The epigraph is from the directive issued to Eisenhower by the Combined Chiefs of Staff, February 12, 1944. Pogue, Supreme Command 53.
1. John S. D. Eisenhower, Allies 424.
2. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 163.
3. DDE, Crusade in Europe 207.
4. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 455. Also see Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins 803.
5. Lord Alanbrooke, War Diaries 496.
6. WSC to FDR, December 19, 1943, Kimball, 2 Churchill and Roosevelt 622–24. Churchill, who was apprehensive that FDR might balk at Montgomery, followed up with a second message on December 22: “I hope to see Eisenhower on the 23rd and will discuss the matter with him. He would prefer Alexander for OVERLORD but War Cabinet consider that the public confidence would be better sustained by the inclusion of the well known and famous name of Montgomery and I agree with them as the operations will be to many people heart shaking.” Ibid. 627.
7. DDE, Crusade in Europe 211.
8. Ibid. 210.
9. DDE to GCM, December 31, 1943, 3 War Years 1648–49.
10. DDE, Crusade in Europe 211.
11. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 456.
12. DDE to GCM, December 28, 1943, 3 War Years 1626–27.
13. DDE to GCM, December 17, 1943, ibid. 1604–6.
14. GCM to DDE, December 21, 1943, 4 Papers of George Catlett Marshall 184–86.
15. DDE to GCM, December 25, 1943, 3 War Years 1611–14. Also see DDE to GCM, December 23, 1943, ibid. 1609–10.
16. GCM to DDE, December 28, 1943, 4 Papers of George Catlett Marshall 210.
17. Butcher diary, December 29, 1943, EL.
18. Sir Frederick Morgan, Overture to Overlord 15 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1950). The acronym “COSSAC” stood for chief of staff, supreme Allied commander.
19. Butcher diary, EL.
20. First Impression of Operation OVERLORD, made at the request of the Prime Minister by General Montgomery, 1.1.44. Montgomery Papers, British War Museum, London.
21. Winston S. Churchill, Closing the Ring 445 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1950).
22. FDR to DDE, December 22, 1943, United States Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1943, vol. 2, Europe 195 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1964). Cited subsequently as 2 FRUS, 1943.
23. FDR to WSC, December 22, 1943, Kimball, 2 Churchill and Roosevelt 626.
24. Colonel Warden [WSC] to FDR, December 23, 1943, ibid. 630.
25. FDR to DDE, December 26, 1943, 2 FRUS, 1943 197.
26. John S. D. Eisenhower, General Ike 157.
27. Charles de Gaulle, 2 War Memoirs 241.
28. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 473.
29. “Please convey to the President my earnest recommendation that this assurance be accepted as satisfactory,” Eisenhower cabled Marshall on December 31, 1943. The next day, Admiral Leahy replied that “the assurances given by De Gaulle are acceptable to the president as satisfactory,” 3 War Years 1644–45.
30. De Gaulle, 2 War Memoirs 241.
31. GCM to DDE, December 28, 1943, 4 Papers of George Catlett Marshall 210.
32. DDE to GCM, December 29, 1943, 3 War Years 1632.
33. GCM to DDE, December 29, 1943, 4 Papers of George Catlett Marshall 215.
34. DDE to GCM, December 30, 1943, 3 War Years 1641–42.
35. GCM to DDE, December 30, 1943, 4 Papers of George Catlett Marshall 220–21.
36. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 166.
37. Montgomery, Memoirs 189. Also see DDE, Crusade in Europe 217; 3 War Years 1653.
38. MDE interview, EL, quoted in D’Este, Eisenhower 478.
39. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 467.
40. Ambrose, 1 Eisenhower 280.
41. John S. D. Eisenhower, Strictly Personal 51.
42. DDE to W. B. Smith, January 5, 1944, 3 War Years 1651.
43. W. B. Smith to DDE, January 11, 1944, W-9869, War Years 1651n3.
44. Perret, Eisenhower 253.
45. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 176; Perret, Eisenhower 253; Korda, Ike 443; Ambrose, 1 Eisenhower 278. When Ike discussed the matter with Kay back in London, she said she was sorry. “It must have been a bit upsetting for her. And for you too.”
“Jesus Christ! You have no idea,” Eisenhower replied.
46. Kenneth S. Davis, Soldier of Democracy 456–57.
47. MDE interview, August 15, 1972, EL, quoted in Susan Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike 217–18.
48. DDE, At Ease 268.
49. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 171. Also see David Eisenhower, Eisenhower at War, 1943–1945 63–64 (New York: Random House, 1986).
50. DDE to Omar Bradley, January 13, 1944, 3 War Years 1656.
51. John S. D. Eisenhower, Allies 434.
52. The remark is that of Major General Kenneth G. McLean, chief of the planning section of SHAEF G-3. Interview by Forrest C. Pogue, October 16, 1946, quoted in Nigel Hamilton, Master of the Battlefield 497.
53. Quoted in ibid.
54. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 170.
55. Ibid. 172.
56. David Eisenhower, Eisenhower at War 198.
57. DDE, Crusade in Europe 222.
58. Korda, Ike 454.
59. John S. D. Eisenhower, Allies 445–46.
60. WSC to DDE, April 5, 1944, quoted in DDE, Crusade in Europe 232.
61. Bedell Smith to Marshall, May 17, 1944, quoted in Crosswell, Chief of Staff 231. At Bir Hakeim, west of Tobruk, in May–June 1942, the 1st Free French Brigade under Koenig held off Rommel’s Afrika Korps for more than two weeks until ordered to withdraw. Bir Hakeim did much to establish the Free French as a fighting force. (As a young lieutenant stationed in postwar Berlin, I noted that the French garrison’s officers club on Tegelsee was christened “Bir Hakeim.”)
62. FDR to WSC, April 11, 1944, quoted in WSC, Closing the Ring 530.
63. Memorandum for the Record, March 22, 1944, 3 War Years 1782–85.
64. Ambrose, Supreme Commander 369. In his March 22 “Memorandum for the Record,” Eisenhower wrote, “If a satisfactory answer is not reached I am going to inform the Combined Chiefs of Staff that unless the matter is settled at once I will request relief from this Command.” 3 War Years 1782–85.
65. John S. D. Eisenhower, Allies 442.
66. Ambrose, Supreme Commander 375.
67. Korda, Ike 458.
68. DDE to GCM, January 19, 1944, 3 War Years 1667–68.
69. McCloy to DDE, January 25, 1944, 3 War Years 1668n2.
70. McCloy to DDE, April 15, 1944, 3 War Years 1785–86. For the text of the directive, see Harry L. Coles and Albert K. Weinberg, Civil Affairs: Soldiers Become Governors 667–68 (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, U.S. Army, 2004).
71. Quoted in Pogue, Supreme Command 146.
72. DDE, Memorandum for Record, March 22, 1944, 3 War Years 1783–84.
73. DDE to Somervell, April 4, 1944, 3 War Years 1806–7.
74. Quoted in Pogue, 3 Marshall 384.
75. GCM to DDE, April 26, 1944, 3 War Years 1838n.
76. DDE to GCM, April 29, 1944, ibid. 1837–38.
77. GCM to DDE, April 29, 1944, in Pogue, 3 Marshall 385.
78. DDE to GCM, April 30, 1944, 3 War Years 1840–41.
79. GCM to DDE, May 2, 1944, in Pogue, 3 Marshall 385–86.
80. DDE to GCM, May 3, 1944, 3 War Years 1846.
81. DDE, At Ease 270–71.
82. DDE to MDE, February 14, 1944, DDE, Letters to Mamie 168.
83. DDE to MDE, May 12, 1944, ibid. 179.
84. DDE, Crusade in Europe 238.
85. Omar N. Bradley, A Soldier’s Story 209 (New York: Henry Holt, 1951).
86. Max Hastings, Overlord: D-Day and the Battle for Normandy 58 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984); Montgomery, Memoirs 201.
