
21. G. Holmes, “Ferrier Lecture: The Organization of the Visual Cortex in Man,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, series B, 132, no. 869 (1945): 348–361.
22. G. Holmes, “Disturbances of Vision by Cerebral Lesions,” British Journal of Ophthalmology 2, no. 7 (1918): 353–384.
23. F.M.R. Walshe, “Gordon Morgan Holmes 1876–1965,” Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 12 (1966): 311–326.
24. Frederick E. Lepore, “Harvey Cushing, Gordon Holmes, and the Neurologic Lessons of World War I,” Archives of Neurology 51 (1994): 711–722.
25. Paul Arthur Schilpp, ed., Albert Einstein, Philosopher-Scientist (New York: MJF Books, 1970), 1–95.
26. Jacques Hadamard, The Mathematician’s Mind: The Psychology of Invention in the Mathematical Field (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 142–143.
27. A. Louveau et al., “Structural and Functional Features of Central Nervous System Lymphatic Vessels,” Nature 523, no. 7560 (2015): 337–341.
28. Norman Geschwind, Selected Papers on Language and the Brain (Boston: Reidel, 1974), 364–369.
29. Ibid.
30. Dean Falk, “New Information about Einstein’s Brain,” Frontiers in Evolutionary Neuroscience 1, no. 3 (2009), 1–6.
31. T. A. Yousry et al., “Localization of the Motor Hand Area to a Knob on the Precentral Gyrus. A New Landmark,” pt. 1, Brain 120 (1997): 141–157.
32. M. Bangert and G. Schlaug, “Specialization of the Specialized in Features of External Human Brain Morphology,” European Journal of Neuroscience 24, no. 6 (2006): 1832–1834.
33. Yousry et al., “Localization of the Motor Hand Area.”
34. Sandra F. Witelson, Debra L. Kigar, and Thomas Harvey, “The Exceptional Brain of Albert Einstein,” Lancet 353, no. 9170 (1999): 2149–2153.
35. Bangert and Schlaug, “Specialization of the Specialized.”
36. Falk, “New Information.”
37. Mitchell Glickstein and Giacomo Rizzolatti, “Francesco Gennari and the Structure of the Cerebral Cortex,” Trends in Neurosciences 7, no. 12 (1984): 464–467.
38. Mitchell Glickstein, “The Discovery of the Visual Cortex,” Scientific American 259, no. 3 (1988): 118–127.
39. J. J. Maller et al., “Occipital Bending in Depression,” pt. 3, Brain: A Journal of Neurology 137 (2014): 1830–1837.
40. Falk, Lepore, and Noe, “The Cerebral Cortex of Albert Einstein.”
41. Maller et al., “Occipital Bending in Depression.”
42. Walter Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe (New York: Simon & Schuster 2007), 366.
43. J. R. Garrison et al., “Paracingulate Sulcus Morphology is Associated with Hallucinations in the Human Brain,” Nature Communications 17, no. 6 (2015): 8956, doi:10.1038/ncomms9956.
44. H. Steinmetz et al., “Discordant Brain-Surface Anatomy in Monozygotic Twins,” New England Journal of Medicine 331, no. 14 (1994): 952–954.
45. S. A. Graham and S. E. Fisher, “Decoding the Genetics of Speech and Language,” Current Opinion in Neurobiology 23, no. 1 (2013): 43–51.
46. National Institutes of Health, BRAIN 2025: A Scientific Vision, June 5, 2014, https://braininitiative.nih.gov/pdf/BRAIN2025_508C.pdf.
47. Ibid.
48. J. W. Lichtman and W. Denk, “The Big and the Small: Challenges of Imaging the Brain’s Circuits,” Science 334, no. 6056 (2011): 618–623.
49. National Institutes of Health, BRAIN 2025.
50. N. K. Logothetis, “What We Can Do and What We Cannot Do with fMRI,” Nature 453, no. 7197 (2008): 869–878.
51. Denis Le Bihan, Looking Inside the Brain: The Power of Neuroimaging (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012), 38–55.
52. Ibid.
53. C. S. Roy and C.S. Sherrington, “On the Regulation of the Blood-Supply of the Brain,” Journal of Physiology 11 (1890): 85–158.
