Chapter 5

Understanding the Written Word

In This Chapter

Putting events in chronological order and drawing conclusions from details

Recognizing how ideas are related and extracting meaning from context

Digging into the details and comparing points of view

Tuning in to subtle differences in meaning and flow

Comparing and contrasting various aspects of two passages

The written word is one of the wonders of life. It communicates joys and sorrows, histories and futures, plans and outcomes, and even tell you how to get there from here. It can tell you the meaning of life and how to stop the DVD player from blinking 12:00. It entertains and sustains people and spreads knowledge from person to person and generation to generation. It can persuade as well as clarify, or even confuse.

The GED Reasoning Through Language Arts (RLA) test uses the written word to evaluate your ability to read, understand, and analyze meaning. In this chapter, we show you some of the tools you can use to analyze the written word.

Recognizing and Ordering the Sequence of Events

In any story, the events in the story form the plot. The events happen in a sequence, a logical order that makes sense. In instructional materials such as manuals, actions have to occur in the proper sequence so that the user gets the proper results. In newspaper articles, editorials, or history texts, events happen in a specific order, but the writer may place them in a different sequence for effect. As a reader, you must be able to correctly order events even when the piece doesn’t explicitly state them.

In most text, the order of events in pretty clear, even when the author doesn’t state, “this first, then that,” as in the following passage:

The sound of the pull-tab was followed by a flurry of soft footsteps. First, Helga greeted Midnight, a big, black tom. Immediately behind him was Merlin, rubbing his black and tan body against her legs while talking to her, as Siamese are wont to do, never taking his blue eyes off the counter, where the food dishes were being filled. Not to be left out, Tristan and Isolde, the yellow tom and his sister, ran in, impatiently waiting for their food. Mildly exasperated, Helga portioned out the food and put the appropriate dish in front of each cat. A pill mixed into the food for this one, a special diet for that one, other meds here and there; it all needed care.

In Helga’s story, which sequence of events is correct?

(A) the cat food tab is pulled, Merlin talks to Helga, the food is given to the cats

(B) Merlin talks to Helga, the cats are fed, Midnight arrives in the kitchen

(D) Merlin talks, the medication is added to the food, Tristan and Isolde arrive

From the context of the story, you know that the pull-tab is the first event and that the feeding the last. You know that the cats arrive in a particular order: Midnight, Merlin, and Tristan and Isolde. That means the only correct choice is Choice (A). The main point to note is that you’re asked to verify the order of events, not to give a complete list of events in order. Choice (A) omits some events, such as Midnight’s arrival, but the events listed are in the correct order.

Try working with this story from the December 2014 issue of Soldiers, the official U.S. Army Magazine:

Gabe was a puppy when I met him. He was just getting started. So a lot of times we would take him to crowded events or places to make sure that he stayed calm and that his attention was focused on me and my needs so he would be that way with other veterans.

We did this every day. I’d take him around to my appointments with me or around town if I needed to.

We used treats and praise as methods to train and reward. We trained him how to open doors; how to pick up artificial limbs; how to bark on command; how to remind people to take medication; how to take their socks off; how to pay a cashier; if someone started to fall, how to brace for them — anything you can think of. It’s really quite amazing what these animals are capable of.

A lot of times what we’ll do is we’ll show the dog where whatever we want is and we’ll walk them back and forth and back and forth so they know that’s what we want. We’ll teach them, and with praise and treats say, “Look!” And once we have their attention we’ll say, “Find it.” And then they’ll go and grab it and we’ll have them bring it to you.

Eventually you start hiding it and putting it in different places. You’ll put it somewhere where it’s harder to reach until they understand that when I say “Look for this,” that’s what their mission is. They need to find this. Give them a task. The dogs in the program are all Labrador and golden retrievers. They’re working breeds. They want to please. They want to work. So eventually, when you get to the point where they can do that, you teach them a command for it and they’ll go and get it for you.

Eventually, they’re just like us. They’re creatures of habit. If every single morning at 8:00 for six months or six weeks they’ve been going and getting this item, come 8:00, if it’s not around, they’re wondering why they’re not going to look for it. They’ll start looking to you and that’s where we as their partners, we say, “Oh, I’ve already got it,” or “Don’t worry,” and you’ll give them a treat anyway. Or they’ll give you a sign as if to say, “Remember I’m supposed to go get this?” “Oh, yeah, go find it,” and they’ll go find it and bring it back.

Source: http://soldiers.dodlive.mil/2014/12/how-to-train-a-service-dog/

What is the final stage in the dog training sequence mentioned in this article?

(A) The dogs want to work.

(B) The dogs work for treats.

(D) The work the dogs perform becomes habit.

Choice (A) is wrong because it’s merely a statement that the dogs are willing to be trained. Choice (B) simply indicates how the dogs are trained. Choice (C) is one of the events, but it occurs early in the sequence. The only correct choice is Choice (D). The last paragraph states, “Eventually, they’re just like us. They’re creatures of habit,” which indicates that the dogs have reached the final stage of their training; the work they perform becomes habit.

Drawing Inferences

To infer means to conclude, deduce, suppose, hypothesize, or speculate. An inference is a conjecture, an assumption, a suspicion, an extrapolation, or a guess. When you infer, you read between the lines, deriving information that’s not directly stated. Writers don’t always tell readers everything about their characters, the plots, or other aspects of the story. They provide clues and hints, making the reader do some of the work. As a reader, you need to combine what the author states with your own knowledge and logic to fill in the details.

Reread the passage in the previous section about Helga and her cats. What does this passage suggest about Helga?

(A) She has an astronomical cat food bill.

(B) She needs to get rid of a few cats.

(D) She is allergic to dogs.

All the listed choices are possible deductions or inferences. On the GED test, your task is to select the most correct answer from the choices given based on the given text. Choice (A) is a possibility. The text does suggest that at least one cat needs a special diet, which is potentially more costly. Feeding four cats is in itself possibly expensive. The text also states that others need medication and pills, but that has nothing to do with food bills. Getting rid of a few cats, Choice (B), is a possible deduction, but nothing in the passage suggests that she thinks in those terms; that conclusion would be the reader’s value judgment. Choice (D) isn’t a valid answer option; she may or may not be allergic to dogs, but the passage provides no clue to allow such a deduction. It mentions neither dogs nor allergies. Choice (C), She loves cats, is the only choice that is strongly supported. Consider the expense of feeding and medicating four cats and the effort in keeping all their individual needs straight. Choice (C) is the only strong and logical conclusion.

Plot

The author of Helga’s story (see the passage in the earlier section “Recognizing and Ordering the Sequence of Events”) doesn’t tell you everything about the situation of the story; you have to read between the lines, which means making inferences. You start from what you know and make logical deductions to fill in the blanks. Try a couple of sample questions.

What started the action in this story?

(A) opening a can of cat food

(B) Midnight’s arrival in the kitchen

(D) none of the above

The correct answer is obviously Choice (A). You can infer from the situation that Helga was about to feed the cats, and that the pulling of a tab on a can of cat food signaled the event. The passage never states that the pull-tab was on a can of cat food, but you can infer that from context. Choices (B) and (C) are subsequent events. Choice (D) is wrong because you are able to infer the cause from the paragraph.

What can you tell about the general health of Helga’s cats?

(A) They’re all well fed.

(B) They’re all seriously ill.

(D) At least two of the cats have health problems.

More than one answer here has some basis in the text, but remember: You need to choose the most correct answer. Choices (A) and (B) are reasonable but aren’t the best choices based on the text. Nothing in the story or the quoted line suggests all the cats are ill or that the illnesses are serious. Similarly, nothing indicates that the Siamese cat is the ill one. That leaves Choice (D), which is the correct answer. From the quoted line, you know that at least two cats are ill to some extent: “a special diet for that one, other meds here and there.”

Setting

Setting is where the story takes place — for example, an apartment in New York City or a space station orbiting Mars. Often, readers must make inferences about the setting based on details provided. Reread the story of Helga and her cats in the earlier section “Recognizing and Ordering the Sequence of Events.”

Where is the action in the passage taking place?

(A) a cat shelter

(B) a private home

(D) the vet’s office

You can make a logical deduction based on the information presented; however, you need to read between the lines. You can quickly eliminate Choices (A) and (D). Nothing in the text suggests that it has an institutional setting, and these settings most likely would have more than four cats. Choice (B) is a logical deduction, but you can narrow it down to the most correct answer by selecting Choice (C), Helga’s kitchen.