87. Ambrose, Supreme Commander 347.
88. Montgomery Papers, Imperial War Museum, London.
89. Quoted in Nigel Hamilton, Master of the Battlefield 581. Alan Brooke did not share Montgomery’s assessment of Ike. “The main impression I gathered was that Eisenhower was a swinger and no real director of thought, plans, energy or direction,” he recorded in his diary that evening. “Just a coordinator—a good mixer, a champion of inter-allied cooperation, and in those respects few can hold a candle to him. But is that enough?” Lord Alanbrooke, War Diaries 546–47.
90. The Memoirs of General Lord Ismay 351 (New York: Viking, 1960). There is no transcript of Montgomery’s remarks. His extensive notes are reprinted unedited in Nigel Hamilton, Master of the Battlefield 582–89.
91. Allied Expeditionary Air Force, Historical Record, quoted in D’Este, Eisenhower 502. (Churchill’s emphasis.)
92. DDE, At Ease 275. (“England expects every man to do his duty,” Nelson famously signaled the fleet as it sailed into battle.)
93. DDE to CCS, May 11, 1944, 3 War Years 1857–58.
94. WSC to FDR, May 12, 1944, Kimball, 3 Churchill and Roosevelt 129–30; FDR to WSC, May 12, 1944, ibid. 130; FDR to DDE, May 13, 1944, 3 War Years 1867–68.
95. DDE to GCM (for FDR), May 16, 1944, 3 War Years 1866–67. (Emphasis added.)
96. DDE, Crusade in Europe 248.
97. DDE to de Gaulle, May 23, 1944; de Gaulle to DDE, May 27, 1944, 3 War Years 1886.
98. WSC to FDR, May 26, 1944, Kimball, 3 Churchill and Roosevelt 145.
99. WSC to FDR, June 7, 1944, ibid. 171–72.
100. De Gaulle, 2 War Memoirs 253.
101. Ibid. 254.
102. DDE to CCS, June 4, 1944, 3 War Years 1906–7.
103. DDE to Montgomery, Bradley, Ramsay, and Leigh-Mallory, May 26, 1944, ibid. 1890–91.
104. DDE, Crusade in Europe 246–47. For Eisenhower’s letter to Leigh-Mallory, May 30, 1944, see 3 War Years 1894–95.
105. WSC, Closing the Ring 620.
106. George VI to WSC, May 31, 1944, reproduced in ibid.
107. George VI to WSC, June 2, 1944, ibid. 622.
108. WSC to George VI, June 3, 1944, ibid. 623–24.
109. Ibid. 624.
110. DDE, Crusade in Europe 249; Pogue, Supreme Command 169.
111. Walter Bedell Smith, Eisenhower’s Six Great Decisions: Europe 1944–1945 53–54 (New York: Longmans, Green, 1956).
112. Pogue, Supreme Command 170.
113. Walter Bedell Smith, Eisenhower’s Six Great Decisions: Europe 1944–1945 (New York: Lingmans, Green, 1956) 55. Smith’s time estimate is on the high side. Eisenhower thought it was less than a minute. Others present put it at two to three to four minutes. Whatever the time, Eisenhower made the decision only after considerable reflection.
114. John S. D. Eisenhower, Allies 469.
115. Eisenhower’s undated note is in the Eisenhower Library at Abilene. It is quoted in Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower: Soldier and President 140 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1990).
116. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 190.
117. Ibid. 191–92.
The epigraph is Field Marshal von Rundstedt’s reply to Wilhelm Keitel’s query, “What shall we do now?” Keitel was chief of the Wehrmacht Supreme Command (OKW). Charles Messinger, The Last Prussian: A Biography of Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt, 1875–1953 197 (London: Brassey’s, 1991).
1. The figures cited in the preceding two paragraphs are from Gordon A. Harrison, Cross-Channel Attack (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, U.S. Army, 2002); Hastings, Overlord; Chester Wilmot, The Struggle for Europe (New York: Harper and Row, 1952); I. C. B. Dear, ed., The Oxford Companion to World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
2. In the attack on Kwajalein Atoll in the Marshall Islands in January 1944, the naval fire support for the Army’s 7th Division consisted of seven battleships, three heavy cruisers, and eighteen destroyers for a period of almost six hours. At Omaha, the bombardment fleet consisted of two vintage battleships (Arkansas and Texas), four light cruisers (HMS Bellona, HMS Glasgow, Georges Leygues [French], and Montcalm [French]), and twelve destroyers for a much shorter period. Adrian R. Lewis, Omaha Beach: A Flawed Victory 227–31 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001); Murray, A War to Be Won: Fighting the Second World War, 1937–1945 (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2000) 419.
3. In his final report to the Combined Chiefs, Eisenhower tacitly acknowledged the error in not employing the British armored equipment at Omaha. In Ike’s words, “Apart from the factor of tactical surprise, the comparatively light casualties we sustained on all beaches, except Omaha, were in large measure due to the success of the novel mechanical contrivances which we employed and to the staggering moral and material effect of the armour landed in the leading waves of the assault.” Dwight D. Eisenhower, Report by the Supreme Commander to the Combined Chiefs of Staff on the Operations in Europe of the Allied Expeditionary Force, 6 June 1944 to 8 May 1945 30 (London: HMSO, 1946).
4. Wilmot, Struggle for Europe 263.
5. Hastings, Overlord 101.
6. Wilmot, Struggle for Europe 261; Hastings, Overlord 98.
7. Dear, Oxford Companion to World War II 667. Carlo D’Este lists American casualties at 6,577, comprising 1,465 killed, 3,184 wounded, and 1,928 missing in action (D’Este, Eisenhower 534).
8. Wilmot, Struggle for Europe 229.
9. These were the 12th SS Panzer Division, which was sixty-five miles from Caen, and the Panzer Lehr division, eighty-five miles away. Bradley and Blair, General’s Life 253.
10. Antony Beevor, D-Day: The Battle for Normandy 35 (New York: Viking, 2009); Cornelius Ryan, The Longest Day 231–32 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1959). The term “that Bohemian corporal” was initially used by Hindenburg and was well known in the Reichswehr. Hans Speidel, We Defended Normandy 89, Ian Colvin, trans. (London: Herbert Jenkins, 1951).
11. Hastings, Overlord 122. Günther Blumentritt, von Rundstedt’s chief of staff in France, reports that von Rundstedt and Hitler never spoke on the telephone, and communicated through Keitel or Jodl. Blumentritt, Von Rundstedt: The Soldier and the Man 95 (London: Odhams Press, 1952).
12. DDE to GCM, June 6, 1944, 3 War Years 1914–15.
13. David Eisenhower, Eisenhower at War 271.
14. Bradley and Blair, General’s Life 257.
15. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 194.
16. DDE to MDE, June 13, 1944, Letters to Mamie 190.
17. John S. D. Eisenhower, Strictly Personal 57.
18. Ibid. 63–64.
19. Ibid. 63.
20. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 195–97.
