1. USS Texas, “War Diary,” June 1944, RG 38, box 15, NARA, 1–2.
2. USS Texas, “War Diary,” June 1944, 3. On the concept of not putting all your eggs in one basket, vessels for an amphibious assault are combat loaded to distribute troops, weapons, and resources as evenly as practical. In this way the loss of one vessel may diminish the force, but the complete loss of a particular critical resource might be avoided.
3. Atkinson, Guns at Last Light, 37.
4. D-Day casualty figures remain estimates. These numbers for the Allies only on D-Day are from Col. C. P. Stacey, The Victory Campaign, 651–52.
5. Beaverbrook, “Memorandum: Present and Future, June 1943,” in Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins, 735–37.
1. Pogue, Marshall: Organizer of Victory, 17.
2. Chief of the Imperial General Staff for a period in 1940–41, Dill often clashed with Churchill. Dill died in Washington in November 1944. He is buried in Arlington National Cemetery across the Potomac from Washington, which marks the high regard in which Dill was held by U.S. military leaders, Congress, and the president.
3. Roll, Hopkins Touch, 245–46.
4. Roll, Hopkins Touch, 244.
5. Leahy, I Was There, 143.
6. Lavery, Churchill Goes to War, 160–61.
7. Brooke, War Diaries, xlv.
8. Villa, Unauthorized Action, 258–59.
9. Lavery, Churchill Goes to War, 161.
10. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 316.
11. Lavery, Churchill Goes to War, 158–59.
12. Lavery, Churchill Goes to War, 156–57.
13. Atkinson, An Army at Dawn, 277.
14. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 319.
15. Pogue, Marshall, Organizer of Victory, 176–78, and Larrabee, Commander in Chief, 329–30.
16. A text of Madame Chiang’s February 18, 1943, address to Congress may be found at the University of Southern California. United States–China Institute, www.china.usc.edu.
17. Parrish, Roosevelt and Marshall, 292.
18. Set forth in Admiral Stark’s “Plan Dog” memorandum, November 1940. See Stoler, Allies and Adversaries, 29–32.
19. Cline, Washington Command Post, 157.
20. Despite the confusion with President Roosevelt’s constitutional rank and preeminent authority as commander in chief of the U.S. armed forces, King insisted on this title for his naval rank. In World War II, U.S. Navy command diagrams, correspondence, and messages. King was referred to as “COMINCH.” Today there is only the chief of naval operations, CNO.
21. Roll, Hopkins Touch, 190–91.
22. Roll, Hopkins Touch, 211–13.
23. Stoler, Allies and Adversaries, 42–43, 114–16.
24. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 138.
25. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 110–13.
26. Keegan, Second World War, 312–31.
27. Roll, Hopkins Touch, 191, 193, 195.
28. Stephen Peter Hopkins, an eighteen-year-old Marine, died of the wound he received in the invasion of Kwajalein Atoll in the Pacific in February 1944. Army 2nd Lt. Allen Tupper Brown, General Marshall’s stepson, was killed in Italy on May 29, 1944.
29. Roosevelt to Churchill re: coordinating atomic research, October 11, 1941, PREM 3/139/8A, NA.
30. Ruane, Churchill and the Bomb, 50.
31. Wallace Akers, “General Policy,” January 2, 1943, CAB 126/163, NA, 1.
32. S-1 was a section of the Office of Scientific Research and Development that, until establishment of the Manhattan Engineering District under military command on September 17, 1942, had overseen atomic bomb research in the United States. S-1 remained the shorthand designation by which FDR, Bush, Stimson, Hopkins, and others at the highest levels of the U.S. government continued to refer to the atomic bomb project, just as the terms Tube Alloys and its abbreviation TA were used by their British counterparts.
33. Sir John Anderson to Churchill, Tube Alloys, January 11, 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, NA, 1–3.
34. Churchill to the paymaster general, May 27, 1944, PREM 3/139/11A, NA, 1.
35. Atomic Energy Commission, excerpt from report to the president by the Military Policy Committee, December 15, 1942, Annexes to the Diplomatic History of the Manhattan Project, RG 374, microfilm roll 12, annex 6, NARA, 267–68.
36. Malcolm MacDonald, telegram no. 48, January 8, 1943, CAB 126/163, NA, 268.
37. Farmelo, Churchill’s Bomb, 218.
38. Wallace Akers’s many communications, preserved at the National Archives in Kew, give testament to qualities and contribution of this capable man.
39. Anderson to prime minister, Telescope no. 151, January 20, 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, NA.
40. Awareness of the project to develop an atomic bomb came to the British Chiefs of Staff much later than it did to the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff. General Marshall was on the Military Policy Committee from 1942, and Admiral Leahy, as FDR’s chief of staff, was aware. Churchill’s letter to FDR, dated August 15, 1943, which he directed be shown to the British chiefs gathered in Quebec, assumes an awareness of Tube Alloys. Dr. Kevin Ruane, author of Churchill and the Bomb in War and Cold War (2016), believes the British chiefs were not fully informed until the July 1945 Potsdam Conference, although he states that we cannot know from surviving records what they knew or when informally. Lt. Gen. Sir Hastings Ismay, Churchill’s military chief of staff, knew of Tube Alloys and was concerned in 1944 about the extent of atomic knowledge among the JCS compared with ignorance of it among the British COS. Author’s email correspondence from Dr. Kevin Ruane, November 10, 2016
41. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 318.
42. Brooke, War Diaries, 358.
43. Roll, Hopkins Touch, 247.
44. Brooke, War Diaries, 359.
45. Brooke, War Diaries, 358.
46. Joint Chiefs of Staff, minutes of conference held at Anfa Camp, January 15, 1943, at 1000, RG 218, entry 98, box 1, NARA, 54–55.
47. Morison, Battle of the Atlantic, 410.
48. Morison, Battle of the Atlantic, 197–98.
49. Morison, Battle of the Atlantic, 199.
50. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower, 201, 237; Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 359.
51. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 57th meeting: minutes of meeting held at Anfa Camp on Friday, January 15, 1943, at 1430, RG 218, entry 98, box 1, NARA, 202–4.
52. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 327.
53. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 320–21.
54. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 57th meeting: minutes, 205–6.
55. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 57th meeting: minutes, 202–6.
56. Wallace Akers, PLYSU 1147w for Perrin DSIR, January 14, 1943, CAB 126/163, NA.
57. Brooke, War Diaries, 360.
58. Pogue, Marshall: Organizer of Victory, 21–22.
59. Joint Chiefs of Staff, Minutes of conference held at Anfa Camp, 59–60.
60. Brooke, War Diaries, 361.
61. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 60th meeting: minutes of meeting held at Anfa Camp on Monday, January 15, 1943, at 1030, RG 218, entry 98, box 1, NARA, 237.
62. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 60th meeting: minutes, 238–39.
63. Brooke, War Diaries, 362.
64. Overy, Bombers and the Bombed, 107.
65. Brooke, War Diaries, 361.
66. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 155/1: Conduct of the War in 1943, January 19, 1943, RG 107, entry 104, box 2, NARA, 18–19.
67. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 155/1: Conduct of the War in 1943, 19.
68. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 166/1/D: The Bomber Offensive from the United Kingdom, January 21, 1943, RG 218, entry 190, box 1, NARA, 1.
69. Overy, Bombers and the Bombed, 107–11.
70. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 67th meeting: minutes of meeting held at Anfa Camp on Friday, January 22, 1943, at 1430, RG 218, entry 98, box 1, NARA, 302.
71. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 169: Proposed Organization of Command, Control, Planning and Training for Operations for a Reentry to the Continent across the Channel Beginning in 1943, January 22, 1943, RG 218, entry 190, box 1, NARA, 1.
72. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 169: Proposed Organization of Command, 1.
73. [Brig. Gen. Albert C. Wedemeyer, USA], Analysis of the ANFA and TRIDENT Conferences, May 1943, RG 165, Chief of Staff file, NARA, 1.
74. Ruane, Churchill and the Bomb, 51.
75. Thomas L. Rowan to William Gorell Barnes, Tube Alloys re: Churchill communication with Hopkins on Anglo-American cooperation, January 18, 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, NA.
76. Michael W. Perrin to Barnes re: sharing information with Americans, January 19, 1943, and Perrin to Wallace Akers, Cypher telegram SUPLY 1026, January 19, 1943, CAB 126/163, NA.
77. William Gorell Barnes, note for the record, January 22, 1943, CAB 126/163, NA.
78. Anderson to prime minister, Telescope no. 151, January 20, 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, NA.
79. Churchill to Anderson, Stratagem no. 196, January 23, 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, NA.
80. On January 27, from London, Anderson cabled Malcolm MacDonald in Ottawa a note of encouragement that he had “grounds for hoping that the President will go into the matter and may issue instructions to the effect that collaboration between us on this subject should be re-established on a basis of full reciprocity.” Nevertheless, in the same cable Anderson directed that “Akers should return to London on January 30 as planned to report personally on the position in Canada and the United States.” See Sir John Anderson, telegram no. 258, January 27, 1943, CAB 126/163, NA.
81. Neither Churchill nor FDR liked or entirely trusted the haughty de Gaulle. A good divisional commander who had escaped dramatically from Germany and Vichy in 1942, Giraud proved to be a weak administrator. However, after the assassination of Admiral Darlan, the senior-most French officer in North Africa at the time of TORCH and a reprehensible collaborationist, Giraud was the only option on site for the Allies. De Gaulle had rejected being summoned to Casablanca until Anthony Eden threatened withdrawal of Allied support. Harry Hopkins stage managed the surprised generals’ encounter before reporters, FDR, and Churchill.
82. FRUS: The Conferences at Washington, 1941–1942, and Casablanca, 1943, 506, 635.
83. Beitzell, Uneasy Alliance, 82.
84. FRUS: The Conferences at Washington, 1941–1942, and Casablanca, 1943, 535.
85. Lavery, Churchill Goes to War, 171–74.
1. Air Ministry, Combined Bomber Offensive Progress Report, February 4, 1943–November 1, 1943, November 1943, AIR 8/116/7, NA.
2. Overy, “Weak Link? The Perception of the German Working Class by RAF Bomber Command, 1940–1945,” 12–13.
3. Overy, Bombers and the Bombed, 25–26.
4. Kennett, History of Strategic Bombing, 120, quoted in Rhodes, Making of the Atomic Bomb, 342.
5. Overy, Bombers and the Bombed, 85.
6. Overy, Bombers and the Bombed, 102.
7. Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Portal, RAF, to Prime Minister re: RAF bombing operations, April 23, 1942, AIR 8/13982, NA.
8. Lord Cherwell, “H2S,” January 7, 1944, PREM 3/101, NA.
9. Overy, Bombers and the Bombed, 92.
10. Overy, Bombers and the Bombed, 92.
11. John E. Singleton, “The Bombing of Germany,” May 20, 1942, PREM 3/11/4, NA, 2.
12. Overy, Bombers and the Bombed, 158.
13. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 166/1/D: The Bomber Offensive from the United Kingdom, January 21, 1943, RG 218, entry 190, box 1, NARA, 1.
14. Ministry of Economic Warfare, “Joint Report by Ministry of Economic Warfare and Air Intelligence on Effects of Bomber Offensive,” November 4, 1943, AIR 8/116/7, NA, 1.
15. Overy, Bombers and the Bombed, 256–58, 277.
16. Stargardt, German War, 245–48, 364–65.
17. Stargardt, German War, 6–7. Attempting to draw reasonable conclusions out of the chaos that swept Europe, estimates of this genocide vary. It is generally accepted that six million Jews and five million other victims were murdered.
18. Quoted in Stargardt, German War, 378.
19. Stargardt, German War, 418.
20. Overy, Bombers and the Bombed, 27, 167; D’Olier, United States Strategic Bombing Survey, 5, 6.
21. D’Olier, United States Strategic Bombing Survey, 8.
22. Quoted in Keeney, Pointblank Directive, 48.
23. Committee of Historians for the Commanding General of the Army Air Forces, “Germany’s War Potential: An Appraisal,” December 27, 1943, Henry H. Arnold Papers, Special Reports reel 193; Manuscript Division, LOC, 2.
24. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 155/1: Conduct of the War in 1943, January 19, 1943, RG 107, entry 104, box 2, NA, 1.
25. Morison, Atlantic Battle Won, 363.
26. Bell, Churchill & Sea Power, 270.
27. Morison, Battle of the Atlantic, 311.
28. Offley, Turning the Tide, 104.
29. Bell, Churchill & Sea Power, 272, 263.
30. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 57th meeting: minutes of meeting held at Anfa Camp on Friday, January 15, 1943, at 1430, RG 218, entry 98, box 1197, NARA.