54. J. W. Belliveau et al., “Functional Mapping of the Human Visual Cortex by Magnetic Resonance Imaging,” Science 254, no. 5032 (1991): 716–719.
55. Le Bihan, Looking Inside the Brain, 82–103.
56. A. Eklund, T. E. Nichols, and H. Knutsson, “Cluster Failure: Why fMRI Inferences for Spatial Extent Have Inflated False-Positive Rates,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113, no. 33: (2016): 7900–7905.
57. Logothetis, “What We Can Do.”
58. Le Bihan, Looking Inside the Brain.
59. Stanislas Dehaene, The Number Sense: How the Mind Creates Mathematics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 207–230.
60. Macdonald Critchley, The Parietal Lobes (London: Edward Arnold, 1953), 203–224.
61. Ibid.
62. Dehaene, Number Sense.
63. M.-Marsel Mesulam, Principles of Behavioral and Cognitive Neurology, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 1–120.
64. Mitchell Glickstein, Neuroscience: A Historical Introduction (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2014), 1–407.
65. William M. Briggs, “Cluster Failure: Biggest ‘I Told You So’ Yet. fMRI Stinks,” http://wmbriggs.com/post/19230/.
66. Louisa Lyon “Evoked Response: Dead Salmon and Voodoo Correlations: Should We Be Skeptical about Functional MRI?,” Brain 140 (2017): 1–5.
67. National Institutes of Health, BRAIN 2025.
68. Brian Greene, The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory (New York: Vintage, 2000), 53–84.
69. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (London: Harcourt, Brace, 1922), 189.
70. Dominic H. ffytche and M. Catani, “Beyond Localization from Hodology to Function,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 360, no. 1456 (2005): 767–779.
71. Sebastian Seung, Connectome: How the Brain’s Wiring Makes Us Who We Are (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2012), ix–xxii.
72. Norman Geschwind, “Disconnexion Syndromes in Animals and Man, I,” Brain: A Journal of Neurology 88, no. 2 (1965): 237–294; Norman Geschwind, “Disconnexion Syndromes in Animals and Man, II,” Brain: A Journal of Neurology 88, no. 3 (1965): 585–644.
73. O. Sporns, G. Tononi, and R. Kotter, “The Human Connectome: A Structural Description of the Human Brain,” PLoS Computational Biology 1, no. 4 (2005): e42.
74. Jeremy D. Schmahmann et al., “Cerebral White Matter: Neuroanatomy, Clinical Neurology, and Neurobehavioral Correlates,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1142 (2008): 266–309.
75. Ibid.
76. Jeff W. Lichtman and Winfried Denk, “The Big and the Small: Challenges of Imaging the Brain’s Circuits,” Science 334 (2011): 618–623.
77. Richard E. Passingham, “What We Can and Cannot Tell about the Wiring of the Human Brain,” NeuroImage 80 (October 2013): 14–17.
78. Seung, Connectome, 170–184.
79. Christof Koch, Biophysics of Computation (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 87.
80. J. W. Lichtman, H. P. Fister, and N. Shavit, “The Big Data Challenges of Connectomics,” Nature Neuroscience 17, no. 11 (2014): 1448–1454.
81. Christof Koch, “The Connected Self,” Nature 482 (February 2012): 31.
82. Seung, Connectome, 155–169.
83. J. G. White et al., “The Structure of the Nervous System of the Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 314, no. 1165 (1986): 1–340.
84. Koch, “Connected Self.”
85. Nick Wingfield, “Video Games Help Model Brain’s Neurons,” New York Times, April 24, 2017.
86. Lichtman, Fister, and Shavit, “Big Data Challenges of Connectomics.”
87. J. I. Morgan and J. W. Lichtman, “Why Not Connectomics?,” Nature Methods 10, no. 6 (2013): 494–500.
88. Sara Reardon, “Giant Neuron Encircles the Entire Brain of a Mouse,” Nature 543 (March 2017): 14–15.
89. Morgan and Lichtman, “Why Not Connectomics?”
90. Richard E. Passingham, “What We Can and Cannot Tell.”
91. Lichtman, Fister, and Shavit, “Big Data Challenges of Connectomics.”
92. Weiwei Men et al., “The Corpus Callosum of Albert Einstein’s Brain: Another Clue to His Intelligence?,” pt. 4, Brain: A Journal of Neurology 137 (2014): 1–8.