Characters

Characters are the people or other beings described in the story who typically perform the actions that keep the reader engaged. As a reader, you draw inferences about the characters in the stories you read without ever realizing it. Although the author may explicitly state certain things about a character, such as that he was frugal (a good money manager), more often, the author conveys such meaning more subtly, such as by having the character shop only at discount stores or insist on getting separate checks at dinner. You can tell about a character from how he reacts to a situation, interacts with other characters, and even chooses his words. One aspect of reading for comprehension and understanding is to decode these clues and create an image of the characters in the story.

Read the following passage extracted from “Beyond the Door” by Philip K. Dick.

That night at the dinner table he brought it out and set it down beside her plate. Doris stared at it, her hand to her mouth. “My God, what is it?” She looked up at him, bright-eyed.

“Well, open it.”

Doris tore the ribbon and paper from the square package with her sharp nails, her bosom rising and falling. Larry stood watching her as she lifted the lid. He lit a cigarette and leaned against the wall.

“A cuckoo clock!” Doris cried. “A real old cuckoo clock like my mother had.” She turned the clock over and over. “Just like my mother had, when Pete was still alive.” Her eyes sparkled with tears.

“It’s made in Germany,” Larry said. After a moment he added, “Carl got it for me wholesale. He knows some guy in the clock business. Otherwise I wouldn’t have—” He stopped.

Doris made a funny little sound.

“I mean, otherwise I wouldn’t have been able to afford it.” He scowled. “What’s the matter with you? You’ve got your clock, haven’t you? Isn’t that what you want?”

Doris sat holding onto the clock, her fingers pressed against the brown wood.

“Well,” Larry said, “what’s the matter?”

He watched in amazement as she leaped up and ran from the room, still clutching the clock. He shook his head. “Never satisfied. They’re all that way. Never get enough.”

He sat down at the table and finished his meal.

The cuckoo clock was not very large. It was hand-made, however, and there were countless frets on it, little indentations and ornaments scored in the soft wood. Doris sat on the bed drying her eyes and winding the clock. She set the hands by her wristwatch. Presently she carefully moved the hands to two minutes of ten. She carried the clock over to the dresser and propped it up.

Then she sat waiting, her hands twisted together in her lap — waiting for the cuckoo to come out, for the hour to strike.

As she sat she thought about Larry and what he had said. And what she had said, too, for that matter — not that she could be blamed for any of it. After all, she couldn’t keep listening to him forever without defending herself; you had to blow your own trumpet in the world.

She touched her handkerchief to her eyes suddenly. Why did he have to say that, about getting it wholesale? Why did he have to spoil it all? If he felt that way he needn’t have got it in the first place. She clenched her fists.

Source: www.gutenberg.org/files/28644/28644-h/28644-h.htm

How does the author show Larry’s mean personality when he presents the gift to Doris?

(A) He expresses concern that the clock is indeed what she wanted.

(B) He finishes his meal when an upset Doris runs away.

(D) None of the above

The author doesn’t come right out and state that Larry is mean, or worse. He allows the actions and dialogue to do that. Choice (A) is wrong; Larry’s dialogue shows he is somewhat concerned that this clock is the right gift, but the concern is presented in a short-tempered manner. Choices (B) and (C) are possible, but they aren’t the strongest clues. The strongest clue is the implicit, unfinished sentence “‘Otherwise I wouldn’t have —’ He stopped.” The fact that he was being stingy, especially when the text also shows the clock is something Doris really wanted, shows the meanness best. Doris’s reaction when he makes that statement — she makes “a funny little sound” — confirms that interpretation.

The author shows Doris’s feelings evolving in this short text. Which of these best captures that change?

(A) Doris starts happy and then goes through anger and then sadness.

(B) Doris’s emotions go from sadness to joy to anger.

(D) Doris starts happy and excited, is then crushed and sad, and ends angry.

The correct choice is Choice (D). Notice how the passage describes Doris. When she sees the present, she is described as “bright-eyed.” When she opens the package and sees the clock, her eyes sparkle with tears of joy. When Larry makes the comment about buying the clock at a discount, she freezes and then runs from the room. The description indicates she is crushed. The end of the text shows her anger as she clenches her fists.

Choices (A) and (B) list the same emotions, but in the wrong order. Choice (C) doesn’t apply because nothing suggests that Doris is compliant. Running from the room suggests she isn’t prepared to put up with Larry’s justifications, and the final description of clenched fists suggests anger, not sadness.

Ideas

Writers present ideas or insights. The language they use may be fairly dense; that is, the text uses relatively few words to convey deep meaning or complex ideas. Dense text requires interpretation to determine the author’s meaning, especially true in older writings and government or legal documents. Although the writer expresses the ideas, you must extract the ideas through careful reading and analysis. In the following passage from Beyond Good and Evil by Friedrich Nietzsche, finding the key idea takes careful analysis.

231. Learning alters us, it does what all nourishment does that does not merely “conserve” — as the physiologist knows. But at the bottom of our souls, quite “down below,” there is certainly something unteachable, a granite of spiritual fate, of predetermined decision and answer to predetermined, chosen questions. In each cardinal problem there speaks an unchangeable “I am this”; a thinker cannot learn anew about man and woman, for instance, but can only learn fully — he can only follow to the end what is “fixed” about them in himself.

Source: www.gutenberg.org/files/4363/4363-h/4363-h.htm

Which of these statements reflects the key idea in this text?

(A) Mankind’s fate is built on a granite foundation.

(B) People’s learning is limited by their basic internal beliefs.

(D) Learning nourishes and alters us.

Nietzsche was a German philosopher who wrote dense text. The easiest way to decipher such text is to turn it into bullet points in simpler English:

Learning alters us.
At the bottom of our souls is something unteachable.
Our souls rest on a foundation of predetermined decisions and answers to predetermined questions.
A thinker can only reach for answers based on what is already in this foundation.

Based on this rewrite, you can easily see that the key idea in Nietzsche’s text is Choice (B), People’s learning is limited by their basic internal beliefs. Choices (A) and (D) simply echo statements in the text. Choice (C) is true but only presents part of the key idea.

Analyzing Relationships among Ideas

On the RLA test, you’re expected to identify and analyze the relationships between ideas. When two or more ideas are presented in a text, they’re related by sequence, connection, or cause and effect and ultimately lead you to arrive at a certain conclusion, as explained in the following sections.

Sequence

Ideas or events are related by sequence when one idea comes before or after the other or the two ideas exist at the same time. To identify ideas related by sequence, look for words such as before, during, and after. The following passage serves as an example of events related by sequence.

There was a major snowfall in Buffalo yesterday. Because of a gas shortage, many people were clearing snow by hand. The next day, local hospitals reported a significant increase in the number of heart attacks.

This passage relates a clear sequence of events: a snowfall, a shortage of gasoline, clearing snow by hand, and an increase in heart attacks. Determining whether the events prove a true causal relationship is more difficult; the clearing of snow by hand and the increase in heart attacks may be a coincidence. You need further information to draw such a conclusion. All that is clear here is that the events occurred in a sequential order.

Connection

Ideas or events are related by connection when they’re presented as being like or unlike one another or are both relevant to whatever is being described or analyzed. To identify ideas and events related by connection, look for words and phrases such as and, but, and as well. Here’s an example in which the word and is used to connect the characteristics of a certain task:

Changing settings on an onboard computer can be both complicated and time-consuming. If the work is not handled carefully, it could result in a complete crash of the system.

The first sentence clearly shows the connection: Changing settings is both complicated and time-consuming. The two ideas are linked in one sentence.

Here’s an example in which the ideas are connected in a way that highlights their differences:

Lord Fontleroy was very generous in his giving to philanthropic organizations but stingy when asked by family members for any sort of financial assistance.

Cause and effect

Ideas and events are related by cause and effect when one idea or event gives rise to the other. To identify passages that contain cause-and-effect relationships, look for words and phrases such as because, as a result, and outcome. Keep in mind, however, that causes and their effects may be implied rather than explicitly stated. Here’s an example of a cause-and-effect relationship that’s clearly stated:

Due to the increasing frequency and duration of droughts in California, wildfires have become much more common and devastating.

The use of the due to establishes the cause-and-effect relationship: the increasing frequency and duration of droughts causes wildfires that are more common and devastating.

Correlation or coincidence isn’t necessarily proof of causation. For example, in the earlier section “Sequence,” the fact that the increase in heart attacks occurred after folks cleared the Buffalo snowfall doesn’t mean the latter caused the former. Other explanations are possible.

Here’s a passage from The Prince by Nicolo Machiavelli in which the cause-and-effect relationship is less obvious:

But let us come to Commodus, to whom it should have been very easy to hold the empire, for, being the son of Marcus, he had inherited it, and he had only to follow in the footsteps of his father to please his people and soldiers; but, being by nature cruel and brutal, he gave himself up to amusing the soldiers and corrupting them, so that he might indulge his rapacity upon the people; on the other hand, not maintaining his dignity, often descending to the theatre to compete with gladiators, and doing other vile things, little worthy of the imperial majesty, he fell into contempt with the soldiers, and being hated by one party and despised by the other, he was conspired against and was killed.