21. Pogue, Supreme Command 179. An additional seven divisions, five infantry and two parachute, were available to Seventh Army in Brittany, but the combination of Allied air superiority and fear of second landings near Brest rendered them unavailable initially. For the deployment of German forces on D-Day, see the map in Messinger, Last Prussian 187.
22. Montgomery to Brooke, June 11, 1944, in Ambrose, Supreme Commander 428.
23. Lord Alanbrooke, War Diaries 575. (Brooke’s emphasis.)
24. The Rommel Papers 491, B. H. Liddell Hart, ed. (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1953).
25. DDE, Report by the Supreme Commander to the Combined Chiefs 41; Walter Bedell Smith, Eisenhower’s Six Great Decisions 73. The misinterpretation of Montgomery’s strategy by Eisenhower and Smith is treated at length by Chester Wilmot in Struggle for Europe 336–41.
26. Bradley and Blair, General’s Life 265.
27. Quoted in Wilmot, Struggle for Europe 319.
28. Jacobsen and Rohwer, Decisive Battles of World War II 336.
29. Dear, Oxford Companion to World War II 978–80.
30. DDE, Crusade in Europe 260.
31. DDE to Tedder, June 8, 1944, 3 War Years 1933. For the results of the bombing campaign, see Craven and Cate, 3 Army Air Forces in World War II 541.
32. “As I have before indicated, I am opposed to retaliation as a method of stopping this business—at least until every other method has been tried and failed,” Eisenhower wrote Tedder on July 5, 1944. 3 War Years 1975.
33. With Prejudice: The War Memoirs of Marshal of the Royal Air Force, Lord Tedder 582 (London: Cassell, 1966).
34. Robert Aron, Histoire de la libération de la France, juin 1944–mai 1945 78 (Paris: A. Fayard, 1959).
35. De Gaulle, 2 War Memoirs 260.
36. Beevor, D-Day 200.
37. De Gaulle, 1 Discours et Messages 444 (Paris: Plon, 1974), quoted in Pogue, Supreme Command 234.
38. I am indebted to Michael Korda for these observations. Ike 497.
39. DDE, Crusade in Europe 281.
40. WSC to FDR, June 28, 1944, Kimball 3 Churchill and Roosevelt 214–20.
41. DDE to GCM, June 20, 1944, 3 War Years 1938.
42. FDR to WSC, June 29, 1944, Kimball, 3 Churchill and Roosevelt 221–23.
43. Lord Alanbrooke, War Diaries 565.
44. WSC to FDR, July 1, 1944, Kimball, 3 Churchill and Roosevelt 227–29.
45. FDR to WSC, July 1, 1944, ibid. 232.
46. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 634–35.
47. DDE to GCM, August 5, 1944, The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower, vol. 4, The War Years 2055. Cited subsequently as 4 War Years.
48. FDR to WSC, August 8, 1944, Kimball, 3 Churchill and Roosevelt 267.
49. WSC to FDR, August 8, 1944, ibid.
50. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 639.
51. DDE to GCM, August 11, 1944, 4 War Years 2066–67.
52. WSC to DDE, August 18, 1944, in Pogue, Supreme Command 228. “Have just returned from watching the assault from considerable distance,” Churchill cabled Roosevelt. “Everything seems to be working like clockwork here, and there have been few casualties so far.” WSC to FDR, August 16, 1944, Kimball, 3 Churchill and Roosevelt 278. To George VI, Churchill wrote, “Your Majesty knows my opinion about the strategy, but the perfect execution of the plan was deeply interesting.” WSC to George VI, August 16, 1944, in Gilbert, 7 Winston S. Churchill 899.
53. DDE to WSC, August 24, 1944, 4 War Years 2095. “If you can guarantee that your presence at all such operations will have the same effect that it did in this wonderful show I will make sure that in any future operations in this theater you are given a fleet of your own,” Ike told Churchill.
54. DDE to GCM, August 24, 1944, ibid. 2092–94.
55. On June 10, 1944, Hitler issued his famous stand-fast order: “Every man shall fight and fall where he stands.” Wilmot, Struggle for Europe 323.
56. Testimony of General Alfred Jodl at Nuremberg, 15 The Trial of German Major War Criminals: Proceedings of the International Military Tribunal Sitting at Nuremberg, Germany 354 (London: HMSO, 1948).
57. Speidel, We Defended Normandy 105–11.
58. Rommel to his wife, June 18, 1944, Rommel Papers 492.
59. Messenger, Last Prussian 194.
60. Wilmot, Struggle for Europe 346.
61. Rommel Papers 479–80; Blumentritt, Von Rundstedt 238–39; Messenger, Last Prussian 196–97.
62. Messenger, Last Prussian 197; L. F. Ellis, 1 Victory in the West 320–21 (London: HMSO, 1962).
63. Messenger, Last Prussian 197; Hastings, Overlord 175.
64. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 618.
65. Walter Bedell Smith, Eisenhower’s Six Great Decisions 75.
66. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 618.
67. Arthur Bryant, Triumph in the West: A History of the War Years Based on the Diaries of Field-Marshal Lord Alanbrooke, Chief of the Imperial General Staff 180 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1959).
68. Lord Alanbrooke, War Diaries 575.
69. Quoted in Bryant, Triumph in the West 183.
70. Quoted in Wilmot, Struggle for Europe 394–95.
71. Montgomery to Bradley, August 4, 1944, ibid. 400.
72. Summersby, Eisenhower Was My Boss 171.
73. Merle Miller, Ike the Soldier 671.
74. DDE to GCM, August 11, 1944, 4 War Years 2066–67.
75. Quoted in D’Este, Eisenhower 568. Each of the four company commanders of the 2nd Battalion, 120th Infantry, 30th Division, which bore the brunt of the German attack, were awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for valor.
76. DDE, Crusade in Europe 279. Ike’s sentiment reflects General Ulysses Grant’s comment at Shiloh after surveying the scene at the Hornet’s Nest. According to Grant, the ground was “so covered with dead that it would have been possible to walk across, in any direction, stepping on dead bodies, without a foot touching the ground.” 1 Personal Memoirs 356.
77. Quoted in Martin Blumenson, Breakout and Pursuit 558 (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army, 1961).
78. Bradley and Blair, General’s Life 304.
79. Blumenson, 2 Patton Papers 517.
80. Stimson and Bundy, On Active Service 659–60. It is more likely that Stimson, knowing Georgetown, said “roaches,” and Bundy euphemized it to “bedbugs.”
81. Blumenson, 2 Patton Papers 521.
82. DDE to CCS, August 15, 1944, 4 War Years 2069–70.
83. FACS 58, OPD TS Message File, ibid., note 2. Also see Larry Collins and Dominique Lapierre, Is Paris Burning? 90–91 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1965).
84. The Reckoning: The Memoirs of Anthony Eden, Earl of Avon 544 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965).
85. De Gaulle, 2 War Memoirs 332–33. De Gaulle believed Eisenhower’s hands were tied by some “summit-level intrigue” under way at the White House. General Juin, who had been dealing with the general staff at SHAEF, came to the same conclusion.
De Gaulle’s suspicions were not unfounded. According to Robert Murphy, FDR in the summer of 1944 was still “perfectly prepared to accept any viable alternative to de Gaulle—providing one could be found.” Quoted in Collins and Lapierre, Is Paris Burning? 23.