93. D. LaBerge, unpublished e-mail to author, 2009.
94. Morgan and Lichtman, “Why Not Connectomics?”
95. Eric R. Kandel, J. H. Schwartz, and T. M. Jessel, Principles of Neural Science, 4th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000), 910–935.
96. Alejandro P. Arellano, “EEG of the Genius,” Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 3 (1951): 373; “Geniuses Aid Tests of Brain Processes,” New York Times, February 24, 1951.
97. Wilder Penfield and H. Jasper, Epilepsy and the Functional Anatomy of the Human Brain (Boston: Little, Brown, 1954), 189–190.
98. Arellano, “EEG of the Genius.”
99. A. P. Alivisatos et al., “The Brain Activity Map Project and the Challenge of Functional Connectomics,” Neuron 74, no. 6 (2012): 970–974.
100. Andreas Steck and Barbara Steck, Brain and Mind: Subjective Experience and Scientific Objectivity (Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 2016), 15–16.
101. K. V. Shenoy, “Recording from Many Neurons Simultaneously: From Measurement to Meaning,” in The Future of the Brain: Essays by the World’s Leading Neuroscientists, ed. Gary Marcus and J. Freeman (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015), 78–89.
102. A. P. Alivasatos et al., “The Brain Activity Map,” Science 339, no. 6125 (2013): 1284–1285.
103. Alivisatos et al., “Brain Activity Map Project.”
104. Karl Deisseroth, “Optogenetics: Controlling the Brain with Light,” Scientific American, October 20, 2010, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/optogenetics-controlling/.
105. Venki Ramikrishnan, “Soul of a Molecular Machine,” Edge, November 8, 2017, https://www.edge.org/conversation/venki_ramakrishnan-soul-of-a-molecular-machine.
106. Jorge. L. Borges, On Exactitude in Science in Collected Fictions (New York: Penguin, 1998), 325.
107. Lyon, “Evoked Response.”
108. Emily Underwood, “Brain Project Draws Presidential Interest, But Mixed Reactions,” Science 339, no. 6123 (2013): 1022–1023.
109. M. Carandini, “From Circuits to Behavior: A Bridge Too Far?,” in The Future of the Brain: Essays by the World’s Leading Neuroscientists, ed. Gary Marcus and J. Freeman (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015), 177–185.
110. Alan M. Turing, “On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem,” Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society 42 (November 12, 1936): 230–265.
111. George Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral (New York: Pantheon Books, 2012), 243–265.
112. Carandini, “From Circuits to Behavior.”
113. Alan M. Turing, Computing Machinery and Intelligence,” Mind 59 (1950): 433–460.
114. John Searle, Mind: A Brief Introduction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 66–75.
115. Turing, “Computing Machinery and Intelligence.”
116. John Searle, Minds, Brains, and Science (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984), 28–41.
117. Tara H. Abraham, Rebel Genius (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2016), 16–45.
118. Abraham, Rebel Genius, 86–94.
119. Warren S. McCulloch and Walter H. Pitts, “A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity,” Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics 5, no. 4 (1943): 115–133.
120. Abraham, Rebel Genius, 86–94.
121. Nick Lane, Power, Sex, Suicide (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 114.
122. Christof Koch, Consciousness: Confessions of a Romantic Reductionist (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012), 15–17.
123. Gary Marcus, “Machines Won’t Be Thinking Anytime Soon,” in What to Think about Machines That Think, ed. J. Brockman (New York: Harper Perennial, 2015), 405–407.
124. Neil deGrasse Tyson, Michael A. Strauss, J. Richard Gott, Welcome to the Universe: An Astrophysical Tour (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016), 146–170.
125. Alison Gopnik, “Can Machines Ever Be as Smart as Three-Year-Olds?,” What to Think about Machines That Think, ed. J. Brockman (New York: Harper Perennial, 2015), 321–324.