Source: www.gutenberg.org/files/1232/1232-h/1232-h.htm

Why was Commodus assassinated?

(A) He corrupted his soldiers.

(B) He was cruel and brutal.

(D) all of the above

The correct answer is Choice (D), all of the above. The text presents a clear linkage showing that Commodus’ brutal nature, lack of dignity, and other vile actions led to his being despised and eventually assassinated.

Conclusion

Ideas and events that are related ultimately lead you to draw a certain conclusion, the final step in the analytical process. The author may state the conclusion directly, making your job as reader easy, or more subtly present details that lead you to draw the conclusion for yourself.

The passage from The Prince in the preceding section presents the conclusion more or less directly, a variation of cause and effect. In other instances, you must come to a conclusion based on information presented. Often, text has an unstated underlying message, as in the following passage from “History of the CIA” at the CIA’s website:

In July 1941, [President] Roosevelt appointed Donovan as the Coordinator of Information (COI) to direct the nation’s first peacetime, nondepartmental intelligence organization. But America’s entry into World War II that same December prompted new thinking about the role of the COI. The result was the formation of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) in June 1942. The mandate of the OSS was to collect and analyze strategic information required by the Joint Chiefs of Staff and to conduct special operations not assigned to other agencies.

During the war, the OSS supplied policymakers with intelligence that played an important role in positively aiding military campaigns. The OSS shared jurisdiction over foreign intelligence activities with the FBI. (The FBI had been responsible for this work in Latin America since 1940.) Meanwhile, the military branches conducted intelligence operations in their areas of responsibility.

As World War II wound down with the American and allied victory, there was sentiment throughout the United States to return to normalcy and demobilize wartime agencies quickly, agencies like the OSS. Donovan’s civilian and military rivals feared he might win his campaign to create a peacetime intelligence service modeled on the OSS. But President Harry S. Truman, who succeeded Roosevelt in April 1945, felt no obligation to the OSS after the war.

Technically abolished in October 1945, the OSS’s analysis, collection, and counterintelligence services were transferred to the State and War departments, but on a much smaller scale.

Source: www.cia.gov/kids-page/6-12th-grade/operation-history/history-of-the-cia.html

Which of these conclusions is the most accurate?

(A) The OSS wasn’t an effective espionage agency.

(B) The decision of one president isn’t binding on another.

(D) When WWII ended, the OSS was no longer needed.

The best conclusion to draw from this example is Choice (B). The passage states that Truman felt no obligation to the OSS even though the previous president had established it. Choice (A) is incorrect because nothing suggests that the OSS was ineffective. Choice (C) may be partially true, but the text states that rivals, not politicians in general, feared the continuation of the OSS. Finally, nothing in the text either refutes or supports Choice (D), so it too is unacceptable.

Deriving Meaning from Context

The GED RLA test features some questions that challenge your ability to derive meaning from context — the situation or setting in which a statement is made or a word or phrase is used. For example, the word around may be used to describe people gathering around (near) the town square or meeting around (approximately) 7:00 p.m. The word has a very different meaning depending on the context in which it’s used. Context also often provides the clues you need to figure out the meaning of an unfamiliar word. For example, suppose you encounter the following sentence in a passage about the honesty of politicians: “At a political rally, voters need to carefully question the veracity of any candidate’s statements.” Even if you don’t know what the word veracity means, you can figure out from the context that it probably means something along the lines of “truthfulness.” Here’s another example:

When the shooting started, the troops ran for cover in a nearby bunker. Ducking bullets, they ran for the doorway, and the last man slammed the steel doors shut. Shells pounded the roof, and machine gunfire rang off the door, but they were safe inside.

What is a bunker?

(A) a building that has been around for a long time

(B) a fireproof shelter

(D) a central building in a military compound

From the context, you can easily figure out that a bunker is some sort of shelter designed to resist shelling and gun fire. It may have been around for a long time or be fireproof, but the context is enemy fire, so neither is of prime importance. Choice (D) isn’t the best answer either; whether a bunker is a central building in a compound has no relevance to protection against enemy fire. Based on the context in which the passage uses bunker, Choice (C) is the correct answer.

You can also detect bias in the way information is presented — the context of the presentation. If someone prefaces a statement with “In my opinion…” or “All XYZ are…” you should question what follows. In the first instance, the mere use of the word opinion warns you that the facts may have been selected to present a particular point of view. The second example contains the word all, which often signals the beginning of an overgeneralization — a conclusion about something that claims more than the limited evidence supports. For example, claiming that all pit bulls are vicious dogs is an overgeneralization because some are very gentle. As you analyze passages on the GED test, watch out for words such as all, none, everybody, nobody, always, and never, which often introduce overgeneralizations and an opportunity for you to pick apart the argument.

Figuring Out the Function of Details

“The devil is in the details” is an old saying that means the details of any proposal or plan are what often cause it to fail. This saying also applies to writing. Details can add mood, feeling, and impact to settings, create an impression of personality in individuals, and generally highlight something about the nature of the subject of the writing. The details may also support or undermine an argument, making details a very important area of focus when the test asks you to analyze an argument.

On the GED RLA test, you may be presented with two versions of a passage, one with plenty of details and one without, and challenged to figure out the function of the details in the passage. Here’s an example from Pebbles on the Shore, by Alpha of the Plough (Alfred George Gardiner):

The invitation reaches me in a tiny village on a spur of a range of beech clad hills, whither I have fled for a breathing space from the nightmare of the war and the menacing gloom of the London streets at night. Here the darkness has no terrors. In the wide arch of the sky our lamps are lit nightly as the sun sinks down far over the great plain that stretches at our feet. None of the palpitations of Fleet Street disturb us, and the rumours of the war come to us like far-off echoes from another world. The only sensation of our day is when, just after darkness has fallen, the sound of a whistle in the tiny street of thatched cottages announces that the postman has called to collect letters.

Source: www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/10675/pg10675.html

Now consider this paraphrase:

I was living in a tiny village where I was taking a break from London, and the war, when the invitation reached me. Nothing disturbs us, neither newspapers nor rumours of war, and the only sensation of the day comes when the mailman picks up our letters.

The second version includes all the basic facts but omits details.

What effect does the detail in the first paragraph have on the feeling created by the passage?

(A) It makes the paragraph harder to read.

(B) It makes the paragraph more precise.

(D) It creates a feeling or mood.

The detail certainly has little effect on the degree of difficulty in reading the paragraph (though some of the old-fashioned language may), so Choice (A) is wrong. The detail may make the paragraph more precise, but that’s not its most important function. Choice (C) is wrong because the details do make a difference. Choice (D) is correct. Details in the first paragraph convey a sense of darkness and dread — “the nightmare of war” and the “menacing gloom” — in contrast to feelings of brightness and peace in the new setting — “the wide arch of the sky” illuminated by “lamps” and mere “rumours” of war sounding like “far-off echoes.”

Sensory details add a great deal to writing because they draw the reader in and create images that the reader can feel, smell, touch, see, and hear, as in the following passage from The Works of Guy de Maupassant, Volume III, The Viaticum and Other Stories:

The bright night seemed to be scattering handfuls of stars into the placid sea, which was as calm as a blue pond, slumbering in the depths of a forest. Among the tall climbing roses, which hung a mantle of yellow flowers to the fretted baluster of the terrace, there stood out in the distance the illuminated fronts of the hotels and villas, and occasionally women’s laughter was heard above the dull, monotonous sound of surf and the noise of the fog-horns.

www.gutenberg.org/files/17376/17376-h/17376-h.htm

What is the setting described here?

(A) terrace, quiet night, summer, overlooking sea

(B) terrace, hotel, foggy night

(D) villa, water’s edge, terrace, rose garden

The correct answer is Choice (A). The setting can’t be a hotel, rose garden, or villa because the text describes hotels and villas “in the distance” and climbing roses on a terrace (but not a rose garden). The details describe the setting as peaceful. The night is described as “bright” with “handfuls of stars,” and although the setting seems to get a little loud at the end with the women’s laughter, the sound of the surf, and the fog-horns, even the “noise” is soothing in its monotony and joy.

In other cases, the details reinforce the idea of the paragraph. This is a description of trenches in WWI from the history of a Canadian regiment from The 116th Battalion in France by E. P. S. Allen:

The condition of the trenches in this sector was the worst imaginable. The mud was not only knee deep but like glue, and it was not at all an unusual occurrence for a man to lose his boots and socks in his endeavours to extricate himself. One of the smallest of our officers, Capt. Hughes, was heard to remark that it was a good thing for him that his colours were painted on his helmet.