31. Quoted in Bell, Churchill & Sea Power, 262.
32. Winston Churchill quoted in Goette, “Britain and the Delay in Closing the Mid-Atlantic ‘Air Gap’ during the Battle of the Atlantic,” 32
33. Goette, “Britain and the Delay.”
34. Bell, Churchill & Sea Power, 274.
35. Adm. Sir Dudley Pound, RN, “Security of Sea Communications in the Atlantic and Its Repercussions on Our Strategy (Re-draft by First Sea Lord),” January 12, 1943, AIR 8/1397, NA, 1–2, 35–36.
36. Morison, Battle of the Atlantic, 316, 410; Goette, “Britain and the Delay,” 37.
37. Morison, Battle of the Atlantic, 322.
38. Kahn, Hitler’s Spies, 221–22.
39. Offley, Turning the Tide, 104.
40. Offley, Turning the Tide, 412.
41. Anti-U-Boat Warfare Committee, Security of North Atlantic Convoys (AU (43) 68), March 8, 1943, AIR 8/1398, NA, 1–2.
42. Anti-U-Boat Warfare Committee, Security of North Atlantic Convoys (AU (43) 68), 1.
43. Royal Air Force Delegation, Washington, MARCUS 800: Personal for C.A.S. from Foster, March 29, 1943, AIR 8/1399, NA, 1–2.
44. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 189: Very Long Range Aircraft for Anti-Submarine Duty; memorandum from the Joint U.S. Chiefs of Staff, March 16, 1943, AIR 8/1398, NA, 1.
45. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 189: Very Long Range Aircraft, 1.
46. Capt. A. M. R. Allen, USN, “History of Development of Convoy and Routing Section of Tenth Fleet—FX-371, U.S. Navy,” November 8, 1943, RG 38, NA, 1.
47. Milner, “The Royal Canadian Navy and 1943: A Year Best Forgotten?” 128.
48. Morison, Battle of the Atlantic, 36–37.
49. Morison, Battle of the Atlantic, 412.
50. A story well told in Offley, Turning the Tide.
1. Historical Sub-Section, Office of Secretary, General Staff, History of COSSAC (Chief of Staff to Supreme Allied Commander) 1943–1944, file 8–3.6.CA, ACMH, www.history.army.mil/documents/cossac/Cossac.htm, 3.
2. Churchill, personal minute, Serial no. D.69/3, note to General Ismay, April 5, 1943, PREM 3/333/16, NA.
3. Maj. Gen. E. F. Humphreys, BA, Brig. Gen. F. E. Morgan, Staff College Reports–1928, December 20, 1928, PREM 3/333/16, NA.
4. Dr. Maclyn Burg, interview with Gen. Ray W. Barker, July 15, 1972, Oral History Collection, Eisenhower Library, 52.
5. Weighley, Eisenhower’s Lieutenants, 37.
6. Burg, Barker interview, 56.
7. Burg, Barker interview, 59–60.
8. Morgan, Overture to Overlord, 44–45, 23.
9. Burg, Barker interview, 55.
10. Historical Sub-Section, History of COSSAC, 2.
11. Historical Sub-Section, History of COSSAC, 2.
12. Burg, Barker interview, 64.
13. Burg, Barker interview, 2.
14. For the directive and side-by-side comparison of British and U.S. recommended text, see Brig. Gen. Albert Wedemeyer, USA, memorandum for the Secretariat, Joint Chiefs of Staff, April 17, 1943, RG 165, Chief of Staff file, NARA.
15. Historical Sub-Section, History of COSSAC, 4.
16. Stacey, The Victory Campaign, 29.
17. Stacey, The Victory Campaign, 16.
18. Weighley, Eisenhower’s Lieutenants, 34–35.
19. Symonds, Neptune, 90–92.
20. Weighley, Eisenhower’s Lieutenants, 35.
21. Morgan, Overture to Overlord, 131–32.
22. Harrison, Cross-Channel Attack, 64
23. Lt. Gen. Frederick Morgan, RA, COSSAC (43) 6: Battle Experience: Memorandum from COSSAC to Principal Staff Officers, May 19, 1943, RG 331, file 122, NARA.
24. Historical Sub-Section, History of COSSAC, 6.
25. Historical Sub-Section, History of COSSAC, 6.
26. Morgan, Overture to Overlord, 128–29.
27. Morgan, Overture to Overlord, 135–36.
28. Lt. Gen. Frederick Morgan, RA, “COSSAC (43) 11: Operation ‘RUDGE,’” May 25, 1943, RG 331, file 122, NARA, 1, 2.
29. Stoler, Allies and Adversaries, 77.
1. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 358.
2. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 366.
3. [Brig. Gen. Albert C. Wedemeyer, USA], Preparations for the Next United States–British Staff Conference, [July] 1943, RG 218, box 314, NARA, 1.
4. Lippmann, U.S. Foreign Policy, 135.
5. JCS 183/1: Air Routes across the Pacific and Air Facilities for International Police Force, quoted in Stoler, Allies and Adversaries, 138.
6. Stoler, Allies and Adversaries, 131.
7. Cline, Washington Command Post, 192.
8. Stoler, Allies and Adversaries, 132.
9. Jackson and Bramall, The Chiefs, 256.
10. Atkinson, An Army at Dawn, 328.
11. Handy and Lincoln, Commander and System of Command for War against Germany, September 29, 1943, 2.
12. Keegan, The Second World War, 236–37.
13. [Brig. Gen. Albert C. Wedemeyer, USA], Analysis of the ANFA and TRIDENT Conferences, May [25], 1943, RG 165, Chief of Staff file, NARA, 1, 3
14. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 358.
15. Combined Chiefs of Staff, TRIDENT minutes 1st meeting, 1–3, and Brooke, War Diaries, 402.
16. Combined Chiefs of Staff, TRIDENT minutes 1st meeting, 4, 5.
17. Office of the Combined Chiefs, TRIDENT Conference May 1943: Papers and Minutes of Meetings, Map Room Papers, series 1, box 27, FDRL, 326–27.
18. Office of the Combined Chiefs, TRIDENT Conference May 1943, 326–28.
19. Office of the Combined Chiefs, TRIDENT Conference May 1943, 328.
20. Office of the Combined Chiefs, TRIDENT Conference May 1943, 328–29.
21. Office of the Combined Chiefs, TRIDENT Conference May 1943, 329.
22. FRUS: The Conferences at Washington and Quebec 1943, 84.
23. Brooke, War Diaries, 405.
24. Brooke, War Diaries, 406
25. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 237/1: Resolutions by the Combined Chiefs of Staff (European Operations), May 20, 1943, RG 319, box 10, NARA.
26. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 369.
27. Brooke, War Diaries, 407.
28. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 369–70.
29. Brooke, War Diaries, 407.
30. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 242/6: Combined Chiefs of Staff Final Report to the President and Prime Minister, May 25, 1943, RG 319, box 11, NARA.
31. Brooke, War Diaries, 410.
32. Thomas L. Rowan, Tube Alloys, note to Gorell Barnes re: Churchill communication with Hopkins on Anglo-American cooperation, January 18, 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, NA.
33. Lord Cherwell, Tube Alloys, April 7, 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, NA, 1.
34. Churchill to Anderson, Serial no. 270/3, April 5, 1943, PREM 3/139/8A. NA.
35. Gowing, Britain and Atomic Energy, 164–65.
36. Anderson, Tube Alloys, note to the prime minister re: history and present position of British research, April 29, 1943, 1–2. Anderson, who certainly was aware of Lord Cherwell’s April 7 note that stimulated Churchill’s April 15 request, was well armed with recent data when the request came to him. For details of the scientists’ estimate at this time, see Akers and Perrin, T.A. Project—Latest Position, April 5, 1943, CAB 126/147, NA.
37. Anderson to Churchill, May 15, 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, NA.
38. Wallace A. Akers, Tube Alloy Project: Note on talk with Dean C. J. Mackenzie, May 14, 1943, CAB 126/163, NA, 1.
39. Hewlett and Anderson, New World, 1939–1946, 1:271.
40. Churchill to Harry Hopkins, April 1, 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, NA.
41. Eden, Memoirs, 657.
42. Eden, Memoirs, 658.
43. The text of Halifax’s letter can be found in Eden, Memoirs, 657–58.
44. Eden, Memoirs, 658.
45. White House Usher’s Diary, May 24, 1943, FDRL, and Stenographer’s Diary, May 24, 1943, FDRL.
46. Vannevar Bush, Memorandum of conference with Harry Hopkins and Lord Cherwell at the White House, May 25, 1943, AEC, Annexes to the Diplomatic History of the Manhattan Project, RG 374, microfilm roll 12, annex 9, NARA. See also FRUS: Conferences at Washington and Quebec 1943, 188–89.
47. See, for example, Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 371–72.
48. Roll, Hopkins Touch, 272, and Pogue, Marshall: Organizer of Victory, 212.
49. Quoted from Churchill, Hinge of Fate, 801.
50. Brooke, War Diaries, 411.
51. Farmelo, Churchill’s Bomb, 228–29.
52. Bush, Memorandum of conference with Hopkins and Cherwell, May 25, 1943, 1.
53. Bush, Memorandum of conference with Hopkins and Cherwell, 2.
54. Hewlett and Anderson, New World, 1939–1946, 1:273.
55. Bush, Memorandum of conference with Hopkins and Cherwell, 3.
56. See Churchill to Hopkins, message 374, 10 June 1943, quoted in assessment of the May 25 FDR-Churchill meeting in FRUS: Conferences at Washington and Quebec 1943, 221. For Lord Cherwell’s May 30 letter to Hopkins, see ibid., 188.
57. Moran, Churchill at War, 116.
58. Bush, personal notes during meeting with Churchill, July 15, 1943, James B. Conant’s Personal Files, Records of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, RG 227, m1392, file 10, NARA, 3; and Villa, “The Atomic Bomb and the Normandy Invasion,” 483.
59. Churchill, Pencil no. 405: Prime Minister to Lord President, May 26, 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, NA.
60. For Lord Cherwell’s May 30 letter to Hopkins, see FRUS: Conferences at Washington and Quebec 1943, 188. For Churchill’s June 10 cable to Hopkins, see ibid., 630.
61. Moran, Churchill at War 1940–45, 117; Lavery, Churchill Goes to War, 201; Brooke, War Diaries, 412.
62. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 372–73.
63. Brooke, War Diaries, 411.
64. Gen. George C. Marshall, USA, draft Churchill-Roosevelt note to Stalin, May 26, 1943, PREM 3/333/5, NA.
65. Parrish, Roosevelt and Marshall, 352–53.
66. Parrish, Roosevelt and Marshall, 353.
67. Moran, Churchill at War, 123.
68. Moran, Churchill at War, 122.
69. Pogue, Marshall: Organizer of Victory, 218, 220.
70. Stoler, Allies and Adversaries, 124.
1. Harriman and Abel, Special Envoy, 151–64.
2. Harriman and Abel, Special Envoy, 152.
3. FRUS: Conferences at Cairo and Tehran 1943, 5–6.
4. Joseph Edward Davies, diary, Davies Papers, chronological files, box 1:13, Manuscript Division, LOC, 3.
5. Davies diary, 3.
6. FRUS: Conferences at Cairo and Tehran 1943, 3–4.
7. Davies diary, 8.
8. Davies diary, 9.
9. Roll, Hopkins Touch, 275.
10. Davies diary, 13.
11. FRUS: Conferences at Cairo and Tehran 1943, 5–7.
12. Davies diary, May 5, 1943, 3.
13. Davies, “Advising President Date of Meeting Set for July 15, Paraphrase of Cable Sent on May 21, 1943,” chronological files, box 1:13, Manuscript Division, LOC. Had the need arisen, using jonquils in a sentence written in Moscow would have been easy for an ambassador half a world away from his home and family in Washington in May. Synonymous with daffodil in the American South and Washington’s other, more resilient floral glory, fanfares of yellow and white jonquil trumpets brighten the city every spring.
14. Roll, Hopkins Touch, 275–76.
15. Tregaron, now owned by the Washington International School, appeared in the 1962 Otto Preminger film based on the Allen Drury novel Advise and Consent. Through a zoning board decision that set precedent in the District of Columbia in 1983, Tregaron’s twenty-acre wooded grounds were saved from developers by its neighbors.