126. Koch, Consciousness, 113–135.
127. Dennis Bray, “Brain Emulation Requires Cells,” Nature 482 (2012): 462–463.
128. Marcus, “Machines Won’t Be Thinking Anytime Soon.”
129. M. Mitchell Waldrop, “The Chips Are Down for Moore’s Law,” Nature 530, no. 7589 (2016): 144–147.
130. L. Dormehl, Thinking Machines (New York: TarcherPerigree, 2017), 29–56.
131. Eric R. Kandel, Reductionism in Art and Brain Science (New York: Columbia University Press, 2016), 41–58.
132. Davide Castelvecchi, “Can We Open the Black Box of AI?,” Nature 538 (October 2016): 20–23.
133. Andreas Trabesinger, “Quantum Leaps, Bit by Bit,” Nature 543 (March 2017): S2–S3.
134. R. Descartes, “Treatise on Man” in The Philosophical Writings of Descartes, vol. 1 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 99–108.
135. Carandini, “From Circuits to Behavior.”
136. Daniel Dennett, From Bacteria to Bach and Back (New York: W. W. Norton, 2017), 371–410; Richard Dawkins, The Blind Watchmaker (New York: W. W. Norton, 1987), 21–41.
137. Stephen Jay Gould, “Nonoverlapping Magisteria,” Natural History 106, no. 2 (1997): 16–22.
138. Dennett, From Bacteria to Bach, 150–175.
139. George Box and N. Draper, Empirical Model Building and Response Surfaces (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley, 1987), 424.
140. Dennett, From Bacteria to Bach, 23–32.
141. Sigmund Freud, Collected Papers, vol. 4 (London: Hogarth Press, 1953), 215.
142. Francis Crick and Edward Jones, “Backwardness of Human Neuroanatomy,” Nature 361 (1993): 109–110.
143. Ibid.
144. Morgan and Lichtman, “Why Not Connectomics?”
145. Daniel Dennett, “Show Me the Science,” New York Times, August 28, 2005.
146. Franco Cauda, G. C. Geminiani, and A. Vercelli, “Evolutionary Appearance of Von Economo’s Neurons in the Mammalian Cerebral Cortex,” Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 8 (March 2014): 1–11.
147. Terri Randall, e-mail message to author, December 5, 2011.
148. Carol Norris, e-mail message to author, June 2, 2017.
149. Randall, e-mail message to author, December 5, 2011.
150. Eri Schubert, e-mail message to author, February 11, 2018.
151. Frederick E. Lepore, “Dissecting Genius: Einstein’s Brain and the Search for the Neural Basis of Intellect,” Cerebrum: The Dana Forum for Brain Science 3, no. 1 (2001): 1–26.
152. Carolyn Abraham, Possessing Genius: The Bizarre Odyssey of Einstein’s Brain (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2001), 214–230.
153. S. Sniekers et al., “Genome-Wide Association Meta-analysis of 78,308 Individuals Identifies New Loci and Genes Influencing Human Intelligence,” Nature Genetics 49 (2017): 1107–1112.
154. Gary Marcus, “The Computational Brain,” in The Future of the Brain: Essays by the World’s Leading Neuroscientists, ed. Gary Marcus and J. Freeman (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015), 205–218.
155. A. Chatterjee, “Cosmetic Neurology: The Controversy over Enhancing Movement, Mentation, and Mood,” Neurology 63, no. 6 (2004): 968–974.
156. Walt Whitman, Complete Poetry and Collected Prose (New York: Library of America, 1982), 250–258.
157. A. L. Hodgkin and A. F. Huxley, “A Quantitative Description of Membrane Current and Its Application to Conduction and Excitation in Nerve,” Journal of Physiology 117, no. 4 (1952): 500–544.
158. Rachel Wurzman et al., “An Open Letter Concerning Do-It-Yourself Users of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation,” Annals of Neurology 80, no. 1 (2016): 1–4.
159. Wilder Penfield and T. Rasmussen, The Cerebral Cortex of Man (New York: Macmillan, 1955), 203–235.
160. John McPhee, Basin and Range (New York: Farrar, Strauss, Giroux, 1982), 109–129.
161. John W. Drake et al., “Rates of Spontaneous Mutation,” Genetics 148, no. 4 (1998): 1667–1686.
162. Rosemary B. Grant and Peter. Grant, “What Darwin’s Finches Can Teach Us about the Evolutionary Origin and Regulation of Biodiversity,” BioScience 53, no. 10 (2003): 965–975.
163. Nick Lane, Life Ascending (New York: W. W. Norton, 2009), 88–117.
164. Marcus, “The Computational Brain,” in The Future of the Brain, 205–218.