Source: www.gutenberg.org/files/45860/45860-h/45860-h.htm

The paragraph starts with a straightforward statement: The conditions in the trenches were the worst. The rest of the paragraph then provides the details to reinforce that image. The purpose of the details here is to reinforce the opening sentence.

Sometimes, other details in text can give you unexpected information. You can tell that this description from WWI wasn’t written by Americans. Two words give it away: endeavours and colours. Why? Because the “ou” spelling is British and used by the English, Australians, and Canadians but not Americans.

Comparing Points of View

In literature, short stories, novels, and the like, point of view refers to how the author brings you into the story. Usually authors write in one of two forms, first-person and third-person. In a first-person story, the narrator will say “I did this” or “I felt that.” You get a direct look at the narrator’s feelings, motivations, and reactions. More commonly, authors write in the third-person. The characters in the story, including the main characters, are all presented as he, she, or it. In effect, the narrator has you looking in on the story. This approach allows the author to present information and insights to the reader that the characters may not know or be able to convey, including their own motivation and inner feelings. It also allows the author to drop hints to reveal insights into where the story is going before the characters themselves know. Here’s an example:

Ripley could not know the alien was right around the corner. She stepped warily toward the bulkhead, watching her scanner for any signs of life. Abandoned by the rest of her crew, Ripley was well aware that her life was in her own hands.

From whose point of view is this paragraph written?

(A) Ripley’s

(B) the alien’s

(D) someone else’s

This question refers to the narrator’s point of view. The narrator is describing Ripley’s actions and feeling. Choice (A) is correct.

Point of view also comes into play in persuasive writing, as explained in the following sections.

Determining the author’s point of view

Some writing is aimed at persuading the reader or presenting different points of view. Sometimes the points of view are very clear in opening statements; other times the point(s) of view are less obvious. Editorials and columns, both in print and in electronic media are certainly designed to promote a particular point of view. When reading such material, ask yourself, “What is the author trying to accomplish?” or “What side of this issue is the author trying to convince me to agree with?” Here’s an example from a statement by President Harry S. Truman, August 6, 1945, after the dropping of the atomic bomb in Hiroshima.

Sixteen hours ago an American airplane dropped one bomb on [Hiroshima]and destroyed its usefulness to the enemy. That bomb had more power than 20,000 tons of TNT. It had more than 20,000 times the blast power of the British “Grand Slam,” which is the largest bomb ever yet used in the history of warfare.

The Japanese began the war from the air at Pearl Harbor. They have been repaid many fold. And the end is not yet. With this bomb we have now added a new and revolutionary increase in destruction to supplement the growing power of our armed forces. In their present form these bombs are now in production and even more powerful forms are in development.

It is an atomic bomb. It is a harnessing of the basic power of the universe. The force from which the sun draws its power has been loosed against those who brought war to the Far East.

Before 1939, it was the accepted belief of scientists that it was theoretically possible to release atomic energy. But no one knew any practical method of doing it. By 1942, however, we knew that the Germans were working feverishly to find a way to add atomic energy to the other engines of war with which they hoped to enslave the world. But they failed. We may be grateful to Providence that the Germans got the V-1s and the V-2s late and in limited quantities and even more grateful that they did not get the atomic bomb at all.

At first reading, this memo is a straightforward account of the use and utility of the atomic bomb. Upon a second, closer reading, however, you may begin to see that this passage is actually trying subtly to persuade you of a certain point of view.

What is the implication of the sentences “They have been repaid many fold. And the end is not yet.”?

(A) America is more powerful than Japan.

(B) If Japan doesn’t surrender, America will continue its assault.

(D) America is getting even with Japan.

Choices (A), (B), and (C) may all be considered correct; however, Choice (B) is the most correct answer because the two sentences quoted imply that even though America has gotten the upper hand, it will continue to attack Japan as long as the war continues. Choice (A) is questionable because although the passage supports that America has a more powerful weapon, it doesn’t necessarily prove that America is more powerful overall. Choice (C) is a true statement but an incorrect answer because the passage states that Japan started the war by attacking Pearl Harbor; the sentences quoted in the question don’t imply so. Choice (D) is incorrect because the sentences quoted indicate that America has already gotten more than even with Japan. Though the bombing itself may be considered payback, the sentence “And the end is not yet” implies that more is to come. (And it did. Three days after the bombing of Hiroshima, the United States dropped another atomic bomb on Nagasaki, prompting Japan’s unconditional surrender.)

Analyzing the author’s response to opposing viewpoints

Authors often have to respond to opposing viewpoints, and they have numerous tools at their disposal to do so. They can question or disprove the logic used to arrive at the opposing viewpoint or present evidence that challenges or undermines the evidence used to support the opposing viewpoint. Writers can also use deceitful practices and logical fallacies to argue their point, such as personally attacking anyone who disagrees with them, using emotional language to drown out logic and facts, selecting only facts that support their position and ignoring data that challenges it, and distorting facts to support their point of view.

Whenever a question on the GED test challenges you to analyze a response to an opposing viewpoint, ask the following questions and jot down your answers:

Does the author address the opposing viewpoint?
What evidence does the author present to counter the opposing viewpoint?
Is the evidence used appropriate?
Does the author use emotional language to sway the argument?
Does the argument support the conclusion?

If your answer to any one of these questions is “no,” then you’ve found a weakness in the argument or the response to the opposing viewpoint that you may want to explore more deeply in your analysis.

Consider these two passages:

Passage One

Some youth deliberately set out to harm others; this act is called bullying. However, when it happens by using social media, texting, and other technologies, it is called cyberbullying. That, too, should be a crime, especially because the intent to hurt and harm is there. Worse, considering how pervasive media technology is today, the bullying never stops; it follows the victims wherever and whenever they try to escape. The resulting evidence of the harm is also clear. The number of young people who have in desperation committed suicide after months and years of horrific abuse shows that.

Cyberbullying is a form of abuse, just like cyberstalking. It relentlessly hounds a designated target, even following the victim when he or she moves or changes schools. In a recent case, a teen was raped, and photographs of the rape were distributed to classmates in her school. Comments that followed taunted her as a slut — it was her fault; she was asking for it — to the point that she transferred schools. The teen reported the rape to the police who took little action, and the perps remained free. She received an endless stream of abusive e-mails and texts. Meetings with the principal of both high schools and parents of the bullies solved nothing. Even after transferring, the bullies found her again and the harassment started again. Only after being faced with community outrage did the police take action, and then only after the teen had committed suicide.

This was not an isolated case. Nearly half of all teens report they have been victims of cyberbullying. There have been multiple suicides in many countries. The police are often unwilling or unable to take action, claiming that cyberbullying itself does not constitute a crime.

Education programs don’t work, either. Virtually all schools these days have anti-bullying programs. Even grade-school children are taught about bullying and to show respect for others. They are also educated on how to be safe online. Yet the cyberbullying continues.

The threat of a criminal record is a deterrent and, at the very least, will give the police a tool with which to fight cyberbullying. Arresting bullies will certainly stop them in their tracks. It might also give the victims a tool for seeking redress. All the other initiatives have failed, so what choice is left?

Passage Two

Why criminalize cyberbullying? There are already laws that can be used against cyberbullies if the issue becomes serious. Cyberbullying may be crude and rude, but it is not a crime unless it becomes slanderous or libelous. If there is no physical harm done and no intent to drive someone to self-harm, why treat verbal abuse as a crime? If it continues and crosses into destruction of reputation, then it is criminal harassment, a chargeable offense.

If the cyberbullying is not serious enough for criminal charges, victims and their parents have other tools available. They can approach the school or parents of the perpetrators. They can ask websites to take down offensive materials. Parents can deal directly with each other.

Newspapers have stories about victims who have been driven to suicide or attempts at self-harm. But what proof is there that the cyberbullying was the sole cause? Were the victims already suffering from depression? Were there other issues in their lives that made them unstable and prone to self-harm?

Proponents argue that the fear of a criminal charge will be a deterrent. But if that is the case, why do so many people still drive drunk or continue to indulge in recreational drugs? There are clear consequences for these acts if caught, but they certainly do not stop these incidents. Teens are not the most rational beings, and the idea that their actions might result in criminal charges is not really foremost in their minds.

There are other tools available. Making someone into a criminal should be the last resort.