16. Davies diary, 1–2.
17. Davies diary, 3.
18. Davies diary, 3
19. Based on Averill Harriman’s letter to FDR, July 5, 1943, Harriman file, Harry Hopkins Collection, box 157, FDRL.
20. Harriman to FDR, July 5, 1943, 2–3. Given the importance of the subject and his knowledge of Churchill’s prompt reply, it is unlikely that Harriman would have waited in silence until July 5 to convey his own time-urgent assessment to FDR in the form of his surviving letter. More probable is that Harriman made an initial report to FDR or Hopkins by cable or orally by ostensibly secure radiotelephone of the gist of the previous night’s discussion with Churchill and the June 25 meeting with Churchill and Eden (possibly in a second communication). There are no surviving cables to this effect from Harriman to FDR. The radiotelephone was available to Harriman. The only such system between London and Washington at the time was the A3 voice-encoded telephone. Security of the A3 had been cracked and system’s traffic was monitored and read constantly by the Germans throughout this period. On the compromised A3 voice-encoded telephone and its replacement, see chapter 7.
21. Cable 328: Churchill to Roosevelt, June 25, 1943, FRUS: Conferences at Cairo and Tehran 1943, 10–11.
22. Roosevelt to Churchill, no. 297, June 29, 1943, PREM 3/471, NA, 1.
23. Davies diary, 8.
24. Roosevelt to Churchill, no. 297, June 29, 1943, 1.
25. Roosevelt to Churchill, no. 297, June 29, 1943, 2.
26. Roosevelt to Churchill, no. 297, June 29, 1943, 2.
27. Cable 334: Churchill to Roosevelt, June 28, 1943, FRUS: Conferences at Cairo and Tehran 1943, 11–12.
28. Cable 336: Churchill to Roosevelt, June 29, 1943, 12–13.
1. Lt. Gen. Sir Frederick Morgan, RA, COSSAC (43) 20: Notes on visit to war cabinet offices, June 2, 1943, RG 331, file 122, NARA, 1.
2. Morgan, COSSAC (43) 28: Operation “OVERLORD” 1944, June 7, 1943, RG 331, file 122, NARA.
3. Morgan, COSSAC (43) 28: Operation “OVERLORD” 1944, 3.
4. Morgan, COSSAC (43) 28: Operation “OVERLORD” 1944, 1.
5. The key variable was minutes of flying time available over the combat area.
6. Combined Operations Headquarters, CO (R) 25: “RATTLE” record of a conference held at HMS Warren from 28th June to 2nd July to study the Combined Operations problems of “Overlord,” July 1943, ADM 1/13147, NA, 93.
7. Morgan, COSSAC (43) 28: Operation “OVERLORD” 1944, 1.
8. Morgan, COSSAC (43) 28: Operation “OVERLORD” 1944, 2.
9. Morgan, Overture to Overlord, 130–31.
10. Morgan, COSSAC: (43) 28: Operation “OVERLORD” 1944, 4–5.
11. COSSAC, meeting to discuss revision of agenda for course at LARGS, June 28–July 2, 1943, June 19, 1943, RG 331, file 210, NARA, 1–2.
12. COSSAC, “Conference at LARGS,” RG 331, file 210, NARA.
13. Ziegler, Mountbatten, 214.
14. COSSAC, minutes of staff conference held on Friday, July 2, 1943, RG 331, file 122, NARA, 1–2; Brown, Bodyguard of Lies, 318.
15. Morgan, Overture to Overlord, 137.
16. Morgan’s paper is reproduced in full in Combined Operations Headquarters, CO (R) 25: “RATTLE” record of a conference, 92–98.
17. Stacey, The Victory Campaign, 9–10; Adm. Lord Louis Mountbatten, COS (43) 367 (O) Conference “RATTLE” memorandum by the chief of Combined Operations, July 7, 1943, RG 331, box 130, NARA,1–2.
18. COSSAC: minutes of staff conference held on Friday, July 2, 1943, RG 331, file 122, NARA, 2.
19. Stacey, The Victory Campaign, 11.
20. Morgan, Overture to Overlord, 138, and Stacey, Six Years of War, 108.
21. The First Canadian Army would not reunite in northwest Europe to fight as one until the spring of 1945. Stacey, Six Years of War, 109.
22. See “Annex: Points Arising from RATTLE Conference,” in Vice Adm. Lord Louis Mountbatten, COS (43) 367 (O) Conference ‘RATTLE’ memorandum by the chief of Combined Operations, July 7, 1943, RG 331, box 130, NARA, 3–5.
23. Elspeth Shuter Papers, document 13454, IWM, 4.
24. Shakespeare, Henry V, act 4, scene 3.
25. Chiefs of Staff Committee, COS (43) 416 (O) Operation “OVERLORD” report and appreciation with appendices, July 30, 1943, RG 165, entry NM-84, 390/30/18/1, box 13, NARA.
26. Chiefs of Staff Committee, COS (43) 416 (O) Operation “OVERLORD” report, iv.
27. Chiefs of Staff Committee, COS (43) 416 (O) Operation “OVERLORD” report, iv.
28. Chiefs of Staff Committee, COS (43) 416 (O) Operation “OVERLORD” report, iv.
29. Chiefs of Staff Committee, COS (43) 416 (O) Operation “OVERLORD” report, iv.
30. Chiefs of Staff Committee, COS (43) 416 (O) Operation “OVERLORD” report, viii.
31. Chiefs of Staff Committee, COS (43) 416 (O) Operation “OVERLORD” report, viii.
32. Chiefs of Staff Committee, COS (43) 416 (O) Operation “OVERLORD” report, viii.
33. Chiefs of Staff Committee, COS (43) 416 (O) Operation “OVERLORD” report, ii.
34. Chiefs of Staff Committee, COS (43) 416 (O) Operation “OVERLORD” report, ii–iii.
1. Chit from Churchill and response by John M. Martin, September 4, attached to E. E. Bridges, note to the prime minister re: radiotelephone communication security, September 3, 1942, PREM 4/91/3, NA.
2. Kahn, Hitler’s Spies, 173, and David Kahn, “German Interception of A3 Radio-telephone Calls: Interview of Kurt E. Vetterlein,” September 1, 1967, file DK 64–62, CCH, 8.
3. The best American system of the time, SIGABA, added a further stepping of all of that machine’s rotors, which themselves spun. This raised the number of possible setting combinations yet again exponentially. SIGABA remained secure until the advent of supercomputers.
4. Weadon, Sigsaly Story, 1.
5. Kahn, Hitler’s Spies, 172.
6. Kahn, Hitler’s Spies, 172.
7. Kahn, Hitler’s Spies, 173, and Kahn, “German Interception of A3 Radio-telephone Calls,” 1.
8. Kahn, Hitler’s Spies, 172–73.
9. Kahn, “German Interception of A3 Radio-telephone Calls,” 9–10.
10. Kahn, “German Interception of A3 Radio-telephone Calls,” 5.
11. The German recordings and raw transcriptions of the calls between Churchill and Roosevelt over the A3 system would be a treasure for historians today, but they have not been found in either captured documents at the National Archives and Records Administration or among records at the Bundesarchives in Germany. They are said to have been destroyed in the bombing of Berlin.
12. B.B., “Cabinet Ministers and the Transatlantic Telephone Service,” March 10, 1942, PREM 4/91/3, NA.
13. Chit from Churchill and response by John M. Martin, September 4, attached to E. E. Bridges, note to the prime minister re: radiotelephone communication security, September 3, 1942, PREM 4/91/3, NA.
14. Kahn, “German Interception of A-3 Radio-telephone Calls,” 9.
15. E. E. Bridges, Security of the Radio Telephone, March 19, 1942, PREM 4/91/3, NA, 1–2.
16. Weadon, Sigsaly Story, 1.
17. Boone and Peterson, SIGSALY–The Start of the Digital Revolution, https://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic-heritage/historical-figures-publications/publications/wwii/sigsaly-start-digital.shtml.
18. Boone and Peterson, SIGSALY.
19. Boone and Peterson, SIGSALY, appendix A.
20. Boone and Peterson, SIGSALY.
21. Boone and Peterson, SIGSALY.
22. Gen. Sir Hastings L. Ismay, BA, Note to the Prime Minister, February 15, 1943, PREM 4/91/3, NA, 1–2.
23. Boone and Peterson, SIGSALY.
24. Kahn, “German Interception of A3 Radio-telephone Calls,” 10.
25. Holmes, Churchill’s Bunker, 123.
26. For a partial transcript of this apparently unique historical document, see Kahn, Codebreakers, 556–57.
1. This building was transferred to the State Department after the War Department moved into the Pentagon. Between 1961 and 1997, the former office of the secretary of war served as the office of the director of the U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency.
2. Henry L. Stimson and W. H. S. Wright, “The Secretary of War’s Trip to Iceland, the United Kingdom, and North Africa, July 8–31, 1943,” August 1943, Henry L. Stimson Papers, LOC, 1.
3. W. H. S. Wright, “Personal and Secret Memorandum for the Eyes of Mr. Bundy Only,” in Stimson and Wright, “Secretary of War’s Trip,” 2–3.
4. F. S. Low, “Dispatch from Admiral King to Admiral Stark,” June 17, 1943, Headquarters United States Fleet, RG 277, entry 170, box 77, NARA, 1.
5. Vannevar Bush, “Sequence of Events Concerning Interchange with the British on the Subject of S-1,” August 4, 1943, in FRUS: Conferences at Washington and Quebec 1943, 642.
6. Keegan, The Second World War, 347–48.
7. Stimson and Wright, “Secretary of War’s Trip,” 10.
8. The term Round Hammer was a combination of the previously considered cross-Channel attack plans, Roundup and Sledgehammer, with a certain logic as to its construction and, briefly, transitory status as a plan. Round Hammer, which became Overlord, was conceived to fall between its two predecessors in size.
9. Stimson, “Observations of Secretary: Trip Overseas, July 8 to July 31/43,” August 12, 1943, Henry L. Stimson Papers, LOC, 5.
10. Stimson, “Brief Report on Certain Features of Overseas Trip, August 4, 1943,” Stimson Papers, LOC, 7–9; Stimson and Bundy, On Active Service in Peace and War, 429–30; E. Morison, Turmoil and Tradition, 591.
11. Stimson, “Observations,” 5.
12. Stimson, “Observations,” 5, 9–10.
13. Stimson, “Observations,” 6.
14. Bush, Pieces of the Action, 282.
15. Gowing, Britain and Atomic Energy, 68n.
16. For the British account of receipt of these communications, see Sir John Anderson, “Tube Alloys,” memorandum to the prime minister, January 11, 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, NA, and Sir John Anderson, note to the prime minister re: Conant memorandum, July 23, 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, NA.
17. Bush, personal notes on meeting with Winston Churchill, July 15, 1943, Records of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, Conant’s Personal Files, RG 227, m1392, file 10, NARA, 1, 3.
18. Hewlett and Anderson, New World, 1939–1946, 1:74–75.
19. Bush, personal notes, 2–3.
20. Bush, personal notes, 1.
21. Bush, Pieces of the Action, 282.
22. Overy, Bombers and the Bombed, 142, 260.
23. Bell, Churchill & Sea Power, 289, referencing Howard, Grand Strategy IV, 503.
24. Stimson, “Observations,” 6, 39.
25. COSSAC, (43) 28: Operation “Overlord 1944,” June 7, 1943, RG 331, file 122, NARA.
26. COSSAC, (43) 28: Operation “Overlord 1944,” 6.
27. Roosevelt to Stalin, July 15, 1943, FRUS: Conferences at Cairo and Tehran 1943, 16.
28. Roosevelt to Churchill, no. 318, July 16, 1943, FRUS: Conferences at Washington and Quebec 1943, 393.
29. Leighton and Coakley, Global Logistics and Strategy, 1940–1943, 176.
30. Roosevelt to Churchill, message #297, FRUS: Conferences at Washington and Quebec 1943, 391–92.
31. Telephone records 1943, Harry L. Hopkins Collection, box 224, FDRL.
32. E. F. McDonald Jr. to Thomas H. Beck, Crowell-Collier Publishing Co., April 25, 1942, Birch Island file, FDRL.
33. Stimson and Wright, “Secretary of War’s Trip,” 15.
34. Lavery, Churchill Goes to War, 22.
35. Stimson, “Observations,” 8, and Stimson and Wright, “Secretary of War’s Trip,” 15–16.
36. Stimson, “Observations,” 8.
37. Stimson, “Observations,” 8.
38. Stimson, “Observations,” 9–10.
39. Hewlett and Anderson, New World, 1939–1946, 1:274–75.
40. Roosevelt to Vannevar Bush, July 20, 1943, Atomic Energy Commission, Annexes to the Diplomatic History of the Manhattan Project, RG 374, microfilm roll 12, NARA, Annex 8.
41. E. A. Shurcliff, Interoffice Memorandum: S-1 Cables, Office of Scientific Research and Development, September 8, 1942, Annexes to the Diplomatic History of the Manhattan Project, RG 227, M1392, file 99, NARA.