86. Hitler’s order is quoted in full in Dietrich von Choltitz, Soldat unter Soldaten 255–59 (Zurich: Europa Verlag, 1960). For an extract, see Blumenson, Breakout and Pursuit 598.
87. Cited in Blumenson, Breakout and Pursuit 598.
88. Collins and Lapierre, Is Paris Burning? 31. When Choltitz mounted the final attack on the fortress at Sevastopol on July 27, 1942, his regiment contained 4,800 men. When the battle ended, 347 were left, and Choltitz had been seriously wounded in the right arm.
89. Ibid. 222.
90. Dietrich von Choltitz to Uberta von Choltitz, August 21, 1944, Collins and Lapierre, Is Paris Burning? 154.
91. De Gaulle to DDE, August 21, 1944, in Jean Lacouture, De Gaulle: The Rebel, 1890–1944 564, Patrick O. Brian, trans. (New York: Norton, 1990).
92. DDE to CCS, August 22, 1944, 4 War Years 2087–89.
93. Collins and Lapierre, Is Paris Burning? 194.
94. Courtney Hodges, Commanding the First U.S. Army, to which the French 2nd Armored had been attached, withdrew several artillery battalions from the division before the march. “I don’t want them to get the idea they can beat up Paris with a howitzer every time a machine gun gets in their way.” Quoted in ibid.
95. The casualties in Paris during the fighting of August 24–25, 1944, were not inconsequential. The 2nd Armored lost 28 officers and 600 enlisted men. German casualties amounted to 3,200, plus 14,800 taken prisoner. Among the prisoners was my future father-in-law, Johannes Zinsel, a forty-one-year-old private soldier who had been drafted the year before and was one of the defenders of the Palais du Luxembourg—the last German stronghold to surrender. That evening he wrote his family, courtesy of the Red Cross: “I have been taken prisoner. So far I am all right.” Mr. Zinsel was a teacher at the Hindenburg Gymnasium in Berlin and was fluent in English and French; he became the prison camp interpreter and was given an early release from captivity in November 1945.
96. De Gaulle, 2 War Memoirs 350.
97. DDE, Crusade in Europe 297.
98. Quoted in D’Este, Eisenhower 576.
99. David Eisenhower, Eisenhower at War 425.
100. De Gaulle, 2 War Memoirs 358.
101. DDE, Crusade in Europe 298. “Because this ceremonial march coincided exactly with the local battle plan it became possibly the only instance in history of troops marching in parade through the capital of a great country to participate in a pitched battle the next day.”
102. The only discordant note in the liberation of Paris was sounded by Major General Gee Gerow, commanding V Corps. Because of the demarcation line between the First and Third armies (Hodges and Patton), Leclerc’s division was temporarily taken from Patton and assigned to First Army’s V Corps. Gerow, whom Patton considered “the poorest corps commander in France,” proceeded to display a political ignorance exceeded only by his military obtuseness at Omaha. For whatever reason, Gerow assumed that he, not Leclerc, was to liberate Paris. He established himself as military governor, was miffed that von Choltitz surrendered to Leclerc, and then on August 26 explicitly ordered Leclerc and his division not to participate in the victory parade down the Champs-Élysées.
“You are operating under my direct command and will not accept orders from any other source,” Gerow wrote Leclerc. “I understand you have been directed by General de Gaulle to parade your troops this afternoon at 1400 hours. You will disregard those orders and continue on the present mission assigned you of clearing up all resistance in Paris and environs within your zone of action.”
Leclerc, on de Gaulle’s instructions, ignored Gerow’s order. When Ike called on de Gaulle, it was apparent to him that Gerow had been out of bounds. Gerow was ordered out of the city that afternoon, and gratuitously informed General Koenig that he was turning Paris over to him. Koenig replied icily that he had been military governor of Paris since August 25, 1944, when the first troops arrived.
Gerow was one of “Marshall’s men,” a number of senior officers, including Hodges and Bedell Smith, who had not graduated from West Point and with whom the chief of staff felt a comradeship. After the war, when Marshall appointed Gerow head of the Command and General Staff School at Leavenworth, Patton wrote his wife that it was a joke. GSP to Beatrice Patton, August 18, 1945, in Blumenson, 2 Patton Papers 739, 740. Also see de Gaulle, 2 War Memoirs 358; cf. DDE to GCM, August 31, 1944, 4 War Years 2107–8.
The epigraph is from a letter Ike wrote to Mamie, November 12, 1944. DDE, Letters to Mamie 219–20.
1. For an authoritative statement of the American head-on doctrine, see FM 100–5, Field Service Regulations, 1939 para. 91. Also see Crosswell, Chief of Staff 252–53; Martin van Creveld, Fighting Power: German and U.S. Army Performance, 1939–1945 30–34 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1982). A useful contrast between American and German strategic thinking and a critique of the head-on doctrine is provided by Professor Russell F. Weigley in Eisenhower’s Lieutenants 4–7.
2. Lord Alanbrooke, War Diaries 587. For Eisenhower’s proposal, see DDE to GCM, August 22, 1944, 4 War Years 2087–89.
3. Speidel, We Defended Normandy 152.
4. Vincent J. Esposito, ed., 2 The West Point Atlas of American Wars map 56 (New York: Praeger, 1967); D’Este, Eisenhower 585.
5. The SHAEF report is quoted in Montgomery, Memoirs 238–39.
6. Model to von Rundstedt, September 27, 1944, in German Army Documents, Dealing with the War in the Western Front from June to October, 1944, U.S. Army Military History Institute, Carlisle Barracks, Pa.
7. B. H. Liddell Hart, History of the Second World War 558 (London: Cassell, 1970).
8. Montgomery to Brooke, August 18, 1944, in Nigel Hamilton, Master of the Battlefield 798. “I entirely agree,” Brooke replied the following day. Ibid. 799.
9. Montgomery, Memoirs 239.
10. Crosswell, Chief of Staff 257.
11. Quoted in Liddell Hart, History of the Second World War 562. The chronology of Eisenhower’s broad-front decision is laid out in commendable detail by Nigel Hamilton in chap. 16 of Master of the Battlefield 806–18.
12. Speidel, We Defended Normandy 152–53. (Emphasis added.) Speidel’s reference to “beast”reflects the fact that by 1944 well over half of the Wehrmacht’s transportation was horse-drawn.
13. Blumentritt’s comment was made after the war to Liddell Hart and is reported in Liddell Hart’s The Other Side of the Hill: Germany’s Generals, Their Rise and Fall, with Their Own Account of Military Events, 1939–1945 428 (London: Cassell, 1951). Blumentritt also believed Patton’s drive on Metz was unnecessary and that “a swerve northward in the direction of Luxemburg and Bitburg would have met with great success.” Ibid.
14. Siegfried Westphal, The German Army in the West 172–74 (London: Cassell, 1951).
15. Liddell Hart, History of the Second World War 561.
16. Ibid. 566.
17. Bradley and Blair, General’s Life 311.
18. Ambrose, Supreme Commander 529.
19. A German panzer grenadier division (armored infantry) had an authorized strength of 14,446 men versus 14,037 for the standard American infantry division. Van Creveld, Fighting Power 54–55. For usage figures, see Max Hastings, Armageddon: The Battle for Germany, 1944–1945 (New York: Knopf, 2004) 23–24.