When analyzing the second essay, which is a response to the opposing viewpoint presented in the first essay, ask the questions we present earlier in the section and jot down your answers, as in the following example:

Does the author address the opposing viewpoint? Yes. The author discusses the issue and expands on it by differentiating between cyberbullying that becomes criminal and cyberbullying that is merely name-calling.
What evidence does the author present to counter the opposing viewpoint? By differentiating between minor and major cyberbullying, the author points out that criminal charges are available where required and that other solutions are available for lesser offenses.
Is the evidence used appropriate? Yes. The information presented seems credible. The case study, in particular, is presented like a news story, merely stating the facts.
Did the passage include emotional language? Yes and no. The last statement, “What choice is left?” is certainly emotional, but that is the only place where it’s used.
Does the argument support the conclusion? Yes. The argument and the evidence used to back it all build to support the position. Whether the reader agrees with the position is a personal issue. In this instance, the argument is meant to sway the reader.

Appreciating the Importance of Word Choice

The developers of the RLA test want to make sure you’re sensitive to language and the subtle variations in meaning between similar words and phrases. They also need to assess your ability to understand figurative language — text written to stimulate the reader’s senses and make the reader see and feel a part of what is happening or being described. The RLA test may present you with questions that challenge your ability to explain why a certain word was chosen or explain the effect that a particular word has in a passage. In addition, when you write your Extended Response, you need to demonstrate your command of the language, and part of that involves choosing just the right words to express yourself.

In the following sections, we focus in on word choice (often referred to as diction) to make you more conscious of words and their meanings.

Tuning in to variations in meaning and tone

Using a thesaurus, you can look up most words and find words with similar meanings. However, these similar words typically differ to some degree in meaning and tone. For example, “afraid” and “cowardly” convey a similar meaning, but the latter has a more judgmental feel; you wouldn’t think of calling a child who’s afraid of the dark “cowardly.”

In your own writing, choose your words carefully and according to the following guidelines:

Use words deliberately and carefully for effect.
Use words that come naturally to the way you speak. Don’t make a forced effort to impress readers with sophisticated words.
As you practice writing outside of the testing environment, use a thesaurus and dictionary in tandem to find the word that most precisely expresses the desired meaning and tone.

Word choice for overall effect

Choosing the right words can have an amazing impact on the effectiveness of any writing. Read Abraham Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address. It is a great example of using just the right words.

Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth, upon this continent, a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.

Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived, and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of it, as a final resting place for those who died here, that the nation might live. This we may, in all propriety do. But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate — we cannot consecrate — we cannot hallow, this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have hallowed it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here; while it can never forget what they did here.

It is rather for us, the living, to stand here, we here be dedicated to the great task remaining before us — that, from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they here, gave the last full measure of devotion — that we here highly resolve these dead shall not have died in vain; that the nation, shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people by the people for the people, shall not perish from the earth.

Source: www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?doc=36&page=transcript

One rule of good writing is to keep the writing simple, but Lincoln ignores that rule. He uses the phrase “four score and seven years ago” when he could just have said “87 years ago.” It works because it sounds much deeper. The choice of wording is almost poetic, giving a rhythm to the reading of this speech. Lincoln repeats that turn of phrase in the last paragraph, using parallel phrasing: “government of the people, by the people, for the people…”

Lincoln also uses contrast to make his points. Look how he writes that few will remember this speech but that what the soldiers did will be remembered forever. He repeats that when he writes that the audience can’t hallow (honor as holy) the ground of the battlefield; those who fought and died have done that. These contrasts create a powerful, emotional image.

Meaning and tone

Words have specific meanings, but authors often use words in a way that alters their meaning. This tendency is especially true in humorous, satirical writings and persuasive writings. Authors can use exaggeration or overuse words to create a different meaning or tone (overall point of view) in a written passage. The tone of a passage can be described in many ways, from sarcastic to confident, arrogant to simplistic. To determine the tone and meaning of a passage, you need to read it carefully because meaning is often implied rather than stated. Here’s an example:

I just knew it was a great idea. Plunging head first into a canyon with a rubber band tied to my ankles had to be one of the greatest ideas I ever had. What could be more reasonable and logical than to trust my life to that silly little rubber band as the boulder-strewn bottom of the canyon approached and the wind ripped the screams from my throat?

Suddenly the rubber band grabbed tight. I felt a delicious feeling of security as those oh-so-lovely thick and reliable flexible steel cables brought me to a safe halt, and I gently bounced around, blissfully enjoying the magnificent canyon scenery.

Did the subject really think that plunging head first into a canyon tethered only by a bungee cord was a great idea? Did he or she really think that it was reasonable and logical to trust a life to a “silly little rubber band”? Of course not. But note how the author uses words that have a specific meaning to convey a meaning opposite of the dictionary definition of the chosen words. Without specifically saying it, the author implies how the subject feels about his or her actions.

Tone isn’t the same as mood. Tone is the character of or attitude toward the subject or situation. Mood is how the passage makes the reader feel about the subject or situation.

How does tone of the passage change?

(A) from enthusiasm to terror

(B) from sarcasm to terror

(D) from enthusiasm to boredom

The subject is certainly not feeling any enthusiasm as the passage starts. The wording in fact creates the exact opposite feeling. That means Choices (A) and (D) are wrong. You can eliminate Choice (B) because nothing suggests the subject is still feeling terror at the end. That leaves Choice (C). The passage begins with sarcasm (ridiculing the narrator’s decision to bungee jump into a canyon) and ends with bliss and feelings of security (contentment). Choice (C) is your best option.

In the following passage from Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen, a group has just had tea and is now sitting in the library after turning down a suggestion to play cards:

Miss Bingley’s attention was quite as much engaged in watching Mr. Darcy’s progress through his book, as in reading her own; and she was perpetually either making some inquiry, or looking at his page. She could not win him, however, to any conversation; he merely answered her question, and read on. At length, quite exhausted by the attempt to be amused with her own book, which she had only chosen because it was the second volume of his, she gave a great yawn and said, “How pleasant it is to spend an evening in this way! I declare after all there is no enjoyment like reading! How much sooner one tires of anything than of a book! When I have a house of my own, I shall be miserable if I have not an excellent library.”

Source: www.gutenberg.org/files/1342/1342-h/1342-h.htm

What is the tone of this passage?

(A) arrogant

(B) boastful

(D) sarcastic

The passage is about Miss Bingley and her reaction to the situation. You can eliminate the first two choices quickly because nothing about the passage is arrogant or boastful. The situation contains an element of humor as Miss Bingley is increasingly bored. But the clue is in her quoted speech. She yawns loudly and proclaims how pleasant reading like this is and how she would be lost without a large library. You can tell from the context that she feels the exact opposite, so sarcastic, Choice (D), is an appropriate tone for this passage.

Interpreting figurative language

Writers use language either literally or figuratively. A NASA scientist can describe an asteroid very literally: composed largely of water, mixed with some rocks and smaller solid fragments. Or, he or she may write figuratively, describing it as a dirty snowball — a somewhat more dramatic image that conveys the meaning accurately enough for the layperson.

Figurative language compares two things in a sentence, with the purpose of creating a clear image; writers use it in various forms:

Simile uses the word like or as to compare two unlike objects. For example the phrases like “sleek as a panther” or “bright as the sun” are all a form of simile.
Metaphor is a comparison of two unlike objects without using as or like. Jaques’ claim in Shakespeare’s As You Like It that “All the world’s a stage” is a metaphor comparing the world to a stage in a theater.
Hyperbole is a wild exaggeration. Think of how often your mom said to you, “I’ve told you a million times not to jump on the bed.” You know she hasn’t really made that statement a million times, but that number creates an effect by showing both impatience and exasperation and providing urgency. The common phrase “You could have knocked me over with a feather” is another example of hyperbole.
Personification turns a nonhuman subject into something with human characteristics. You see it every day in the world of children’s literature. Dancing donkeys and talking crickets don’t exist in real life, but they’re useful tools for engaging children in stories. Personification is often used in more mature forms of literature as a powerful descriptive tool.
Onomatopoeia is the use of words that sound like what they’re being used to describe. Think of the cereal that goes snap, crackle, and pop. Cereals don’t make sounds themselves, but certainly that is what most people hear when milk poured onto a bowl of cereal. Or think of bees buzzing or cats hissing.
Alliteration is the repetition of sounds, such as in the expressions “wild and wooly” and “vim and vigor,” to reinforce the image being described. Here are a couple examples of alliteration used on context: “An angry actress awkwardly accepts an award after an awful appearance.” “Critics condemn crass commercialism.”
Idiomatic expressions are phrases that mean something very different from their literal meaning. When you say that someone let the cat out of the bag, you usually don’t mean a real cat and a real bag. Most people know from common usage that this phrase means disclosing a secret unintentionally. Expressions such as “face like thunder” or “raining cats and dogs” are part of everyday usage.