42. Carroll L. Wilson, East-905, message to Bush, July 27, 1943, RG 227, entry 176, box 225, folder “Cables Received April 2, 1943–Aug. 31, 1943,” NARA. “Essone” is phonetic for “S-1.”
43. Carroll L. Wilson to Roosevelt acknowledging transmission of FDR’s July 20, 1943, note to Bush, July 28, 1943, PSF Vannevar Bush file, FDRL.
44. James B. Conant, East-913, message to Bush, July 29, 1943, RG 227, entry 176, box 225, file “Cables Received April 2, 1943–Aug. 31, 1943,” NARA.
45. Hewlett and Anderson, New World, 1939–1946, 1:275
46. Bush, Pieces of the Action, 283.
47. Bush, “Sequence of Events Concerning Interchange with the British on the Subject of S-1,” 642.
48. Bush, Pieces of the Action, 283.
49. See Villa, “The Atomic Bomb and the Normandy Invasion,” 485–87.
50. Harvey Bundy, memorandum of meeting at 10 Downing Street on July 22, 1943, Annexes to the Diplomatic History of the Manhattan Project, RG 374, microfilm roll 12, NARA, annex 11, 1.
51. Gowing, Britain and Atomic Energy, 167–68.
52. Bundy, memorandum of meeting, 1–2.
53. Bundy, memorandum of meeting, 2.
54. Gowing, Britain and Atomic Energy, 168.
55. Bundy, memorandum of meeting, 3.
56. Bundy, memorandum of meeting, 4.
57. Stimson, “Observations,” 7–8, 49.
58. Villa, “The Atomic Bomb and the Normandy Invasion,” 489.
59. Stimson and Bundy, On Active Service in Peace and War, 4.
60. Stimson, “Brief Report,” 7–9, and Stimson, “Observations,” 12–13.
61. Bush, “Memo to Dr. J. B. Conant,” July 22, 1943, Records of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, Conant’s Personal Files, RG 227, m1392, file 10, NARA, 2.
62. Roosevelt, Cable 326: Personal and Secret to the Former Naval Person from the President, July 26, 1943, FRUS: Conferences at Washington and Quebec 1943, 636.
63. Bush, Pieces of the Action, 284. The message from Washington informing Bush of new instructions from the president, but with their intent corrupted, did not reach Bush in London until days after the July 22 meeting with Churchill, possibly as late as the following Monday. See Bush, “Sequence of Events Concerning Interchange with the British on the Subject of S-1,” 644.
64. Bush, “To Bundy–with the Secretary of War,” July 28, 1943, Records of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, James B. Conant’s Personal Files, RG 227, m1392, file 10, NARA.
65. Freedom Algiers [Stimson to Bush], “Edited Literal Text,” July 28, 1943, Records of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, Conant’s Personal Files, RG 227, M1392, file 10, NARA.
66. Churchill, “Cable 372: Former Naval Person to President Most Secret,” July 20, 1943, FRUS: Conferences at Washington and Quebec 1943, 394.
67. Churchill, “Cable 374: Former Naval Person to President Personal Most Secret,” July 21, 1943, FRUS: Conferences at Washington and Quebec 1943, 394.
68. Stimson, “Brief Report,” 9.
69. Stimson, “Brief Report,” 9.
70. E. F. McDonald Jr. to Supervising Agent Michael Reilly, July 23, 1943, Birch Island file, FDRL.
71. Hopkins appointment book 1943, entries for July 22, 1943, FDRL.
72. Morison, Breaking the Bismarks Barrier, 128–29.
73. Stimson and Wright, “Secretary of War’s Trip.”
74. Roosevelt to Churchill, cable 325, FRUS: Conferences at Washington and Quebec 1943, 399–400.
75. Davies diary, 13.
76. Roosevelt, Personal and Secret to the Former Naval Person from the President 297, June 28, 1943, FRUS: Conferences at Cairo and Tehran 1943, 11–12.
77. As a deception to divert attention from his travel to meet Churchill in Argentia Bay, Newfoundland, in August 1941, FDR left New Bedford, Massachusetts, for a very public “fishing trip” aboard the yacht Potomac in Buzzards Bay and cruised slowly through the Cape Cod Canal (easily accessible to press and public) to Cape Cod Bay. The Navy crew of Potomac were dressed in civilian clothes. One crew member with a floppy hat, cigarette holder, and wire rim glasses waved casually to all in sight. FDR, meanwhile, was steaming north in the cruiser Augusta to meet Churchill. See Davis, FDR: The War President, 249–50.
78. Combined Chiefs of Staff, (TRIDENT): Minutes 1st Meeting, The White House, 2:30 p.m., 12 May 1943, RG 107, entry 104, box 276, NARA, 5.
79. Churchill, Former Naval Person to President Roosevelt Personal and Most Secret Nr 383, July 26, 1943, Map Room file, series 1, Messages, box 4, FDRL.
80. COS, Quadrant: Following from Chiefs of Staff COS (W) 734, 26 July 1943, 1857Z, RG 0165, entry 422, box 54, NARA.
81. Michael Reilly, telegram, Reilly to Boos, July 20, 1943, and telegram, Reilly to McDonald, July 22, 1943, Birch Island file, FDRL.
82. Roosevelt, Cable 326: Personal and Secret to the Former Naval Person from the President, 636.
83. Henry L. Stimson, “Summary of General Eisenhower’s Views as to Post Husky,” July 27, 1943, Henry L. Stimson Papers, LOC.
84. Stimson, “Summary of General Eisenhower’s Views as to Post Husky,” 4.
85. Stimson, “Summary of General Eisenhower’s Views as to Post Husky,” 5.
86. Schott, Stimson daybook.
1. Lt. Gen. Frederick Morgan, BA, COSSAC (43) 14th report: fourteenth report by the chief of staff to the Supreme Commander (Designate), July 19, 1943, RG 331, file 122, NARA, 1–2.
2. Col. Leslie C. Hollis, BA, Chiefs of Staff Committee (43) 162nd meeting (O), minutes, July 22, 1943, RG 331, file 122, NARA, 160–61.
3. Hollis, Chiefs of Staff Committee (43) 168th Meeting (O), July 22, 1943, 2.
4. Morgan, Overture to Overlord, 161.
5. Coakley and Leighton, Global Logistics and Strategy, 1943–1945, 177.
6. Agarossi, A Nation Collapses, 50.
7. Notes for General Marshall for use in conference with the president, July 24, 1943, RG 165, entry 422, box 54, NARA, 1.
8. Notes for General Marshall, 2.
9. Notes for General Marshall, 2–3.
10. Coakley and Leighton, Global Logistics and Strategy, 1943–1945, 178.
11. Maj. Gen. Thomas M. Handy, USA, “Conduct of the War in Europe,” August 8, 1943, RG 165, NARA, 1–2, 5.
12. Matloff, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, 1943–1945, 166–67, and Coakley and Leighton, Global Logistics and Strategy, 1943–1945, 178–79.
13. Brig. Gen. John E. Hull, USA, memorandum for General Handy, July 17, 1943, RG 165, entry 4621, box 362, NARA, 3. See also Coakley and Leighton, Global Logistics and Strategy, 1943–1945, 164–66, 178, and Matloff, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, 166–67.
14. Matloff, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, 166–67, and Coakley and Leighton, Global Logistics and Strategy, 1943–1945, 166–67, 178–79.
15. Coakley and Leighton, Global Logistics and Strategy, 1943–1945, 178–79.
16. Matloff, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, 1943–1945, 167.
17. Combined Chiefs of Staff, “Memorandum by the British Chiefs of Staff, CCS 288,” July 26, 1943, FRUS: Conferences at Washington and Quebec 1943, 400–401.
18. Joint Chiefs of Staff, proposed agenda for Quadrant (CCS 288/1), Strategic Studies and Outline Plans, Book 1, Map Room file, box 27, FDRL, 1, and FRUS: Conferences at Washington and Quebec 1943, 402–5.
19. FRUS: Conferences at Washington and Quebec 1943, 404–5.
20. Joint Planning Staff, JP (43) 36th Meeting: Minutes of the Meeting of the Joint Planning Staff, May 3, 1943, CAB 84/6, NA, 1.
21. Historical Sub-Section, Office of Secretary, General Staff, History of COSSAC (Chief of Staff to Supreme Allied Commander) 1943–1944, file 8–3.6.CA, ACMH, www.history.army.mil/documents/cossac/Cossac.htm, 22.
22. Col. Leslie C. Hollis, BA, Chiefs of Staff Committee (43) 162nd meeting (O), minutes, July 22, 1943, RG 331, file 122, NARA, 2.
23. Lt. Gen. Sir Frederick Morgan, BA, COSSAC (43) 33: Operation “Rankin,” July 27, 1943, RG 331, file 122, NARA, 1.
24. At best, Morgan had a perspective of the enemy constrained by the limits of Allied intelligence and particularly the Allies’ incomprehension, unrecognized in 1943, of the resiliency of the Nazis’ total dictatorship.
25. Morgan, COSSAC (43) 33: Operation “Rankin,” 1.
26. Morgan, COSSAC (43) 33: Operation “Rankin,” 2–3.
27. For a detailed, contemporary account of Rankin’s three cases and their development, see Historical Sub-Section, Office of Secretary, General Staff, History of COSSAC (Chief of Staff to Supreme Allied Commander), 1943–1944, file 8–3.6.CA, ACMH, www.history.army.mil/documents/cossac/Cossac.htm, 22–26.
28. Historical Sub-Section, Office of Secretary, General Staff, History of COSSAC, 21.
29. For an insightful survey of immediate postwar conditions and events and their impact in Europe and Asia in the year of liberation, see Buruma, Year Zero: A History of 1945.
30. Morgan, Overture to Overlord, 160.
31. Morgan, Overture to Overlord, 160.
32. Dr. Maclyn Burg, interview with Gen. Ray W. Barker, July 15, 1972, Oral History Collection, Eisenhower Library, 84.
33. Burg, Barker interview, 84.
34. Morgan, Overture to Overlord, 161–62.
35. E-mail correspondence by the author with Archangelo Difante, Air Force Historical Research Agency, November 21, 2016.
36. E-mail correspondence by the author with Michael Swinnerton, North Yorkshire Moors Railway, October 7, 2013.
37. Morgan, Overture to Overlord, 162.
38. E-mail correspondence by the author with Maj. Mathias Joost, Canadian Forces, Directorate of History and Heritage, Canadian Armed Forces, June 23, 2016.
39. Roosevelt to Churchill, cable 326, July 26, 1943, FRUS: Conferences at Washington and Quebec 1943, 636.
40. Churchill to Roosevelt, cable 388, July 30, 1943, FRUS: Conferences at Washington and Quebec 1943, 637.
41. FRUS: Conferences at Washington and Quebec 1943, 637–38, and Atomic Energy Commission, Annexes to the Diplomatic History of the Manhattan Project, RG 374, microfilm roll 12, NARA.
42. Atomic Energy Commission, annex 10.
1. U.S. Secret Service, “Members of the Party,” n.d., Birch Island file, FDRL.
2. Hassett, Off the Record with FDR, 195.
3. Rigdon, White House Sailor, 27.
4. Tully, FDR, My Boss, 210.
5. Leahy, I Was There manuscript, Adm. William Leahy Papers, LOC; U.S. Secret Service, “Operating Stops, Friday, July 30, 1943,” Birch Island file, FDRL, 2.
6. Virginia Tanner, “GPA Dan Moorman Recalls Journeys with President Roosevelt,” Baltimore & Ohio Magazine, 61–62.
7. Secret Service, “Operating Stops.”
8. E. F. McDonald Jr. to Thomas H. Beck, Crowell-Collier Publishing Co., April 25, 1942, Birch Island file, FDRL.
9. Tully, FDR, My Boss, 210.
10. Roosevelt to Churchill, cable 326, July 26, 1943, FRUS: Conferences at Washington and Quebec 1943, 636.
11. Ward, Closest Companion, 227.
12. See “Prime Minister and President Roosevelt to Premier Stalin 19 Aug. 43,” quoted in Churchill, Closing the Ring, 279.
13. The Secret Service inquired about the length and nature of airfield runways in the vicinity of Georgian Bay, a prudent step for the safety of a traveling president in any situation. However, they apparently limited their inquiry to the U.S. Army Air Force. Had they asked the Canadian Legation, knowledge of the query likely would have reached the British, potentially adding further ambiguity to the “fishing trip.” See Guy Hammond, “Message for Riley [sic]: Relative Airfields,” n.d., Birch Island file, FDRL.
14. Hammond, “Message for Riley.”
15. The Soviet intelligence source now is believed to have been Laurence Duggan, a U.S. State Department employee. See Roll, Hopkins Touch, 275–76.
16. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, Correspondence between Stalin, Roosevelt, Truman, Churchill, and Atlee, 70–71, and Eubank, Summit at Teheran, 96.
17. Eubank, Summit at Teheran, 97.
18. Withers, The President Travels by Train, 131.
19. Tanner, “GPA Dan Moorman Recalls Journeys with President Roosevelt,” 62.
20. Withers, The President Travels by Train, 132.
21. Tanner, “GPA Dan Moorman Recalls Journeys with President Roosevelt,” 62.
22. Withers, The President Travels by Train, 131–32.
23. Byrnes, All In One Lifetime, 194.
24. Hassett, Off the Record with FDR, 195.
25. Formally known as the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act after its expansion and passage by Congress, the GI Bill enabled eight million veterans to attend college with federal grants and four million to purchase homes with low-interest federal loans. See Golway, Together We Cannot Fail, 231–32.
26. Hassett, Off the Record with FDR, 195–96.
27. R. S. Bratton and A. V. S. Pickhardt, Army-Navy daily intelligence reports, July 26 and 29, 1943, Map Room file, box 68, MR 203 (6) Sec. 8, FDRL.
28. White House Usher’s Diary, 1943, FDRL.
29. Wood and Jankowski, Karski, 196–202. The Polish resistance infiltrated Lieutenant Karski in disguise into the Warsaw Ghetto and into a death camp for the purpose of observing conditions firsthand. During his reconnaissance, he witnessed a mass execution. The resistance then smuggled Karski out of Europe, via Germany, France, and Spain, to report to the western Allies on this as well as Soviet subversion directed against the behind-the-lines forces and leadership of Poland’s legitimate government. Some accounts have asserted that Karski described to FDR the atrocities he witnessed in specific detail. However, Karski denied that he did that, stating that he described to the president what was happening conceptually (199).
30. Wood and Jankowski, Karski, 202.
31. White House Usher’s Diary, July 30, 1943.
32. Secret Service, itinerary, July 30, 1943, Birch Island file, FDRL.
33. See hand notation on Canadian Pacific, Schedule O.D. #1, July 30, 1943, FDRL, 1, and “Roosevelt Trip to Manitoulin Company Triumph,” Canadian Pacific Bulletin, Canadian Pacific Railway Company Fonds, CRHA, 2, and Secret Service, “Operating Stops.”
34. Ward, Closest Companion, 228.
35. See Silcox, The Group of Seven, 213–14 and paintings at 264, 265, 62.
36. Lt. John Manley, USNR, letter to Lt. Ernest Loeb, September 9, 1943, photostatic copy exhibited at Turner’s Store, Little Current, Ontario, 1.
37. Goodwin, No Ordinary Time, 451, 480–81.
38. Manley to Loeb, September 9, 1943.
39. Michael F. Reilly, report to Frank J. Wilson, chief, U.S. Secret Service, August 3, 1943, Birch Island file, FDRL, 2.
40. Mitchell, “The President Goes Fishing,” 7.
41. R. S. Bratton and A. V. S. Pickhardt, Army-Navy daily intelligence report, August 2, 1943, Map Room file, box 68, MR 203 (6) Sec. 8, FDRL, 1.
42. The correct Romanian spelling courtesy of Dr. Teodora Salow, a native speaker.
43. An Allied on-site, post-strike assessment concluded that the “low level raid of 1st August 1943, caused more damage to refineries attacked that day than all later raids put together.” See British Bombing Research Mission, RAC 216/902, cipher message assessing Allied bombing of Romania oil refineries, November 8, 1944, AIR 20/3/180, NA. Statement by Gen. Henry H. Arnold, USAAF, to the Combined Chiefs of Staff. See Combined Chiefs of Staff, (Quadrant) CCS 109th Meeting: Minutes of Meeting held in Room 2208, Chateau Frontenac Hotel on Monday, August 16, 1943, at 1430, RG 165, entry 334, section 5, box 182, NARA, 3,
44. Bratton and Pickhardt, Army-Navy daily intelligence report, August 2, 1943, 1.
45. Doyle, PT-109, 115–18.
46. Rigdon, White House Sailor, 27–28.
47. Rigdon, White House Sailor, 27.
48. See Lt. Col. Chester Hammond, USA, memorandum for General Marshall, forwarding FDR’s response to White #25, August 3, 1943; Hammond, memorandum for General Marshall, forwarding FDR’s request for JCS recommendation on Rome, August 4, 1943; Hammond, memorandum for General Marshall, forwarding FDR’s approval of insistence on use of Azores facilities, August 5, 1943; and Hammond, memorandum for General Marshall, forwarding FDR’s approval of JCS report on Rome, August 6, 1943, all in RG 165, box 54, NARA.
49. Rigdon, White House Sailor, 34.
1. John W. Schott, appointment clerk, Stimson daybook no. 5168, August 2, 1943, RG 107, NARA.
2. Henry L. Stimson, “Observations of Secretary: Trip Overseas,” July 8 to July 31/43, August 12, 1943, Henry L. Stimson Papers, LOC, 63.
3. Schott, Stimson daybook.
4. Stimson, “Observations,” 64.
5. Stimson’s intent is evident at the start of his subsequent memorandum on the same issue written to Roosevelt five days later on August 10, 1943. See frus: Conferences at Washington and Quebec 1943, 496. Stimson had used the tactic of making his argument as though he were an attorney before a judge on February 9, 1942, in a critical White House meeting about the dire situation in the Philippines. Then Stimson literally rose to his feet in the Oval Office and argued his case to the president “standing as if before the court.” He carried his point. See Hamilton, The Mantle of Command, 180–81, quoting from Stimson’s diary.
6. Stimson, brief report on certain features of overseas trip, August 4, 1943, Henry L. Stimson Papers, LOC, 1.
7. Stimson, brief report, 2.
8. Stimson, brief report, 3.
9. E. Morison, Turmoil and Tradition, 234–35.
10. Morison, Turmoil and Tradition, 3.
11. Stimson, brief report, 3–4.
12. Casey, Cautious Crusade, 89–90, and Parrish, Roosevelt and Marshall, 297.
13. Persico, Roosevelt’s Centurions, 221.
14. Stimson, brief report, 8.
15. Stimson, brief report, 9.
16. Stimson, brief report, 11.
17. Stimson, “Observations,” 65.
18. Stimson, “Observations,” 65.
19. Parrish, Roosevelt and Marshall, 87–88.
20. Parrish, Roosevelt and Marshall, 87–88, and Pogue, Marshall: Education of a General, 324–35.
21. Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins, 223–24.
22. Churchill to Roosevelt, December 7, 1940, Map Room Papers, box 1, Churchill–FDR, October 1939–December 1940, vol. 1, Franklin On-line, FDRL, http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/archives/collections/franklin/, 160–179, 15.
23. Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins, 224–25.
24. Accounts, all based on Sherwood, vary. See Parrish, Roosevelt and Marshall, 162, and Roll, Hopkins Touch, 74–75.
25. Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins, 225.
26. Churchill, “Speech by Prime Minister Churchill at the Mansion House Regarding Involvement in a U.S.-Japanese War by the British,” November 10, 1941, BLI, 1.
27. Pogue, Marshall: Education of a General, 324.
28. Marshall to Gen. Asa Singleton, USA, November 22, 1939, quoted in Pogue, Marshall: Education of a General, 325.
29. Stimson to Roosevelt, cover letter for secretary of war’s July 1943 trip report, August 4, 1943, President’s Safe File, Stimson folder, FDRL.
30. FRUS: Conferences at Washington, 1941–1942, and Casablanca, 1943, 444.
1. From an early draft of Byrnes, All in One Lifetime, courtesy of James Cross, manuscript archivist, Clemson University Library. Provided via email to the author August 16, 2012.
2. Adm. William D. Leahy, USN, journal, August 9, 1943, Leahy Papers, LOC. Harry Hopkins arrived at Birch Island on a Navy PBY Catalina amphibious plane on August 4 from Bangor, Maine. Byrnes may have been on Hopkins’s plane. Certain from Byrnes memoir is that he left Washington aboard FDR’s train on July 31. Also certain from archived records at Clemson University is that Byrnes was back in Washington on August 2 to chair an Office of War Mobilization meeting on a surge of protest from governors and congressmen about an uncoordinated news release on changes to gasoline rationing. Byrnes certainly had returned to Birch Island by the time Hopkins was there. Byrnes’s signature appears below Hopkins’s on a commemorative navigation chart that Lt. John Manley circulated among the fishing party. A clue as to whether and how Byrnes suddenly returned to Washington may be a cryptic, post–fishing trip Secret Service telegram to Ford Motor Company security chief Harry Bennett, thanking him for the use of Henry Ford’s amphibious plane and pilot: “The only way to get the tiger in the air was to have Hal fly him.” See Michael F. Reilly to Harry Bennett, telegram, Ford Motor Company, August 31, 1943, Birch Island file, FDRL. Tiger appears nowhere in the lists of Secret Service code names for the fishing trip.
3. Lt. John Manley, USNR, letter to Lt. Ernest Loeb, September 9, 1943, photostatic copy exhibited at Turner’s Store, Little Current, Ontario.
4. Rigdon, White House Sailor, 32–33, and Manley to Loeb.
5. “E. D. Wilkins Had Brief Exchange with Roosevelt,” Sudbury (ON) Daily Star, August 9, 1943, Birch Island file, FDRL.
6. Rigdon, White House Sailor, 35.
7. Grace Tully, “Thank you letter to Mr. H. A. Heineman,” August 13, 1943, Birch Island file, FDRL.
8. Agarossi, A Nation Collapses, 73.
9. Amb. John G. Winant, “Most secret to the President from Winant,” Message White 47, August 5, 1943, Map Room file, FDRL, 2–3.
10. Churchill, “Former Naval Person to President Roosevelt nr 405,” Message White 43, August 4, 1943, Map Room file, FDRL, 1.
11. Churchill, “Former Naval Person to President Roosevelt nr 405,” 2.
12. Winant, “Most secret to the President from Winant,” August 5, 1943, 1–3
13. “Roosevelt and Cabinet Fish in North,” Sudbury (ON) Daily Star, August 9, 1943, Birch Island file, FDRL.
14. Manley to Loeb, September 9, 1943, 2.
15. Persico, Roosevelt’s Centurions, 162–63.
16. Roosevelt, “To the Secretary of War,” August 8, 1943, President’s Safe File, Stimson file, FDRL.
17. U.S. Secret Service, Schedule A, Saturday, August 7, 1943, Birch Island file, FDRL.
18. Guy H. Spaman to Secret Service chief Wilson re: apprehension of Pete Krug, August 5, 1943, Birch Island file, FDRL.
19. U.S. Secret Service, President’s return trip from Birch Island, Ontario, Canada, August 7, 1943, Birch Island file, FDRL.
20. FRUS: Conferences at Cairo and Tehran 1943, 18.
21. Roosevelt to Stimson, August 8, 1943. Note the use of the plural memoranda between two men who were careful in their use of language. Unless Roosevelt meant to include Stimson’s cover letter to him, the record does not explain this.
1. Hamilton, Commander in Chief, 319.
2. Chiefs of Staff Committee, COS (43) 471 (O) Part B ‘Quadrant’ Record of Chiefs of Staff meetings held on board RMS Queen Mary and in Quebec August 1943, September 11, 1943, CAB 99/23, NA, 4–5, and COSSAC (43) 23rd meeting, minutes of COSSAC staff conference held on Saturday, August 28, 1943, August 30, 1943, RG 331, file 122, NARA, 1–2.
3. COSSAC (43) 32 (Final) Digest of Operation “Overlord,” in Chiefs of Staff Committee, COS (43) 416 (O) Operation “Overlord” report and appreciation with appendices, July 30, 1943, RG 165, entry NM-84, 390/30/18/1, box 13, NARA, viii.
4. Chiefs of Staff Committee, COS (43) 471 (O) Part B ‘Quadrant’ Record of Chiefs of Staff meetings held on board RMS Queen Mary and in Quebec August 1943, September 11, 1943, CAB 99/23, NA, 5.
5. Churchill, Closing the Ring, 67.
6. COSSAC (43) 23rd meeting: minutes of COSSAC staff conference held on Saturday, August 28, 1943, August 30, 1943, RG 331, file 122, NARA, 3.
7. Gen. Sir Hastings Ismay account quoted in Lavery, Churchill Goes to War, 463.
8. Roosevelt, Cable 326: To the Former Naval Person from the President, July 26, 1943, FRUS: Conferences at Washington, 1941–1942, and Casablanca, 1943, 636.
9. Churchill to Sir John Anderson re: negotiation of Articles of Agreement, August 1, 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, NA.