20. Pogue, Supreme Command 322–23.
21. See DDE to John C. H. Lee, September 16, 1944, 4 War Years 2153–54.
22. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 182–84.
23. DDE, Crusade in Europe 332–33.
24. Hastings, Armageddon 196.
25. Bradley and Blair, General’s Life 343.
26. Montgomery to Brooke, December 7, 1944, in Nigel Hamilton, Monty: Final Years of the Field-Marshal, 1944–1976 162 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1987); Bryant, Triumph in the West 252.
27. Bryant, Triumph in the West 257. When Bryant published Triumph in the West he omitted the last sentence. It is printed in the 2001 edition of Alanbrooke’s War Diaries, published by the University of California Press, at page 628.
28. Bryant, Triumph in the West 256. On December 15, 1944, there were 3.24 million men under Eisenhower’s command: 1,965,000 American; 810,584 British; 293,411 French; and 116,411 Canadian. Hastings, Armageddon 380.
29. Bryant, Triumph in the West 258.
30. War Office interrogation of Field Marshal von Rundstedt, July 1945, quoted in Milton Shulman, Defeat in the West 205–6 (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1948).
31. Ibid. 247.
32. Quoted in Blumentritt, Von Rundstedt 246.
33. Westphal, German Army in the West 174.
34. Korda, Ike 542.
35. Blumentritt, Von Rundstedt 211. At Hitler’s order, the Todt Organization constructed a shelter while von Rundstedt was on leave and then carefully restored the garden. Ibid. 212.
36. Summersby, Eisenhower Was My Boss 184.
37. Ibid.
38. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 214–15.
39. Quoted ibid.
40. Lord Alanbrooke, “Notes from My Life,” November 14, 1944, quoted in D’Este, Eisenhower 631.
41. Susan Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike 225.
42. DDE, Letters to Mamie 219–20.
43. “I was staggered,” said von Rundstedt after the war. “Hitler had not consulted me. It was obvious that the available forces were far too small for such an ambitious plan. Model took the same view as I did. But I knew by now it was useless to protest to Hitler about the possibility of anything. After consultation with Model and [General Hasso von] Manteuffel I felt the only hope was to wean Hitler from this fantastic aim by putting forward an alternative proposal that might appeal to him. This was for a limited offensive with the aim of pinching off the Allies’ salient around Aachen.” Liddell Hart, Other Side of the Hill 447.
44. D’Este, Eisenhower: A Soldier’s Life 644.
45. Blumenson, 2 Patton Papers 599.
46. Ibid. 600.
47. Hastings, Armageddon 220.
48. Quoted in Ambrose, Eisenhower: Soldier and President 174.
49. Message 383, 2255 hrs, December 20, 1944, quoted in Nigel Hamilton, Monty 213. This was four days after the battle had begun. Montgomery reported that morale was low at the First and Ninth armies, and questioned Hodges’s capacity, but a day later reported that he seemed to have recovered. Because Hodges was American, Montgomery chose not to relieve him.
50. Weigley, Eisenhower’s Lieutenants 552. Also see DDE to GCM, January 1, 1945, 4 War Years 2390–91.
51. De Gaulle, 3 War Memoirs 169–70.
52. David Eisenhower, Eisenhower at War 604.
53. DDE, Crusade in Europe 363.
54. Liddell Hart, Other Side of the Hill 464.
55. The battle statistics are from Hastings, Armageddon 235. Cf. Pogue, Supreme Command 396–97.
56. DDE, Crusade in Europe 341.
57. Grant, 1 Personal Memoirs 100.
58. Wilmot, Struggle for Europe 614. Field Marshal Sir Alan Brooke concurred. “Calamity acted on Ike as a restorative,” said Brooke. “It brought out all the greatness in his character.” Quoted in Bradley and Blair, General’s Life 323.
59. Sir Edgar Williams, interview by Nigel Hamilton, December 12, 1979, quoted in Hamilton, Monty 303–4.
60. Quoted in Hastings, Armageddon 231. Also see Nigel Hamilton, Monty 303–4.
61. “No handsomer tribute was ever paid to the American soldier than that of Field Marshal Montgomery,” reported The New York Times on January 9, 1945. As for Bradley and Patton’s reaction, Eisenhower wrote: “I doubt that Montgomery ever came to realize how deeply resentful some American commanders were. They believed he had belittled them—and were not slow to voice reciprocal scorn and contempt.” DDE, Crusade in Europe 356.
62. Hastings, Armageddon 232.
63. For Eisenhower’s intent, see especially David Eisenhower, Eisenhower at War 608–20.
64. Memorandum of Conference with Marshal Stalin, January 15, 1945, EL.
65. Quoted in Merle Miller, Ike the Soldier 748–49.
66. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 763.
67. Merle Miller diary, February 26, 1945, quoted in Ike the Soldier 752. Miller went on to write that Eisenhower was particularly vague when discussing Montgomery. “He took about five minutes to say absolutely nothing.”
68. Ibid. 753.
69. DDE, Crusade in Europe 379–80. Also see Bradley and Blair, General’s Life 406–7. For the German critique, see Shulman, Defeat in the West 273–75. Shulman quotes Göring to the effect that the capture of the Remagen bridge “made a long defense of the Rhine impossible and upset our entire defense scheme along the river.” Also see Westphal, German Army in the West 193–97.
70. Ambrose, Eisenhower: Soldier and President 186.
71. DDE to MDE, March 19, 1945, DDE, Letters to Mamie 244–45.
72. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 217. For the composition of Ike’s party, I have consulted Summersby’s Eisenhower Was My Boss 226; Ambrose, Eisenhower: Soldier and President 187; and Bradley and Blair, General’s Life 411.
73. Ambrose, Supreme Commander 625.
74. Bradley, Soldier’s Story 535.
75. DDE, Crusade in Europe 397. In reality, the national redoubt existed only in the propaganda disseminated by the Nazis. But it was not until after the war that the ruse was exposed. “It grew into so exaggerated a scheme that I am astonished we could have believed it as innocently as we did,” wrote Bradley in Soldier’s Story 536.
76. DDE to Alan Brooke, February 16, 1945, 4 War Years 2480–82.
77. WSC to DDE, February 22, 1945, ibid. 2494n1. Eisenhower’s reply to Churchill is at page 2494 as well.
78. M562, March 27, 1945, reprinted in ibid. 440.
79. The full text of Eisenhower’s March 27, 1945, press conference at the Scribe Hotel in Paris is reprinted in Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 779–90.
80. David Eisenhower, Eisenhower at War 740.
81. DDE to Stalin, March 28, 1945, 4 War Years 2551. David Eisenhower, who had unlimited family cooperation when writing about his grandfather, states explicitly that Ike’s purpose in writing to Stalin was twofold: “to bid for quick Soviet approval to seal the issue of Berlin; [and] to display the scope of his authority over American and British forces so that the Soviets would refer all military questions to SHAEF” and not the Combined Chiefs of Staff. Eisenhower at War 741.
82. DDE to Montgomery, March 28, 1945, 4 War Years 2552. Eisenhower dispatched a final cable to Marshall that day informing the chief of staff of his message to Stalin but not mentioning the message to Montgomery or the change of plans entailed. DDE to GCM, March 28, 1945, ibid. 2552–53.