These devices shape the reader’s understanding of, and reaction to, something they’re reading. It can be for humor or persuasion, or to create any desired effect.

Here are a couple of questions that challenge your ability to identify various types of figurative language:

Identify the figurative language used in the following sentence: “She ran like the wind across the meadow.”

(A) hyperbole

(B) personification

(D) idiomatic expression

The correct answer is Choice (C) because the sentence compares two unlike things (a girl and the wind) by using the word like.

Identify the figurative language used in the following sentence: “The teapot happily whistled a cheery tune as the water boiled.”

(A) hyperbole

(B) personification

(D) idiomatic expression

Personification, Choice (B), is the device used here. Inanimate objects don’t whistle happy tunes; people do. The use of the word as later has no bearing because it’s not used as part of the comparison.

Extracting Meaning from Flow

The flow of a passage, determined by how the passage is structured and by the transition from one idea to the next, is often useful in interpreting the meaning of a passage. For example, if instructions are presented sequentially from step one to step ten, you know that the purpose of the passage is to instruct you on how to perform a certain task. If two systems of governance are compared and contrasted, then the purpose of the passage may be to educate the reader on the two systems of governance or persuade the reader that one system is better than the other.

In the following sections, we explain how to interpret passages by examining their structure and how they flow. First, we examine a speech to illustrate how flow works to help convey meaning. Then we look at the overall structure of the passage and how the parts contribute to the whole. Finally, we explore various methods for transitioning from one idea to the next.

Taking a big picture look at meaning and flow

Any written document has a natural flow, whether that document is literature or an instruction manual, poem, or contract. One of the best ways to get a feel for how flow helps to convey meaning is to look closely at a passage that flows well and uses rhythm and other rhetorical devices to express a certain point of view. Here is an excerpt of a speech by Barack Obama in Selma on the 50th anniversary of the Montgomery marches:

[T]here are places and moments in America where this nation’s destiny has been decided. Many are sites of war — Concord and Lexington, Appomattox, Gettysburg. Others are sites that symbolize the daring of America’s character — Independence Hall and Seneca Falls, Kitty Hawk and Cape Canaveral.

Selma is such a place. In one afternoon 50 years ago, so much of our turbulent history — the stain of slavery and anguish of civil war; the yoke of segregation and tyranny of Jim Crow; the death of four little girls in Birmingham; and the dream of a Baptist preacher — all that history met on this bridge.

It was not a clash of armies, but a clash of wills; a contest to determine the true meaning of America. And because of men and women like John Lewis, Joseph Lowery, Hosea Williams, Amelia Boynton, Diane Nash, Ralph Abernathy, C.T. Vivian, Andrew Young, Fred Shuttlesworth, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., and so many others, the idea of a just America and a fair America, an inclusive America, and a generous America — that idea ultimately triumphed.

As is true across the landscape of American history, we cannot examine this moment in isolation. The march on Selma was part of a broader campaign that spanned generations; the leaders that day part of a long line of heroes.

We gather here to celebrate them. We gather here to honor the courage of ordinary Americans willing to endure billy clubs and the chastening rod; tear gas and the trampling hoof; men and women who despite the gush of blood and splintered bone would stay true to their North Star and keep marching towards justice.

They did as scripture instructed: “Rejoice in hope, be patient in tribulation, be constant in prayer.” And in the days to come, they went back again and again. When the trumpet call sounded for more to join, the people came — black and white, young and old, Christian and Jew, waving the American flag and singing the same anthems full of faith and hope. A white newsman, Bill Plante, who covered the marches then and who is with us here today, quipped that the growing number of white people lowered the quality of the singing. (Laughter.) To those who marched, though, those old gospel songs must have never sounded so sweet.

This speech flows. It’s clear and rhythmical, uses plain language, and makes its points. The language is varied, interesting, and descriptive without being flowery. The overall flow of the passage contributes to the meaning it conveys: that America is greatest when heroic individuals work together to promote American justice and ideals.

Recognizing the parts of the whole

In writing, every sentence and every paragraph is, or should be, chosen for a particular purpose and effect. In a newspaper story, the first sentence must contain the entire story in a nutshell. The first paragraph expands that slightly, and the rest of the story presents the details. If it’s properly written, the headline and the first paragraph relate nearly all the essentials.

In the Obama speech in the previous section, every paragraph contributes to the meaning and impact of the speech. One of the best ways to recognize how the parts contribute to the whole of any brief passage is to describe the purpose of each paragraph. Here’s an example applied to Obama’s speech:

Paragraph 1: Name places of historical significance in America.
Paragraph 2: Add Selma to the list and explain why it belongs on that list.
Paragraph 3: Describe the heroes of Selma and what they accomplished — making America just, inclusive, and generous.
Paragraph 4: Expand the march on Selma to include the broader campaign for justice.
Paragraph 5: Bring the struggle into this moment and paint a vivid picture of the sacrifice its heroes endured.
Paragraph 6: Build to a strong conclusion of hope and inclusion to inspire the crowd.

Don’t be surprised on the RLA test if you encounter a question asking you the purpose of a specific paragraph in a passage or the role a single sentence plays in a paragraph. When you encounter such a question, simply summarize the paragraph or rephrase the sentence in your own words, and you’ll usually arrive at the correct answer.

Analyzing the transitions that tie it all together

In a well-written passage, sentences and paragraphs flow smoothly and logically from one to the next. Writers establish flow by using various techniques along with transitional words and phrases, including the following:

Organization: Organization is the single most important factor in establishing a smooth flow. A passage can be organized in several ways: chronologically (a sequence of events or steps in a process), logically (clear reasoning), spatially (describing parts of a machine, for example), cause and effect, comparison and contrast, and so on.
Repetition of key phrases: Ending a paragraph with key word and starting the next paragraph with a sentence that contains the same word or a related word helps to stitch the two paragraphs together.
Transition words and phrases: These include “however,” “therefore,” “concurrently,” “furthermore,” “moreover,” and “finally.” These are the heavy-hitters that writers call into action when they can’t find a way to transition more subtly.

Transitions are powerful tools that can do far more than simply connect sentences and paragraphs. Compare the first and second paragraphs of the Obama speech in the earlier section “Taking a big picture look at meaning and flow.” The first paragraph consists of two long sentences, naming places in America of historic significance. The phrases “destiny has been decided” and “symbolize the daring” reinforce their significance. These places aren’t just important; they stand as icons of American vision, sacrifice, and daring.

That sets up the next paragraph. Note the contrast. After a paragraph of two long and elaborate sentences that carry the weight of history, the next paragraph starts with a sentence of only five words: “Selma is such a place.” That brief sentence brings all that historical weight to bear down on one small southern town, Selma. A single word, “such,” serves as the transition from the first to the second paragraph. It links all of the heroics and symbolism established in the first paragraph to the subject of that first sentence, Selma.

Now look at the fourth and fifth paragraphs. How is the fifth paragraph linked to the fourth?

(A) long sentences in the fourth paragraph contrast short introductory sentence in the fifth

(B) “them” in the first sentence of the fifth paragraph refers to “heroes” in the last sentence of the fourth paragraph

(D) thematically; no link in terms of language

The correct answer is Choice (B). The opening sentence of the fifth paragraph uses the word “them” as a clear link to the word “heroes” in the last sentence of the previous paragraph. Linkages don’t have to be connecting words or phrase such as and, for example, or furthermore; they can be implied by the choice of wording.

Here’s an excerpt from later in the same speech:

As we commemorate their achievement, we are well-served to remember that at the time of the marches, many in power condemned rather than praised them. Back then, they were called Communists, or half-breeds, or outside agitators, sexual and moral degenerates, and worse — they were called everything but the name their parents gave them. Their faith was questioned. Their lives were threatened. Their patriotism challenged.

And yet, what could be more American than what happened in this place? What could more profoundly vindicate the idea of America than plain and humble people — unsung, the downtrodden, the dreamers not of high station, not born to wealth or privilege, not of one religious tradition but many, coming together to shape their country’s course?

What greater expression of faith in the American experiment than this, what greater form of patriotism is there than the belief that America is not yet finished, that we are strong enough to be self-critical, that each successive generation can look upon our imperfections and decide that it is in our power to remake this nation to more closely align with our highest ideals?

Look at the second and third paragraphs. How are paragraphs two and three in this extract linked?