10. See Farmelo, Churchill’s Bomb, 218, and Gowing, Britain and Atomic Energy, 172.
11. FRUS: Conferences at Washington and Quebec 1943, 640–41.
12. Sir John Anderson, draft Articles of Agreement, August 4, 1943, Atomic Energy Commission, Annexes to the Diplomatic History of the Manhattan Project, RG 374, microfilm roll 12, NARA, annex 13.
13. Vannevar Bush, memorandum: sequence of events concerning interchange with the British on the subject of S-1, August 4, 1943, Atomic Energy Commission, Annexes to the Diplomatic History of the Manhattan Project, RG 374, microfilm roll 12, NARA, annex 10.
14. Bush, memorandum: sequence of events.
15. Quoted in Ruane, Churchill and the Bomb, 61.
16. Derivative from timeline described in Bush to Anderson, August 6, 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, NA.
17. Stimson appointment book, August 5, 1943, RG 107, NARA.
18. Gowing, Britain and Atomic Energy, 170.
19. Gowing, Britain and Atomic Energy, 170.
20. Harvey Bundy, memorandum of meeting at 10 Downing Street on July 22, 1943, Annexes to the Diplomatic History of the Manhattan Project, RG 374, microfilm roll 12, NARA, annex 11, 4.
21. For an exposition of the reasoning for limiting cooperation with the British recommended to FDR and the end of 1942 and which was the foundation for resistance to cooperation by Vannevar Bush, his deputy James Conant, and Manhattan Project commander Gen. Leslie Groves, see Bush, “Excerpt from Report to the President by the Military Policy Committee, 15 December 1942, with Particular Reference to Recommendations Relating to Future Relations with the British and Canadians,” Annexes to the Diplomatic History of the Manhattan Project, RG 374, microfilm roll 12, NARA, annex 6.
22. Bush to Anderson, August 6, 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, NA. Bush’s decision to defer negotiation on the draft agreement’s four substantive points had consequences unforeseen at the time. Point Three prohibited each government from sharing atomic information with a third party without the prior agreement of both governments. In September 1942, the British government had entered into an agreement with exiled French scientists on an exchange of patent rights and information related to atomic research. By foreclosing discussion of the point, Bush also precluded an opportunity for Anderson to cite this preexisting commitment before Roosevelt and Churchill signed the Atomic Sharing Agreement. In 1944, this became an issue between the British and the Americans. In hindsight, General Groves felt that with knowledge in advance of signing, an accommodation of the Anglo-French commitment could have been incorporated. See Groves, Now It Can Be Told, 224–28.
23. Bush to Anderson, August 6, 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, NA.
24. Groves, Now It Can Be Told, 135.
25. Bundy, memorandum for the secretary, August 6, 1943, FRUS: Conferences in Washington and Quebec, 648–49.
26. “A reasonable basis for a quid pro quo” is from Bundy, memorandum for the secretary, 648–49.
27. Anderson to Bush re: draft Articles of Agreement, August 6, 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, 1943, NA.
28. Bush to Roosevelt, August 7, 1943, Annexes to the Diplomatic History of the Manhattan Project, RG 374, microfilm roll 12, NARA, annex 17.
29. Bush, memorandum of conference with Mr. Harry Hopkins and Lord Cherwell at the White House, May 25, 1943, Atomic Energy Commission, Annexes to the Diplomatic History of the Manhattan Project, RG 374, microfilm roll 12, NARA, annex 9, 1.
30. See James B. Conant, memorandum: exchange of information on S-1 project with the British, July 30, 1943, Annexes to the Diplomatic History of the Manhattan Project, RG 374, Annex 10, roll 12, NARA, annex 10, and Conant, memorandum: exchange of information on S-1 with the British, August 6, 1943, Annexes to the Diplomatic History of the Manhattan Project, RG 227, M 1392, roll 5, frame 33, NARA.
31. Coakley and Leighton, Global Logistics and Strategy, 1943–1945, 180.
32. See report by Joint War Planning Committee 5, “Strategic Concept for Defeat of the Axis in Europe,” August 1943, cited in Coakley and Leighton, Global Logistics and Strategy, 1943–1945, 180.
33. Coakley and Leighton, Global Logistics and Strategy, 1943–1945, 179.
34. Quoted in Coakley and Leighton, Global Logistics and Strategy, 1943–1945, 101–2.
35. Joint Chiefs of Staff, Quadrant Information Bulletin, no. 1, August 5, 1943, RG 165, box 54, NARA.
36. Lt. Gen. Sir Frederick Morgan, BA, COSSAC /3182/Geo. notes on conversation with Maj-Gen Barker, August 5, 1943, RG 331, box 210, NARA, 1.
37. Morgan, COSSAC /3182/Geo. notes, 1.
38. For Marshall’s questions to Barker, see Joint Chiefs of Staff, 100th meeting: minutes of meeting held in room 240, Combined Chiefs of Staff Building, August 6, 1943, at 1200, RG 165, entry 334, box 184, NARA, 4–5, and Matloff, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, 173–74.
39. Joint Chiefs of Staff, 100th meeting, 6.
40. Joint Chiefs of Staff, Strategic Studies and Outline Plans, Book I, Map Room files, box 27, FDRL, 1.
41. Coakley and Leighton, Global Logistics and Strategy, 1943–1945, 181.
42. “Estimate of the Enemy Situation, 1943–1944 European Area,” July 30, 1943, 1 in Joint Chiefs of Staff, Strategic Studies and Outline Plans, Book I.
43. Joint Chiefs of Staff, Quadrant Information Bulletin, no. 1, August 5, 1943, RG 165, box 54, NARA.
44. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 392.
45. Harriman and Abel, Special Envoy, 221.
46. Maj. Gen. Thomas Handy, USA, “Conduct of the War in Europe,” August 8, 1943, RG 165, NARA.
47. Handy, “Conduct of the War in Europe,” 10.
48. Handy, “Conduct of the War in Europe,” 1–2.
49. Total end-of-month strength for August 1943, in Ruppenthal, Logistical Support of the Armies, 1:192.
50. Ruppenthal, Logistical Support of the Armies, 1:55–59.
51. Harrison, Cross-Channel Attack, 87.
52. Stimson, brief report on certain features of overseas trip, August 4, 1943, Stimson Papers, LOC, 13.
53. Handy, “Conduct of the War in Europe,” 3–4.
54. Handy, “Conduct of the War in Europe,” 5.
55. Handy, “Conduct of the War in Europe,” 5–6.
56. Brooke, War Diaries, 438.
1. 1. U.S. Secret Service, president’s return trip from Birch Island, Ontario, Canada, August 7, 1943, Birch Island file, FDRL.
2. Telephone records 1943, Harry L. Hopkins Collection, box 224, FDRL.
3. Stimson appointment book, RG 107, NARA.
4. Telephone records 1943, Hopkins Collection, box 224, FDRL.
5. Joint Chiefs of Staff, 102nd meeting: Joint Chiefs of Staff supplementary minutes, August 11, 1943, RG 165, box 185, NARA.
6. Joint Chiefs of Staff, CCS 303: Concept for the defeat of the Axis in Europe, August 9, 1943, in Joint Chiefs of Staff, Strategic Studies and Outline Plans, Book I, Map Room files, box 27, FDRL; Coakley and Leighton, Global Logistics and Strategy, 1943–1945, 181.
7. Cline, Washington Command Post, 223, 223n.
8. Coakley and Leighton, Global Logistics and Strategy, 1943–1945, 2.
9. Joint Chiefs of Staff, CCS 303: Concept for the Defeat of the Axis in Europe; Coakley and Leighton, Global Logistics and Strategy 1943–1945, 3, 9–11.
10. Stimson and Bundy, On Active Service, 434–35; Hopkins appointment book 1943, series 3, box 53, folder O, Harry Hopkins Collection, GUL; and Stimson appointment book, RG 107, NARA.
11. Stimson appointment book, RG 107, NARA.
12. White House Usher’s Diary, August 9, 1943, FDRL.
13. Matloff, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, 1943–1945, 211–12.
14. Gen. George C. Marshall, USA, memorandum for General Handy, August 9, 1943, RG 165, box 59, NARA.
15. Matloff, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, 1943–1945, 213, and Joint Chiefs of Staff, 102nd meeting: minutes of meeting held in Room 240, the Combined Chiefs of Staff Building, August 9, 1943, at 1130, RG 165, box 185, NARA, 5–6.
16. Maj. Gen. Thomas Handy, USA, memorandum for the Chief of Staff: movement of additional divisions to the Mediterranean, August 9, 1943, RG 165, NARA.
17. Stimson appointment book, RG 107, NARA.
18. Stimson, “Observations,” 80–81.
19. Hopkins appointment book 1943.
20. Vannevar Bush to Roosevelt, August 7, 1943, Atomic Energy Commission, Annexes to the Diplomatic History of the Manhattan Project, RG 374, microfilm roll 12, NARA, Annex 17.
21. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 392.
22. Harriman and Abel, Special Envoy, 222
23. White House Usher’s Diary, August 9, 1943, FDRL.
24. Stimson, “Observations,” 81. Built in 1801 and modified by the succession of public figures who lived there, Woodley survives as the library and administrative office of Maret International School. Kilborne, Images of America: Woodley and Its Residents, 121.
25. Stimson and Bundy, On Active Service in Peace and War, 435, and Stimson, “Observations,” 81.
26. Stimson, “Dear Mr. President,” August 10, 1943, 2, found in Stimson, “Observations,” 80–90.
27. Stimson and Bundy, On Active Service in Peace and War, 435, and Stimson appointment book, August 10, 1943, RG 107, NARA.
28. Maj. Gen. Thomas Handy, USA, memorandum for the Chief of Staff: movement of additional divisions to the Mediterranean, August 9, 1943, RG 165, NARA.
29. Matloff, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, 1943–1945, 213.
30. Joint Chiefs of Staff, Quadrant Information Bulletin, no. 1, August 5, 1943, RG 165, box 54, NARA.
31. Joint Chiefs of Staff, 103rd meeting: minutes of meeting held in room 240, Combined Chiefs of Staff Building, August 10, 1943, at 1200, RG 165, box 185, NARA, 1–2.
32. Stimson and Bundy, On Active Service in Peace and War, 435.
33. Stimson, “Observations,”83.
34. Stimson, “Observations,”83, 84. In his memoir, published almost thirty years before U.S. declassification of the 1943 Anglo-American secret agreement on atomic research and policy, Stimson made no other mention of the atomic negotiation.
35. Stimson, “Observations,” 84.
36. Stimson and Bundy, On Active Service in Peace and War, 438, and White House Usher’s Diary, August 10, 1943, FDRL.
37. Coakley and Leighton, Global Logistics and Strategy, 1943–1945, 185.
38. Larrabee, Commander in Chief, 187, and Stimson and Bundy, On Active Service in Peace and War, 439.
39. Wedemeyer, Wedemeyer Reports! 242.
40. Quoted in Stimson and Bundy, On Active Service in Peace and War, 439.
41. Joint Chiefs of Staff, Quadrant Information Bulletin, no. 1, August 5, 1943, RG 165, box 54, NARA.
42. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 392.
43. Gen. George C. Marshall, USA, memorandum for the president: divisions for Overlord on May 1, 1944, August 11, 1943, RG 165, box 54, NARA.
44. Operations Division, wdgs, outgoing message no. 4751, Commanding General Freedom, Algiers, August 11, 1943, RG 165, box 54, NARA.
1. William Lyon Mackenzie King, memorandum of conversation Mr. Mackenzie King had with Mr. Winston Churchill, Quebec City, August 10, 1943, LAC, http://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/discover/politics-government/prime-ministers/william-lyon-mackenzie-king/Pages/diaries-william-lyon-mackenzie-king.aspx, 1318–26.
2. Mackenzie King, “Memorandum of Conversation,” 1318.
3. Mackenzie King, “Memorandum of Conversation,” 1318–19.
4. Mackenzie King, “Memorandum of Conversation,” 1319, 1321.
5. Mackenzie King, “Memorandum of Conversation,” 1320.
6. Mackenzie King, “Memorandum of Conversation,” 1321–22.
7. Bush to Anderson, and Anderson to Bush re: draft articles of agreement, August 6, 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, NA, 1.
8. Anderson, “Tube Alloys,” August 10, 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, NA, 1.
9. John M. Martin, “Welfare 51 NOCOP,” cypher telegram to Lord Cherwell, August 11, 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, NA.
10. Gowing, Britain and Atomic Energy, 192–93, 196–97.
11. Mackenzie King, “Memorandum of Conversation,”1322.
12. Mackenzie King, “Memorandum of Conversation,”1325.
13. Mackenzie King, “Memorandum of Conversation,” 1322, 1324.
14. Mackenzie King, “Memorandum of Conversation,” 1323–24.
15. Churchill’s doctor, Lord Moran, recorded that Mackenzie King shared with him this observation of Churchill. Quoted from Lord Moran’s papers in Hamilton, The Mantle of Command, 122.