83. Nigel Hamilton, Monty 442.
84. Montgomery to Brooke, April 8, 1945, quoted in ibid. 443.
85. Lord Alanbrooke, War Diaries 679, March 29, 1945.
86. Diary of Admiral Lord Cunningham, First Sea Lord, March 30, 1945, quoted in Andrew Roberts, Masters and Commanders (New York: HarperCollins, 2009) 563.
87. Prime Minister’s Personal Minute, March 31, 1945, in Gilbert, 7 Winston S. Churchill 1273–74.
88. DDE to WSC, March 30, 1945, 4 War Years 2562–63.
89. GCM to DDE, March 29, 1945, W-60507, ibid. 2559n1.
90. DDE to GCM, March 30, 1945, ibid. 2559–62.
91. Memorandum by the U.S. Chief of Staff, March 30, 1945, 5 Papers of George Catlett Marshall 106–7.
92. WSC to DDE, March 31, 1945, WSC, Triumph and Tragedy 463 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1953).
93. Lord Alanbrooke, War Diaries 680, April 1, 1945.
94. WSC to FDR, April 1, 1945, Kimball, 3 Churchill and Roosevelt 603–4.
95. FDR [Marshall] to WSC, April 4, 1945, ibid. 607–9.
96. WSC to DDE, April 2, 1945, WSC in Triumph and Tragedy 467.
97. Lord Alanbrooke, War Diaries 680–81, April 3, 1945. Also see Tedder’s With Prejudice 681.
98. Roberts, Masters and Commanders 564–65.
99. Gilbert, 7 Winston S. Churchill 1296. The official U.S. translation rendered Churchill’s words as “Lovers’ quarrels always go with true love.” Kimball, 3 Churchill and Roosevelt 612.
100. John Russell Young, 1 Around the World with General Grant 416–17 (New York: American News Company, 1879).
The epigraph is Eisenhower’s recollection of his reaction when Secretary Stimson informed him of the successful test of the atomic bomb in July 1945. Crusade in Europe 443. Also see Dwight D. Eisenhower, Mandate for Change: 1953–1956, the White House Years 312–13 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1963).
1. DDE to CCS, April 5, 1945, 4 War Years 2583.
2. WSC to Lord Ismay for BCOS, April 7, 1945, in WSC, Triumph and Tragedy 512–13.
3. David Eisenhower, Eisenhower at War 755–56.
4. Bradley, Soldier’s Story 544.
5. DDE to GCM, April 23, 1945. Earlier, Eisenhower told Marshall, “Frankly, if I should have forces in the Russian occupational zone and be faced with an order or ‘request’ to retire so that they may advance, I can see no recourse except to comply. To do otherwise would probably provoke an incident, with the logic of the situation all on the side of the Soviets. I cannot see exactly what the British have in mind for me to do. It is a bridge that I will have to cross when I come to it.” 4 War Years 2640–41, 2614–16. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.)
6. WSC to HST, May 12, 1945, in WSC, Triumph and Tragedy 572–74.
7. Harry S. Truman, 1 Memoirs 214 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1955).
8. Ibid. 219.
9. Quoted in ibid. 300.
10. Eisenhower’s cable to Washington of May 23, 1945, is discussed in Herbert Feis, Between War and Peace: The Potsdam Conference 77 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1960). For whatever reason, Alfred Chandler and Stephen Ambrose, editors of The Papers of Dwight D. Eisenhower, omitted the cable in volume six of the Papers, which deals with this period.
11. Montgomery’s instructions are summarized in his Memoirs 338.
12. DDE to CCS, June 2, 1945, The Papers of Dwight D. Eisenhower, vol. 6, Occupation 125. Cited subsequently as 6 Occupation. This cable was drafted by General Lucius D. Clay, Eisenhower’s deputy for military government. See 1 The Papers of General Lucius D. Clay: Germany, 1945–1949 16–17, Jean Edward Smith, ed. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1974). Cited subsequently as 1 Clay Papers.
13. JCS to DDE, June 3, 1945, in Truman, 1 Memoirs 301. Also see 1 Clay Papers 17; 6 Occupation 125n1.
14. WSC to HST, June 4, 1945, WSC, Triumph and Tragedy 603. In the message, Churchill again used the “iron curtain” metaphor to describe the situation in eastern Europe.
15. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 855.
16. DDE, Crusade in Europe 436.
17. DDE [Clay] to JCS, June 6, 1945, 6 Occupation 135–36; 1 Clay Papers 18–20. Montgomery also received the Order of Victory from Zhukov, and de Lattre de Tassigny a lesser decoration. According to Ike, it was the first time the Russian Order of Victory had been awarded to foreigners. DDE, Crusade in Europe 437.
18. DDE [Clay] to JCS, June 6, 1945, 6 Occupation 135–36.
19. United States Department of State, 3 Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945 330–32 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1964).
20. Harry Hopkins’s June 8, 1945, cable to President Truman was drafted by General Clay and submitted through military channels by Eisenhower. For text, see 1 Clay Papers 21–22. Hopkins’s notes pertaining to his visit with Eisenhower are reprinted in Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins 913–14. For Hopkins’s visit to Moscow, see United States Department of State, The Conference of Berlin: The Potsdam Conference, 1945 24–62 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1960).
21. HST, 1 Memoirs 303.
22. WSC, Triumph and Tragedy 605–6.
23. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 222–24. (Emphasis in original.)
24. Ibid. 225.
25. My interviews with General Clay, some ninety hours’ worth, were conducted in his New York apartment in 1969–70, and were preliminary to my biography of Clay (Lucius D. Clay: An American Life), which was published by Henry Holt in 1990. The rank of General of the Army was established by an Act of Congress, December 14, 1944, Public Law 482. Eisenhower, along with Arnold, Marshall, and MacArthur, was appointed to that rank on February 15, 1945. Sir James Gault, a graduate of Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, was a member of the Scots Guards and a charter member of the British establishment. Eventually through Gault’s efforts a twelve-room apartment was made available for Eisenhower on the top floor of Culzean Castle on the Firth of Clyde in Scotland courtesy of the National Trust for Scotland.
26. Merle Miller, Plain Speaking: An Oral Biography of Harry S. Truman 339–40 (New York: Berkeley, 1974).
27. Fawn Brodie, Thomas Jefferson: An Intimate History (New York: W. W. Norton, 1974).
28. DDE to GCM, June 4, 1945, 6 Occupation 126–27. (Emphasis added.) Eisenhower went on to ask Marshall whether, in the event no general policy could be adopted, he might still bring Mamie over. Would there be any resentment to
my arranging to bring my own wife here? This is something that of course I cannot fully determine, but my real feeling is that most people would understand that after three years of continued separation at my age, and with no opportunity to engage, except on extraordinary occasions, in normal social activities, they would be sympathetic about the matter.
I should like very much to have your frank reaction because while I am perfectly willing to carry on in this assignment as long as the War Department may decide I should do so, I really would like to make it a bit easier on myself from the personal view point.
29. Korda, Ike 589. Stephen Ambrose is also curious why Ike felt it necessary to write Marshall. 1 Eisenhower 415.
30. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 325–26. “I don’t believe in keeping families separated too long,” said Clay. They’d been separated, many of these people, for quite a long time already. Perhaps I was carried away by my own feelings. I wanted my family with me.”
31. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 242.
32. DDE to Kathleen McCarthy-Morrogh Summersby, November 22, 1945, 6 Occupation 546–47.
33. Bradley and Blair, General’s Life 133n. According to Bradley, the “close relationship: between Ike and Kay is quite accurately portrayed as far as my personal knowledge extends, in Kay’s second book, Past Forgetting.”