(A) a transitional phrase

(B) repetition of a key term

(D) through a rhetorical question

No transitional phrase is used to link paragraphs two and three, so Choice (A) is incorrect. The two paragraphs are clearly linked, so Choice (C) is wrong. The last paragraph is a rhetorical question, one to which the answer is already known, but that has nothing to do with linkage, so it’s not the correct choice. The answer is Choice (B), repetition of a key term. Note that the middle paragraph talks about the idea of the nature of the American people and how they come together to shape the American dream. The first sentence of the next paragraph refers to that American dream with the phrase “the American experiment,” thereby linking the two paragraphs.

Here’s an example from a newspaper column:

Canada has seen a number of recent outbreaks. There was one in Quebec in 2007, another in Ontario, especially Toronto in 2008. Many outbreaks in the Toronto area are linked to unvaccinated travelers returning from Mexico or Europe, where the risk of exposure is higher. Outbreaks continue in the prairie provinces where vaccination rates are lower. There was a 2010 outbreak in British Columbia, affecting some 82 people. This year, there have been at least seven confirmed cases in Toronto so far.

Nevertheless, outbreaks have been relative small in Canada so far. There is a sort of “herd immunity.” Measles is spread by proximity. If 95 percent of the population has been vaccinated, the chances of spreading the infection are significantly reduced. The bulk of the “herd” has been inoculated. However, the rate of immunization has dropped for the last decade. Now measles is making a comeback.

What links these two paragraphs?

(A) a transitional word

(B) no linkage

(D) none of the above

In this case, the transitional word “nevertheless” provides a clear transition from the first to the second paragraph. It signals a shift from a discussion of the increasing prevalence of measles to the contrasting fact that Canada has so far seen relatively few and small outbreaks. The correct choice is (A).

Transitions are also used between sentences, sometimes to create a stronger effect, as in the second paragraph: “The bulk of the ’herd’ has been inoculated. However, the rate of immunization has dropped for the last decade. Now measles is making a comeback.”

The use of the conjunction “however” sets the reader up to expect a contrast. The first sentence establishes that most people have been immunized but the second indicates that fewer people will be inoculated moving forward.

Comparing Two Passages

Some questions on the GED RLA test instruct you to compare two passages and analyze their similarities and differences in respect to a specific characteristic, such as style, purpose, or the ideas or issues they address. In the following sections, we introduce you to the characteristics in written passages you’re likely to be asked to compare, offer guidance on making such comparisons, and provide you with example questions, so you can practice those skills.

Analyzing differences in perspective, tone, style, structure, purpose, and impact

Written passages are more than mere content. They often present a perspective on an issue and set a tone that engages the reader emotionally. Passages are structured a certain way to deliver the content effectively and efficiently. Authors adopt a certain writing style to communicate in a certain way, and the passage is always written to serve a specific purpose; for example, to inform, persuade, or entertain. And each passage has a unique impact on the reader.

In the following sections, we explain each of these qualities in greater detail and challenge you to compare their differences in these two passages:

Yesterday — would you believe it? — I heard Bizet’s masterpiece for the twentieth time. Once more I attended with the same gentle reverence; once again I did not run away. This triumph over my impatience surprises me. How such a work completes one! Through it one almost becomes a “masterpiece” oneself — And, as a matter of fact, each time I heard Carmen it seemed to me that I was more of a philosopher, a better philosopher than at other times: I became so forbearing, so happy, so Indian, so settled… To sit for five hours: the first step to holiness! — May I be allowed to say that Bizet’s orchestration is the only one that I can endure now? That other orchestration which is all the rage at present — the Wagnerian — is brutal, artificial and “unsophisticated” withal, hence its appeal to all the three senses of the modern soul at once. How terribly Wagnerian orchestration affects me! I call it the Sirocco. A disagreeable sweat breaks out all over me. All my fine weather vanishes.

From The Case of Wagner, Nietzsche Contra Wagner, and Selected Aphorisms, by Friedrich Nietzsche

Certain foods and beverages affect your cognitive ability, so avoid highly processed foods and foods high in processed sugars, starch, or fat. These foods tend to make you feel sluggish or result in brief highs followed by prolonged crashes. Lean more towards veggies and foods that are high in protein. When it comes to carbohydrates, opt for complex over simple. Complex carbohydrates are typically in fresh fruits, veggies, and whole grain products. Simple carbohydrates are in candy, soda, anything made with white flour, and most junk foods. And forget those energy drinks that combine huge amounts of caffeine sure to get you to a state of heightened tension.

If you plan on taking an energy drink, or anything else unusual, on the day of the test, here’s the best advice I can offer: try it out on a practice test first. If the drink gives you the jitters or upsets your stomach, you won’t want to discover this on the day of the test.

From GRE For Dummies, by Ron Woldoff with Joe Kraynak (Wiley)

Perspective

Perspective is the author’s point of view and it usually comes on one of the following forms:

First person: The author writes from his or her own perspective, using “I” (or “we,” for coauthors) to identify him- or herself.
Second person: The author addresses the reader directly as “you,” as is commonly done in instructional writing.
Third person: The author describes others as “he,” “she,” “it,” and “they,” as is commonly done in stories, novels, and other literary pieces.

The perspectives in the two passages presented in the earlier section “Analyzing differences in perspective, tone, style, structure, purpose, and impact” are vastly different. In the first passage, Nietzsche writes from his own, first-person perspective in describing his experience of listening to the opera Carmen by Georges Bizet. In the extract from GRE For Dummies, author Woldoff is speaking directly to the reader, in the second person, as an instructor.

We cover differences in purpose later in this section, but as you can see in this example, purpose may influence perspective. Here, Nietzsche’s purpose is to express his appreciation for Bizet’s music and perhaps convince the reader that Bizet is a better composer than Wagner, so a first-person perspective is ideally suited to his purpose. Likewise, in the second piece, addressing the reader is well suited for the purpose of instructing readers.

Tone

Tone is the writer’s attitude toward the topic. The tone in the Nietzsche passage is obviously more passionate than the tone in the Woldoff piece, which is more objective. From the very first sentence of the Nietzsche passage, in which he mentions just having listened to Carmen for the 20th time, you can see that he is very excited. He uses several upbeat words, including “reverence,” “triumph,” “happy,” and “holiness,” and ends several sentences with exclamation points. Woldoff’s tone is much more subdued.

Style

Style refers to the way something is written rather than to its content, and it can be difficult to pin down. Style involves word choice, sentence variety and complexity, and fluidity or choppiness. In the passages presented earlier, Nietzsche’s style is the more complex, containing a blend of brief sentences and phrases along with longer, more complex sentences. The short sentences and phrases convey a sense of excitement, while the longer sentences demonstrate his complexity of thought and reason. Nietzsche’s word choice ranges from elevated in the first half of the passage to critical in the second half.

Woldoff exhibits a more muted, informal, and balanced style that is conducive to instructing the reader. Although Woldoff varies his sentence structure and uses concrete language, none of the language is as emotionally charged as in Nietzsche’s passage, and you don’t find a single exclamation point!

You can’t do this during the test, but to become more sensitive to a writer’s style, read passages out loud so you can hear the differences. Also try reading different types of publications. For example, an article in Sports Illustrated is likely to be written in a very different style than an article in Vanity Fair or U.S. News and World Report.

Purpose

Purpose has to do with what the writer intends the writing to accomplish; for example, to inform, persuade, or entertain the reader.

What is the primary purpose of Nietzsche’s writing?

(A) To describe

(B) To explain

(D) To persuade

Certainly, Nietzsche’s passage is descriptive, but because it also contains an emotional element and opinion, Choice (A) isn’t your best choice. Likewise, although Nietzsche does explain his reason for preferring Bizet over Wagner, the explanation isn’t the purpose of the passage, so you can rule out Choice (B). Except for the first sentence, the passage contains no elements of story-telling or dialogue, so Choice (C) doesn’t apply. Nietzsche’s writing is persuasive, so Choice (D) is the answer you’re after. Nietzsche applauds Bizet and condemns Wagner in an attempt to prove the previous composer’s superiority.

What is the purpose of Woldoff’s writing?

(A) To describe

(B) To instruct

(D) To demonstrate

Woldoff’s purpose is clearly to guide (instruct) the reader, so Choice (B) is correct. Woldoff wants the reader to know how to prepare for a test and states that very plainly. The passage contains no emotional words, no phrases to suggest the author’s feelings or preferences — only information.

The purpose of a written passage isn’t always clear. For example, factual and informational writing can also be persuasive, intended to change readers’ minds. Persuasive writing can be entertaining or amusing. When reading a passage on the test, always ask yourself, “What is the main goal the writer is trying to accomplish in this passage?” Answer that question, and you’ve identified the purpose of the passage.