16. Mackenzie King, “Memorandum of Conversation,”1325–26.
17. Mackenzie King, “Memorandum of Conversation,” 1326. According to Dr. Marc Milner, Mackenzie King was correct that, by the summer of 1943, the Royal Canadian Navy was providing at least 40 percent if not more of the transatlantic convoy escorts. E-mail correspondence by the author with Dr. Marc Milner, director, Gregg Centre, University of New Brunswick, February 11, 2015.
18. Mackenzie King, “Memorandum of Conversation,”1326.
19. Guy H. Spaman, “Train from A to H.P.,” August 11, 1943, Birch Island file, FDRL; FRUS: Conferences at Washington and Quebec 1943, 412
20. Ward, Closest Companion, 228.
21. This was the only painting that Churchill made during the war. Moran, Churchill at War, 100.
22. Ward, Closest Companion, 229.
23. Churchill, “My dear Mr. President,” August 15, 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, NA.
24. Churchill, note to Roosevelt, August 13, 1943, President’s Secretary’s File, Diplomatic, box 37, Great Britain–Churchill, Winston 1942–1943, FDRL, 84–85.
25. FRUS: Conferences at Washington and Quebec 1943, 412.
26. Goodwin, No Ordinary Time, 457.
27. Jackson and Bramall, The Chiefs, 256.
28. Villa, Unauthorized Action, 252–53.
29. FRUS: General; the British Commonwealth; the Far East 1942, 1:533–36.
30. FRUS: Diplomatic Papers 1944: General Economic and Social Matters, 533–35.
31. Gowing, Britain and Atomic Energy, 16.
32. Churchill, Closing the Ring, 82; Goodwin, No Ordinary Time, 457.
33. Ward, Closest Companion, 230.
34. Goodwin, No Ordinary Time, 457; Harriman and Abel, Special Envoy, 222.
35. For a later example of Churchill’s view, see Eden, Memoirs, 491.
36. John M. Martin to Churchill re: outcome of Tube Alloys conversation with Roosevelt, August 14, 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, NA.
37. Churchill, “My dear Mr. President,” August 15, 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, NA.
38. Churchill, direction to show his letter to Roosevelt of August 15 to the Chiefs of Staff Committee, August 15, 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, NA.
1. Chiefs of Staff Committee, COS (Q) 7th meeting: August 11, 1943, in Chiefs of Staff Committee, COS (43) 471 (O) Part B Quadrant Record of Chiefs of Staff meetings held on board SS Queen Mary and in Quebec August 1943, September 11, 1943, CAB 99/23, NA, 199.
2. Gen. George C. Marshall, USA, memorandum for the president: divisions for Overlord on May 1, 1944, August 11, 1943, RG 165, box 54, NARA.
3. Marshall, USA, message 4751 to General Eisenhower, Algiers, August 11, 1943, RG 165, box 54, NARA.
4. Joint Chiefs of Staff, Quadrant Information Bulletin, no. 1, August 5, 1943, RG 165, box 54, NARA.
5. Overy, Bombers and the Bombed, 148.
6. Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower, USA, incoming message no. 7205 for Marshall eyes only, August 13, 1943, RG 165, box 54, NARA, 1–2.
7. Eisenhower, incoming message no. 7205, 1.
8. Joint Chiefs of Staff, Quadrant Information Bulletin, no. 1.
9. COS (Q) 10th meeting: minutes, August 13, 1943, in Chiefs of Staff Committee, COS (43) 471 (O) Part B ‘Quadrant’ Record of Chiefs of Staff Meetings Held on Board SS Queen Mary and in Quebec August 1943, September 11, 1943, CAB 99/23, NA, 32.
10. COS (Q) 10th meeting: minutes, August 13, 1943, 33.
11. COS (Q) 10th Meeting: Minutes, August 13, 1943, 33.
12. Combined Chiefs of Staff (Quadrant), CCS 106th meeting: minutes of meeting held in room 2208, Chateau Frontenac Hotel on Saturday, August 14, 1943, at 1030, RG 165, entry 334, section 5, box 182, NARA.
13. C.C.S. 107th meeting: minutes of meeting, August 14, 1943, in Office of the Combined Chiefs, Quadrant Conference August 1943: papers and minutes of meetings, August 1943, Map Room Papers, series 1, box 27, FDRL, 423–29.
14. COS (Q) 12th meeting: minutes, August 15, in Chiefs of Staff Committee, COS (43) 471 (O) Part B ‘Quadrant’ record of Chiefs of Staff meetings held on board SS Queen Mary and in Quebec August 1943, September 11, 1943, CAB 99/23, NA, 135–36.
15. Brooke, War Diaries, 441–42.
16. Combined Chiefs of Staff (Quadrant), CCS 108th meeting: minutes of meeting held in room 2208, Chateau Frontenac Hotel on Sunday, August 15, 1943, at 1300, RG 165, entry 334, box 182, NARA, 2, 3.
17. Combined Chiefs of Staff (Quadrant), CCS 108th meeting: minutes, 4.
18. Combined Chiefs of Staff (Quadrant), CCS 108th meeting: minutes, 15 August 1943, 4–5.
19. Combined Chiefs of Staff (Quadrant), CCS 108th meeting: minutes, 6.
20. Joint Chiefs of Staff, 104th meeting: minutes of meeting held in room 2104, Chateau Frontenac Hotel, August 15, 1943 at 1700, RG 165, box 185, NARA, 2.
21. Joint Chiefs of Staff, 104th meeting: minutes, 5.
22. Joint Chiefs of Staff, 105th meeting: minutes of meeting held in room 2104, Chateau Frontenac Hotel, August 16, 1943 at 1000, RG 165, entry 334, section 5, box 185, NARA, 1–2.
23. Joint Chiefs of Staff, 105th meeting: minutes, 3.
24. Joint Chiefs of Staff, Annex B, 105th meeting: minutes of meeting held in room 2104, Chateau Frontenac Hotel, August 16, 1943, at 1000, RG 165, entry 334, section 5, box 185, NARA, 1943, 11.
25. Joint Chiefs of Staff, Annex A, 105th meeting: minutes, 10.
26. G.O. Jr., memorandum for General Hull, August 16, 1943, RG 165, NARA.
27. Joint Chiefs of Staff, CCS 303/1: “Combined Chiefs of Staff: Strategic Concept for the Defeat of the Axis in Europe: Memorandum Submitted by the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, August 16, 1943,” RG 319, box 15, NARA.
28. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 303/2: Strategic Concept for the Defeat of the Axis in Europe, August 16, 1943, copy no. 4, RG 165, NARA; Brigadier Sir Edward Ian Jacobs to Churchill re: state of CCS discussion of European strategy, August 16, 1943, PREM 3/333/15, NA, 1.
29. Brooke, War Diaries, 443.
30. Combined Chiefs of Staff (Quadrant), CCS 109th meeting: minutes of meeting held in room 2208, Chateau Frontenac Hotel on Monday, August 16, 1943, at 1430, RG 165, entry 334, section 5, box 182, NARA, 1.
31. Gen. Ian Jacobs to Churchill, re: state of CCS discussion of European strategy, August 16, 1943, PREM 3/333/15, NA, 1.
32. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 303/2: Strategic Concept for the Defeat of the Axis in Europe.
33. Secret Service, Trips of the President, 1939–1945: Quebec Conference, August 1943, FDRL.
34. Pogue, Marshall: Organizer of Victory, 245, 634n15.
35. Pogue, Marshall: Organizer of Victory, 248.
36. Overy, Bombers and the Bombed, 150–51.
37. Brooke, War Diaries, 443.
38. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 110th meeting Quadrant Conference, minutes, August 17 at 1430, in Office of the Combined Chiefs, Quadrant Conference August 1943: papers and minutes of meetings, August 1943, Map Room Papers, series 1, box 27, FDRL, 446.
39. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 303/3: Strategic Concept for the Defeat of the Axis in Europe, August 17, 1943, RG 165, NARA.
40. Roosevelt Day by Day, August 17, 1943, FDRL, http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/daybyday/.
41. Lt. Gen. Sir Hastings Ismay, note to the prime minister, August 18, 1943, PREM 3/333/15, NA.
42. COS (Q) 33: “The Standstill Order in the Mediterranean,” August 18, 1943, in Chiefs of Staff Committee, COS (43) 471 (O) Part B ‘Quadrant’ record of Chiefs of Staff meetings held on board SS Queen Mary and in Quebec August 1943, September 11, 1943, CAB 99/23, NA, 140.
43. Brooke based that on “something the PM had said to Stimson” during the U.S. Secretary of War’s visit to London. See Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 409.
44. Roosevelt Day by Day, August 17, 1943, FDRL
45. Combined Chiefs of Staff (Quadrant), CCS 111th meeting: minutes of meeting held in room 2208, Chateau Frontenac Hotel on Wednesday, August 18, 1943, at 1500, RG 165, entry 334, box 182, NARA.
46. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 405. Habbakuk is a prophet in the Hebrew Bible and Christian Old Testament. Within God’s response to Habbakuk’s complaint that the deity was ignoring destruction and violence is this: “Look at the nations and see! Be astonished! Be astounded! For a work is being done in your days that you would not believe if you were told.” Rev. Emily Guthrie in email correspondence with author, March 10, 2017.
47. Brooke, War Diaries, 445–46.
48. See Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 319: Combined Chiefs of Staff progress report to the president and prime minister, August 19, 1943, Map Room files, box 169, FDRL.
49. Chief William Rigdon, USN, log of the president’s visit to Canada, August 16–26, 1943, September 1943, George Elsey Papers, item 6, FDRL, 8.
50. Rigdon, log of the president’s visit to Canada, August 16–26, 1943, 8.
51. Ruane, Churchill and the Bomb, 62–63.
52. John M. Martin to Adm. Wilson Brown, USN, conveying copy of the Roosevelt-Churchill “Articles of Agreement,” August 19, 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, NA.
53. Rigdon, log of the president’s visit to Canada, August 16–26, 1943, 9.
54. CCS 113th meeting Quadrant Conference minutes, August 20, 1943, in Office of the Combined Chiefs, Quadrant Conference, August 1943: Papers and Minutes of Meetings, August 1943, Map Room Papers, series 1; box 27, FDRL, 465–73, 472.
55. Roosevelt and Churchill, “Secret and Personal to Marshal Stalin,” August 21, 1943, Yale Law School, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/q004.asp.
56. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 114th meeting Quadrant Conference minutes, August 21, 1943, in Office of the Combined Chiefs, Quadrant Conference, August 1943: papers and minutes of meetings, August 1943, Map Room Papers, series 1, box 27, FDRL, 475–77.
57. Overy, Bombers and the Bombed, 148, 262, 152–53
58. Combined Chiefs of Staff, 2nd meeting of the president and prime minister with the Combined Chiefs of Staff, August 23, 1
59. Combined Chiefs of Staff, 2nd meeting.
60. Combined Chiefs of Staff, 2nd meeting.
61. Combined Chiefs of Staff (Quadrant), CCS 116th meeting: minutes, August 24, 1943.
62. Mackenzie King, “Memorandum of Conversation,” 2584.
1. Ruppenthal, Logistical Support of the Armies, 1:129, table 3.
2. Gen. Sir Thomas Riddell-Webster, QMG, minute to the secretary of state for war, Sir P. J. Grigg, on the rate of accepting U.S. troops, January 1, 1943, PREM 3/454/3, NA, 1–2, and Sir Findlater Stewart, “Bolero” Movement and “Overlord,” August 11, 1943, CAB 21/1503, NA.
3. Harrison, Cross-Channel Attack, 65.
4. Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower, USA, incoming message no. 7205 for Marshall eyes only, August 13, 1943, RG 165, box 54, NARA.
5. British Chiefs of Staff, CCS 286: Formation by U.S. assault forces for Operation ‘Overlord’ memorandum by the representatives of the British Chiefs of Staff, July 20, 1943, RG 319, file 14, NA.
6. Morison, The Battle of the Atlantic, 205, and Leighton and Coakley, Global Logistics and Strategy, 1940–1943, 624.
7. Harrison, Cross-Channel Attack, 63, and Leighton and Coakley, Global Logistics and Strategy, 1940–1943, 683.
8. Memorandum from Rear Adm. W. S. Farber, Fleet Maintenance Division, to Vice Admiral Horne, quoted in Harrison, Cross-Channel Attack, 63.