34. Frank Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt, vol. 1, The Apprenticeship 320n (Boston: Little, Brown, 1952).
35. Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., in Ellen Feldman, Lucy: A Novel 1 (New York: W. W. Norton, 2003).
36. Everett Hughes diary, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress. Also see Ambrose, 1 Eisenhower 418.
37. Brendon, Ike 191.
38. Ambrose, 1 Eisenhower 412; also see Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 870.
39. Quoted in Kenneth S. Davis, Soldier of Democracy 547.
40. Ibid.
41. The New York Times, June 22, 1945.
42. DDE to MDE, July 13 or 14, 1945, DDE, Letters to Mamie 263–64. On July 18, Eisenhower repeated his assurance, “I love you, only!” (DDE’s emphasis.) Ibid. 265.
43. Bradley and Blair, General’s Life 444–45.
44. DDE, Crusade in Europe 444.
45. DDE, Mandate for Change 312–13; DDE, Crusade in Europe 443.
46. DDE, Mandate for Change 313. Also see John S. D. Eisenhower, Strictly Personal 97.
47. I am indebted to Michael Korda for this observation. Korda, Ike 596.
48. “I suppose I was invited,” said Clay, “because I knew Zhukov better than anyone else.… They were very, very friendly. There was no tension whatever.” Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 263.
49. DDE, Crusade in Europe 469.
50. Ibid. 468. Also see John S. D. Eisenhower, Strictly Personal 100–107.
51. DDE, Crusade in Europe 460–61; John S. D. Eisenhower, Strictly Personal 102–4; Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 263.
52. DDE, Crusade in Europe 461–62.
53. Quoted in Ambrose, 1 Eisenhower 430.
54. The New York Times, August 14, 1945.
55. Ibid., August 15, 1945.
56. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 263.
57. For the arrangements for Zhukov’s visit to the United States, see DDE to GCM, September 28, 1945, 6 Occupation 354–55.
58. Quoted in Lyon, Eisenhower 361. Also see Ambrose, 1 Eisenhower 424. Contemporary news coverage makes it abundantly clear that the words were entirely Patton’s and were not put into his mouth by a reporter. See The New York Times, September 20 to September 30, 1945. The unofficial transcript of the press conference is reprinted in Blumenson, 2 Patton Papers 770–72, 775.
59. DDE to MDE, September 24, 1945, DDE, Letters to Mamie 272.
60. Summersby, Eisenhower Was My Boss 278. Major General Clarence Adcock, Clay’s deputy for military government, and Professor Walter Dorn, then of Ohio State University, joined the meeting, which is described in detail in Stanley P. Hirshson, General Patton: A Soldier’s Life 666–70 (New York: HarperCollins, 2002). Hirshson’s account relies on the notes of the meeting taken by Professor Dorn. Dorn wrote subsequently that the “impact of the Patton affair upon the administration of the U.S. zone can scarcely be exaggerated. Henceforth, a new atmosphere prevailed. Dorn, “Unfinished Purge,” chap. 8, 28, box 13, Dorn Papers, Columbia University.
61. John S. D. Eisenhower, Strictly Personal 114. Also see John S. D. Eisenhower, General Ike 71–73.
62. GCM to HST, August 20, 1945, 6 Occupation 310n1.
63. DDE to GCM, August 27, 1945, ibid. 309–10.
64. DDE to LDC, November 8, 1945, ibid. 521–27. On December 2, 1945, Clay wrote Eisenhower that “we were able to give Zhukov the [manufacturing] plants he desired, which pleased him immensely as it evidenced your good faith.” Ibid., note 9.
65. DDE, Crusade in Europe 475. Eisenhower devotes the final chapter of Crusade in Europe (twenty-one pages) to relations with Russia.
66. See DDE to GCM, November 10, 1945, 6 Occupations 534–35. Ike told Marshall that it would be impossible for him to give a formal presentation but that he would study the briefing documents and speak informally. “For each committee I should like to have prepared one or two good solid paragraphs setting forth, without argument and without explanation the general scheme we propose and the general advantages we expect to result therefrom.”
67. House Committee on Military Affairs, Hearings on H.R. 515 77–78, 79th Cong., 1st sess., 1945.
68. DDE, Ike’s Letters to Friend 27–31.
69. DDE to Zhukov, December 6, 1945, The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower, vol. 7, Chief of Staff 591–92. Cited subsequently as 7 Chief of Staff.
70. Susan Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike 235.
71. Susan Eisenhower’s treatment of this period, seen through the eyes of her mother, is exemplary. Ibid. 234–49.
72. Snyder Papers, EL, quoted in Travis Beal Jacobs, Eisenhower at Columbia 9 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2001).
73. Hatch, Red Carpet for Mamie 204–5.
74. United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service, “National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings: Quarters 1. Fort Myer Historic District.”
75. DDE, Eisenhower Diaries 136.
76. Ambrose, 1 Eisenhower 435; Korda, Ike 697.
77. DDE, Eisenhower Diaries 137, November 1, 1946.
78. Ambrose, 1 Eisenhower 443–44.
79. Truman, 1 Memoirs 553.
80. DDE, Mandate for Change 81.
81. DDE to GCM, May 28, 1946, 7 Chief of Staff 1085.
82. Pogue, 4 Marshall 141.
83. Ambrose, 1 Eisenhower 470.
84. DDE to Milton S. Eisenhower, May 29, 1947, The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower, vol. 8, Chief of Staff 1737–38. Cited subsequently as 8 Chief of Staff.
85. Ibid.
86. DDE to Thomas J. Watson, June 14, 1947, ibid. 1757–58.
87. Michael Rosenthal, Nicholas Miraculous: The Amazing Career of the Redoubtable Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler 453–54 (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2006). Also see DDE to Milton S. Eisenhower, June 14, 1947, 8 Chief of Staff 1759–60.
88. DDE to Thomas I. Parkinson, June 23, 1947, ibid. 1775–76. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.)
The epigraph is from the anthem of Columbia University, written by Gilbert Oakley Ward of the Class of 1902.
1. DDE, At Ease 325. Also see Perret, Eisenhower 377–79.
2. Grant, Personal Memoirs.
3. Jean Edward Smith, Grant 627.
4. DDE, At Ease 328.
5. Doubleday would pay $500,000; the New York Herald Tribune would pay $135,000 to serialize the book.
6. Douglas Black (publisher of Doubleday), interview by Travis Beal Jacobs, June 6, 1973, quoted in Jacobs, Eisenhower at Columbia 71.
7. “The Treasury Department informs me that the capital gains treatment of a sale such as we have in mind where the entire bundle of rights are involved is absolutely applicable,” Ike wrote William Edward Robinson of the Herald Tribune on December 20, 1947. Eisenhower had previously written to Treasury Undersecretary Archibald Lee Manning Wiggins, who referred the question to George J. Schoeneman, the commissioner of the Internal Revenue Service. DDE’s letter and Schoeneman’s reply are in the Presidential Papers, Official File, at the EL. DDE to Robinson, December 20, 1947, The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower, vol. 9, Chief of Staff 2153. Cited subsequently as 9 Chief of Staff.
8. For 1948 tax brackets, see Internal Revenue Service, “Personal Exemptions and Individual Income Tax Rates, 1913–2002.”