Structure

Structure is the framework that organizes a written passage. Common structures include the following:

Categorical: Two or more topics are addressed in turn. Such a structure can be useful, for example, to organize a letter to your boss explaining issues in the workplace that you think can be improved.
Causal: A passage may present a cause-and-effect relationship or reverse the organization to describe a certain condition and then analyze possible contributing causes.
Chronological or sequential: Chronological order is ideal for narrating a story or providing step-by-step instructions to perform a task.
Comparative: The comparative structure is used to compare and/or contrast two things. In one of the passages presented earlier in this section, Nietzsche contrasts Bizet’s composition against that of Wagner.
Evaluative: Evaluative writing typically states a problem or describes an issue and then presents and evaluates possible solutions or choices, weighing the potential benefits and drawbacks of each.

A passage may blend two or more structural elements. For example, an evaluative essay may include sections that compare and contrast different solutions. When you encounter a structure question on the GED test, read the question closely to identify the section of the passage you’re being asked about.

Impact

Impact in writing refers to the effect the writing has on the reader. When you read or listen to Obama’s Selma speech, a portion of which is presented earlier in this chapter, you can’t help but feel inspired and perhaps even proud. This speech, like other effective political speeches, has a strong emotional impact.

On the GED test, you may encounter one or more questions that challenge you to identify the impact a passage has on the reader. Here’s an example:

In what way is Nietzsche’s passage likely to affect the reader?

(A) Inspire the reader to listen to Bizet’s masterpiece

(B) Inspire the reader to think deeply about music

(D) Make the reader feel proud

Although Nietzsche’s passage is probably intended to discourage people from listening to Wagner (due to the title Nietzsche Contra Wagner), that’s not one of the choices, so Choice (A) is best. You can make a case for Choice (B), but Choice (A) is more specific. Neither Choice (C) nor Choice (D) is supported in the passage.

When writing your Extended Response, consider the impact you want your essay to have on the reader, the person who’s scoring you. Here are some techniques for maximizing the impact of your writing:

Keep it simple — mostly: Choose the most precise word so you don’t have to use additional words to clarify what you mean.
Vary sentence structure: Alternating shorter and longer sentences and simple and complex sentences adds interest. By varying your sentence structure, you can change the pace and rhythm of your writing to change the way your writing impacts the reader.
Write in active voice: Place your noun before your verb, the actor before the action. For example, write “Linda encouraged her employees to relax on the weekends” rather than “The employees were encouraged by Linda, their supervisor, to relax on weekends.” (For more about writing effectively, see Chapter 8.)
Avoid “it is” and “there are” constructions: Start with a descriptive noun rather than a vague pronoun, such as it or there, and follow up with an action verb rather than a weak verb such as is or are.

Analyzing passages that present related ideas or themes

The GED RLA test expects you to be able to analyze passages based on similar ideas or themes. Questions that challenge your skills may focus on any of five ways in which two passages may differ: scope, purpose, emphasis, audience, and impact. In the following sections, we describe these qualities of written passages in greater detail as they pertain to the following two passages that present different viewpoints on a similar topic: the benefits of higher education.

Passage One

Earning a post-secondary degree or credential is no longer just a pathway to opportunity for a talented few; rather, it is a prerequisite for the growing jobs of the new economy. Over this decade, employment in jobs requiring education beyond a high school diploma will grow more rapidly than employment in jobs that do not: Of the 30 fastest growing occupations, more than half require postsecondary education. With the average earnings of college graduates at a level that is twice as high as that of workers with only a high school diploma, higher education is now the clearest pathway into the middle class.

In higher education, the U.S. has been outpaced internationally. In 1990, the U.S. ranked first in the world in four-year degree attainment among 25–34 year olds; today, the U.S. ranks 12th. We also suffer from a college attainment gap, as high-school graduates from the wealthiest families in our nation are almost certain to continue on to higher education, while just over half of our high school graduates in the poorest quarter of families attend college. And while more than half of college students graduate within six years, the completion rate for low-income students is around 25 percent.

Acknowledging these factors early in his administration, President Obama challenged every American to commit to at least one year of higher education or post-secondary training. The president has also set a new goal for the country: that by 2020, America would once again have the highest proportion of college graduates in the world.

Source: the White House Support for Higher Ed website (www.whitehouse.gov)

Passage Two

Not everyone needs a postsecondary education. Numerous pathways lead to fulfilling employment and financial success and do not require years of college or university education. Whether through apprenticeships in trades, training through the military, or entrepreneurial initiative, these approaches work. Moreover, people acquire a position without the huge debts incurred in formal postsecondary education.

It is true that unemployment rates decrease with educational attainment. The rate for people with only a high-school diploma is about 25 percent higher than that of people with a completed university degree. After they start working, however, that scenario changes. High-school graduates enter the workforce four years earlier than college graduates. The median income for a high-school graduate is about $35,000, while the university graduate’s is $54,000. At a median income difference of about $20,000 a year, it will take the college graduate’s total earnings at least seven years to catch up to those of the high-school graduate, based on lost income alone. But then you need to consider the cost of going to college. In 2010–2011, private colleges and universities in the United States cost an average of $36,000 annually (including residence fees), while public institutions cost about $13,000. In the meantime, fees have continued to increase. When you include the cost of education for those four years, it now would take the college graduate from public institutions another two years of employment to catch up to the high-school graduate. If the student went to a private college, it would take an additional seven years.

Scope

Scope refers to the range of information covered in the passage. For example, a passage may cover all the ins and outs of a particular issue or focus on one specific detailed point and examine that in depth. In the two passages presented in this section, the first passage has a broader scope, comparing the United States to other countries around the world in terms of percentage of the student-aged population attaining a four-year college degree. The scope of the second passage is narrower, focusing on the financial benefits and drawbacks of attaining a four-year college degree.

Purpose

The purpose of any written passage is to inform or persuade, but you can break down each of those categories into smaller categories. For example, a persuasive essay may strive to convince or influence the reader’s choice, present and defend a certain point of view, recommend a product, advocate or support a certain policy, or justify a course of action. Likewise, an informative piece may set out to describe an object or a place, define a term, review a product or technology, instruct the reader on how to perform a task, or demonstrate how something works.

The purpose of both passages presented in the earlier section “Analyzing passages that present related ideas or themes” is to persuade. The first passage sets out to convince the reader to pursue a post-secondary education, while the second passage tries to persuade the reader to reconsider that option.

Emphasis

Emphasis is the boldface, underlining, italics, and exclamation points of writing. It enables the writer to stress certain points and take the focus off of others. Emphasis in a passage can be in two separate areas. The passage can focus on why one area of interest is more important than another within the scope of the passage. The writer may also use emphatic language, such as words that have an emotional weight or bias, to elicit a response from the readers. Questions on the GED RLA test may ask you to compare the difference in emphasis in two passages, as in the following question:

In what way is the emphasis in the two higher-education passages the same or different?

(A) Both passages stress the importance of a college education.

(B) The first passage places more emphasis on the global importance of having a college degree.

(D) The second passage emphasizes the costs of pursuing a post-secondary education.

You can rule out Choice (A) because only the first passage stresses the importance of a college education. Choices (B) and (C) are also wrong because the first passage claims nothing about the global importance of a college degree or its role in helping individuals achieve personal fulfillment. Choice (D) is correct because the second passage clearly emphasizes the costs of pursuing a college degree.

Audience

The audience consists of whoever is reading the passage. Writers must consider their audiences before they begin writing so they have a clear idea of how to communicate effectively with a given audience. An article trying to convince parents to send their children to college is going to be very different from an article trying to convince high school students to pursue a secondary education. Everything about a written passage is influenced by the intended audience, from the structure of the passage and the content it presents to the word choice and style used to communicate the ideas and information. On the GED RLA test, you may be asked to analyze how audience has likely influenced the differences in two passages. Here’s an example:

In what way(s) does/do the audiences in the higher-education passages differ?

(A) The audience for the first passage is broader.

(B) The audience for the second passage is broader.

(D) The audience for the second passage is comprised exclusively of parents.

Choice (A) is the correct answer because the purpose of the White House passage is to convince voters, students, parents, and all other stakeholders of the value of a secondary education in order to gain support for any policies that help achieve the goal of improving the level of education in the workforce. The second passage is directed more at students and parents (the consumers of higher education) who need to weigh the costs and benefits for themselves and who may be less concerned about America’s standing in the world or weaknesses in the workforce.

Impact

As explained earlier in this chapter, impact refers to the effect the writing has on the reader. In some ways, impact is subjective, but writers have several tools at their disposal to impact the audience in different ways. A writer, for example, may want to make the audience laugh or cry or feel shocked and dismayed.

In the two passages presented in the earlier section “Analyzing passages that present related ideas or themes,” the impact on the reader is similar; both cause you to ponder the value of higher education. The impact is more cerebral than emotional, but that still counts.