9. Army Service Force, Transportation Corps, outgoing message no. 8Q, RG 165, entry 422, box 29, NARA.
10. Historical Sub-Section, Office of Secretary, General Staff, History of COSSAC (Chief of Staff to Supreme Allied Commander) 1943–1944, file 8–3.6. CA, ACMH, www.history.army.mil/documents/cossac/Cossac.htm, 32–33.
11. Harrison, Cross-Channel Attack, 64, referencing an April 26, 1944, memorandum from Assistant Secretary of War John J. McCloy to General Marshall quoting Churchill.
12. Gen. George C. Marshall, USA, memorandum for the president: divisions for Overlord on May 1, 1944, August 11, 1943, RG 165, box 54, NARA, 1–2, and Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 319/4: Combined Chiefs of Staff Final Report to the President and Prime Minister, August 23, 1943, RG 107, entry 104, box 277, NARA, 251.
13. See Offley, Turning the Tide, 281–335, 364.
14. Kahn, Hitler’s Spies, 221–22.
15. Allied Anti-Submarine Survey Board, “Employment of CVE’s in Offensive Action against U-Boats,” August 27, 1943, CCS 335, RG 319, box 18, NARA, 1–2.
16. Combined Chiefs of Staff (Quadrant), CCS 111th meeting: minutes of meeting held in room 2208, Chateau Frontenac Hotel on Wednesday, August 18, 1943, at 1500, RG 165, entry 334, box 182, NARA, 4.
17. Offley, Turning the Tide, 229, 284, and Headquarters of the Commander in Chief, United States Fleet and Commander Tenth Fleet, “History of Convoy and Routing, 1939–1945,” Navy Department, RG 38, NARA, 2.
18. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 338: Report on recent and prospective developments in anti-submarine operations since Quadrant: memorandum from the United States Chiefs of Staff, November 18, 1943, RG 319, box 20, NARA, 1.
19. Lt. Charles Dillon, USNR, Narrative, USS Bogue, September 23, 1943, RG 38, entry 11 170/65/20/1–5, box 7, NARA, 2, 8
20. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 338: Report on recent and prospective developments in anti-submarine operations since Quadrant, 1.
21. Chiefs of Staff Committee, COS (43) 130th meeting: minutes of meeting held on Wednesday, August 18, 1943, at 10:30 a.m., CAB 79/27, NA, 1.
22. Leighton and Coakley, Global Logistics and Strategy, 1940–1943, 678.
23. Bell, Churchill & Sea Power, 276–77.
24. Calculated from Symonds, Neptune, 139.
25. For an account of the dispute, see “The Pressure for Economy in Ship Operations” in Leighton and Coakley, Global Logistics and Strategy, 1940–1943, 616–23.
26. Leighton and Coakley; Global Logistics and Strategy, 1940–1943, 612.
27. Ruppenthal, Logistical Support of the Armies, 1:121.
28. Ross and Romanus, The Quartermaster Corps: Operations in the War against Germany, 317.
29. Ruppenthal, Logistical Support of the Armies, 1:136.
30. Ruppenthal, Logistical Support of the Armies, 1:132–34.
31. Ruppenthal, Logistical Support of the Armies, 1:137–9.
32. U.S. Delegation, Quebec, Message no. 32-W-17, Action: General Somervell, August 16, 1943, RG 165, box 54, NARA.
33. Morison, Atlantic Battle Won, 133, and Headquarters of the Commander-in-Chief, United States Fleet and Commander Tenth Fleet, “History of Convoy and Routing, 1939–1945,” Navy Department, RG 38, NARA, 47–48.
34. Author’s conversation in 2013 with Madge Darneille, Kensington, Maryland. Mrs. Darneille, as a Royal Navy civilian employee, crossed the Atlantic westward in the Queen Elizabeth to reach her wartime assignment at the Admiralty Mission in Washington.
35. Ruppenthal, Logistical Support of the Armies, 1:234.
36. Capt. Paul P. Blackburn, USN (Ret.), Comment re Convoy UT-1, September 16, 1943, RG 38, file 370, box 162, NARA, 1.
37. Blackburn, Comment re Convoy UT-1, Second Endorsement, September 16, 1943, 2.
38. Blackburn, Report of Convoy UT-1, September 6, 1943, RG 38, file 370, box 162, NARA, 1.
39. UT Convoy Reports, RG 38, file 370, boxes 162–63, NARA; Headquarters of the Commander-in-Chief, United States Fleet and Commander Tenth Fleet, “History of Convoy and Routing, 1939–1945,” Navy Department, RG 38, NARA, 48.
40. Headquarters of the Commander-in-Chief, United States Fleet and Commander Tenth Fleet, “History of Convoy and Routing, 1939–1945,” 48.
41. Royal Navy, Atlantic Convoy instructions, quoted in Offley, Turning the Tide, 309.
42. Bolero-Sickle Combined Committee, UK troop movements (tentative schedule), July 7, 1943, RG 165, box 203, NARA, 1.
43. Morison, Atlantic Battle Won, 115
44. Morison, Atlantic Battle Won, 230–31.
45. Morison, Atlantic Battle Won, 230.
46. Average time calculated from departures and arrivals reported in twelve UT convoy reports, RG 38, file 370, boxes 162–63, NARA.
47. Commander Task Force 60, CTF 60 Reports to COMNAVEU, naval message, January 7, 1944, RG 38, file 370, box 163, NARA.
48. Author’s discussion with Capt. Lee Moss, USN (Ret.), former attack submarine commander, March 24, 2013.
49. British Chiefs of Staff, CCS 399/1 (SEXTANT): Memorandum: progress report on the U-boat war—September–October 1943, November 23, 1943, RG 319, file 20, NARA, 2.
50. Morrison, Atlantic Battle Won, 138–46.
51. Offley, Turning the Tide, 378.
52. Admiralty, Message 301621A: Appreciation of the present situation in the North Atlantic, September 30, 1943, AIR 8/1399, NA.
53. British Chiefs of Staff, CCS 399/1 (SEXTANT), 5.
54. Jordan, World’s Merchant Fleets, 1939, 110.
55. British Chiefs of Staff, CCS 246: movement of the Queens, 23 May 1943, RG 319, NARA, 1.
56. Combined Chiefs of Staff, (Trident): CCS 94th Minutes of Meeting Held in the Board of Governors Room, Federal Reserve Building on Sunday, 23 May 1943, at 1400, RG 107, entry 104, box 277, NARA, 2, and Combined Chiefs of Staff, (Trident): CCS 93rd meeting: minutes of meeting held in the Board of Governors Room, Federal Reserve Building, on Saturday, May 22, 1943, at 1030, RG 107, entry 104, box 277, NARA, 2.
57. Commander Task Force 69, “Early Arrival of UT Convoys,” November 1, 1943, RG 38, file 370, box 163, NARA.
58. Rear Adm. Henry D. Cooke, USN, Convoy Form D: Mercantile Convoy no. UT-10, Annex B, n.d., RG 38, file 370, box 163, NARA.
1. Goodwin, No Ordinary Time, 137.
2. Wallace A. Akers, “Tube Alloy Project: Negotiations with the Americans after the Signing of the Quebec Agreement,” September 13, 1943, CAB 126/164, NA, 1.
3. Vannevar Bush to Dr. James Conant,” August 23, 1943, Records of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, Conant’s Personal Files, RG 227, M1392, file 10, NARA.
4. Akers, “Tube Alloy Project,” 1.
5. Akers, “Tube Alloy Project,” 1.
6. Groves, Now It Can Be Told, 135–36.
7. Bush to Conant, August 23, 1943.
8. Akers, “Tube Alloy Project,” 1.
9. Bush to Conant, September 2, 1943, Records of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, Conant’s Personal Files, RG 227, M1392, file 10, NARA, 2.
10. Akers, “Tube Alloy Project,” 1.
11. Akers, “Tube Alloy Project,” 1.
12. Harvey Bundy, minutes of informal meeting, September 8, 1943, Records of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, Conant’s Personal Files, RG 227, M1392, file 10, NARA.
13. Brig. Gen. Leslie R. Groves, USA, extract minutes of the meeting of the Military Policy Committee, September 9, 1943, Records of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, James B. Conant’s Personal Files, RG 227, M1392, file 10, NARA.
14. James B. Conant, memorandum re: progress of the work on interchange with the British on the S-1 project, September 15, 1943, Records of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, Conant’s Personal Files, RG 227, M1392, file 33A T-3, NARA.
15. Villa, Unauthorized Action, 243.
16. Roll, Hopkins Touch, 297.
17. Churchill to Field Marshal Dill, October 24, 1943, RG 165, entry 422, box 29, NARA.
18. Marshall to Eisenhower, message 4751, Algiers, August 11, 1943, RG 165, box 54, NARA.
19. FRUS: Conferences at Cairo and Tehran 1943, 34.
20. FX3714, Convoy: UT-2, September 5, 1943, and Convoy: UT-3, October 17, 1943, RG 38, file 370, box 162, NARA.
21. Ruppenthal, Logistical Support of the Armies, 1:232, table 5.
22. Col. Harold P. Tasker, USA, “Buildup of U.S. Divisions in the United Kingdom,” October 12, 1943, RG165, entry 421, box 362, NARA.
23. Tasker, “Buildup of U.S. Divisions in the United Kingdom”
24. Ruppenthal, Logistical Support of the Armies, 1:232.
25. FRUS: Conferences at Cairo and Tehran 1943, 37–38.
26. FRUS: Conferences at Cairo and Tehran 1943, 38–39.
27. Churchill to Field Marshal Dill,” October 24, 1943.
28. Gen. George C. Marshall, USA, memorandum for the president: subject: conduct of the European war, November 8, 1943, RG 165, (NM-84) box 362, NARA, 2–3.
29. Stoler, Allies and Adversaries, 176.
30. FRUS: Conferences at Cairo and Tehran 1943, 39–40.
31. FRUS: Conferences at Cairo and Tehran 1943, 41.
32. Eubank, Summit at Teheran, 103.
33. FRUS: Conferences at Cairo and Tehran 1943, 7, 47–48.
34. COMNAVNAW (Naval Intelligence Unit), “Enemy Air Attack on Peacock,” Office of Chief of Naval Operations, November 22, 1943, RG 38, file 370, box 163, NARA, 1–3.
35. Parrish, Roosevelt and Marshall, 374–75.
36. Roll, Hopkins Touch, 301.
37. Roll, Hopkins Touch, 301.
38. Stoler, Allies and Adversaries, 159.
39. For the record of their discussion, see Joint Chiefs of Staff, “Minutes of Meeting: Between the President and the Chiefs of Staff, held on board ship in the Admiral’s Cabin, on Friday, 19 November 1943, at 1500,” RG 165, entry, NM-84, box 7, NARA, 9–13,
40. Stoler, Allies and Adversaries, 160.
41. Joint Chiefs of Staff, minutes of meeting: between the president and the chiefs of staff, held on board ship in the admiral’s cabin, on Friday, 19 November 1943, at 1500, RG 165, entry, NM-84, box 7, NARA, 2–4.
42. Joint Chiefs of Staff, minutes of meeting: between the president and the chiefs of staff, held on board ship in the president’s cabin, on Monday, 15 November 1943, at 1400, RG 165, entry, NM-84, box 7, NARA, 5, 3.
43. Casey, Cautious Crusade, 134, and Committee of Historians for the Commanding General of the Army Air Forces, “Germany’s War Potential: An Appraisal,” December 27, 1943, Henry H. Arnold Papers, Special Reports reel 193; Manuscript Division, LOC, 2.
44. Air Ministry Intelligence and Political Warfare Executive, “Allied Air Attacks and German Morale–IV,” November 7, 1943, in Air Ministry, Combined Bomber Offensive progress report, November 1943, AIR 8/116/7, NA, 8.
45. Air Ministry, Combined Bomber Offensive progress report, ii.
46. Air Ministry, Combined Bomber Offensive progress report, 9, and chart “Distribution of German Air Force Fighters.”
47. Capt. Forrest B. Royal, USN, Memorandum for the record, November 9, 1943, RG 218, box 306, CDF HM 1944, NARA, 1–3.
48. “Appendix A: Memorandum from the United States Chiefs of Staff,” in OPD Strategy Section, “SS 133/5: United States Courses of Action in the Case Sextant Decisions Do Not Guarantee Overlord,” November 12, 1943, RG 165, entry 421, box 363, NARA.
49. Lt. E. D. H. Johnson, USN, “USS Iowa: Trip to Oran with President Roosevelt, June 5, 1945,” RG 38, entry 11 170/65/20/1–5, box 14, NARA, 3; J.C.S., “Memorandum (Ship) Number 3 Disembarkation and Plane Transportation; November 14, 1943,” Map Room Papers, Naval Aide’s file A16, box 170; FDRL, 1–2.