9. DDE, At Ease 327.
10. Eli Ginsberg, interview by Travis Beal Jacobs, December 11, 1990, quoted in Jacobs, Eisenhower at Columbia 71.
11. Korda, Ike 614.
12. Ambrose, 1 Eisenhower 476–78. Eisenhower used Cliff Roberts as his financial adviser, and gave Roberts his check for Crusade in Europe to invest.
13. DDE to Bedell Smith, September 18, 1947, 9 Chief of Staff 1933–34.
14. DDE to Milton Eisenhower, October 16, 1947, ibid. 1986–87.
15. Leonard Finder to DDE, January 12, 1948, ibid. 2193n.
16. Lyon, Eisenhower 379.
17. DDE to Leonard V. Finder, January 22, 1948, 9 Chief of Staff 2191–93. Eisenhower added the qualifying phrase “in the absence of some obvious and overriding reasons” to avoid any suggestion that he was also ruling out Mac-Arthur as a candidate.
18. Ambrose, 1 Eisenhower 464.
19. Rosenthal, Nicholas Miraculous 248.
20. Alva Johnson, “Nicholas Murray Butler,” The New Yorker 233, November 15, 1930.
21. DDE, At Ease 342.
22. Dean Harry J. Carmen, interview by Travis Beal Jacobs, December 1, 1961, quoted in Jacobs, Eisenhower at Columbia 319.
23. Louis Graham Smith to DDE, May 20, 1948, The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower, vol. 10, Columbia 86n. Cited subsequently as 10 Columbia.
24. DDE to Louis Graham Smith, May 25, 1948, ibid. 84–87. The university mailed copies of Eisenhower’s letter to all Columbia alumni.
25. DDE to Henry Steele Commager, July 29, 1948, ibid. 170–71n1.
26. DDE to Arthur Prudden Coleman, July 12, 1948, ibid. 139–40. Coleman, a twenty-year assistant professor in Columbia’s Department of Slavic Languages, had resigned in protest of the chair. Eisenhower accepted his resignation.
27. DDE to Columbia Trustees, September 20, 1948, quoted in ibid. 167n2.
28. Text of Installation Address, The New York Times, October 13, 1948.
29. The New York Times, June 6, 1944.
30. Richard H. Rovere, “The Second Eisenhower Boom,” Harper’s 31–39, May 1950.
31. Ellis Slater, interview by Travis Beal Jacobs, September 1, 1972, quoted in Jacobs, Eisenhower at Columbia 92.
32. DDE to Donald Harron, July 5, 1948, 10 Columbia 124–25.
33. DDE to Marquis Childs, July 8, 1948, ibid. 128–29.
34. DDE to James Roosevelt, July 8, 1948, ibid. 129–31. The same letter was sent to Pepper and Hague. On July 9, Senator Pepper replied, “I reluctantly bow to your determination.”
35. Joseph Lang to DDE, October 11, 1948, ibid. 252n2.
36. Jacobs, Eisenhower at Columbia 110.
37. DDE, At Ease 341.
38. DDE, Ike’s Letters to a Friend 61–62.
39. Clifford Roberts, interview, September 12, 29, 1968, COHP.
40. DDE to Forrestal, November 4, 1948, 10 Columbia 283. “I know that you understand you can call on me at anytime for anything,” said Ike.
41. Forrestal to HST, November 9, 1948, ibid. 284n3.
42. DDE to HST, November 18, 1948, ibid. 310.
43. HST to DDE, November 26, 1948, ibid. 311n4.
44. Ira Henry Freeman, “Eisenhower of Columbia,” The New York Times Magazine, November 7, 1948.
45. Drew Middleton, The New York Times Book Review, November 21, 1948; Robert E. Sherwood, New York Herald Tribune, November 21, 1948; Richard Rovere, Harper’s, November 1948; Goronwy Rees, The Spectator, January 7, 1949. In addition to Roosevelt and Hopkins, Sherwood won Pulitzers for Idiot’s Delight (1936), Abe Lincoln in Illinois (1939), and There Shall Be No Night (1941).
46. Kevin McCann, interview by Travis Beal Jacobs, July 25, 1972, quoted in Jacobs, Eisenhower at Columbia 133–39.
47. R. Gordon Hoxie, interview by Travis Beal Jacobs, June 9, 1995, quoted in ibid. 126.
48. Jacques Barzun, interview by Travis Beal Jacobs, April 5, 1979, quoted in ibid. 144.
49. Henry F. Graff, letter to the editor, 25 Presidential Studies Quarterly 862–63 (Fall 1995).
50. Rosenthal, Nicholas Miraculous 411.
51. DDE, At Ease 356.
52. Harry J. Carman, interview by Travis Beal Jacobs, December 1, 1961, quoted in Jacobs, Eisenhower at Columbia 87.
53. Robert L. Schulz, interview, COHP, quoted in ibid. 156.
54. DDE diary, February 9, 1949, in Eisenhower Diaries 157.
55. DDE, 10 Columbia 479n4.
56. DDE to H. H. Arnold, March 14, 1949, ibid. 544–45.
57. DDE diary, March 19, 1949, in Eisenhower Diaries 158. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.)
58. DDE, At Ease 354.
59. DDE to Louis Johnson, April 20, 1949, 10 Columbia 560.
60. DDE to Everett Hazlett, April 27, 1949, DDE, Ike’s Letters to a Friend 53–54.
61. DDE to Milton Eisenhower, May 13, 1949, 10 Columbia 580–81.
62. Albert C. Jacobs, interview by Travis Beal Jacobs, February 5, 1965, quoted in Travis Beal Jacobs, Eisenhower at Columbia 172.
63. Lionel Trilling, interview, February 4, 1958, COHP.
64. Eli Ginsberg, interview by Travis Beal Jacobs, December 11, 1990, quoted in Jacobs, Eisenhower at Columbia 205.
65. Jacques Barzun, interview, April 5, 1979, COHP.
66. David B. Truman, interview by Travis Beal Jacobs, February 4, 1958, quoted in Jacobs, Eisenhower at Columbia 199.
67. Harry J. Carman, interview, December 1, 1961, COHP.
68. Cliff Roberts, interview, September 12, 1968, COHP.
69. DDE to Hazlett, February 24, 1950, DDE, Ike’s Letters to a Friend 68–76.
70. DDE diary, November 25, 1949, 10 Columbia 839–41.
71. Quentin Reynolds, “Mr. President Eisenhower,” Life 144–60, April 17, 1950.
72. Richard H. Rovere, “The Second Eisenhower Boom,” Harper’s 31–39, May 1950. Ike noted the article in his diary. “This week another article came out—this time in Harper’s which castigated me, on the ground that here the students and faculties hate me—and I return the sentiment with interest.” Diary, May 2, 1950, The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower, vol. 11, Columbia 1096–97. Cited subsequently as 11 Columbia.
73. Grayson Kirk, interview, July 22, 1987, COHP.
74. DDE to Philip C. Jessup, March 18, 1950, 11 Columbia 1014.
75. Jacobs, Eisenhower at Columbia 229.
76. DDE diary, October 13, 1950, 11 Columbia 1382–83.
77. DDE diary, October 28, 1950, ibid. 1388–92.
78. Ibid.
79. Columbia Spectator, November 10, 1950.
80. HST, 2 Memoirs 258. The unanimous request of the foreign ministers of the North Atlantic Treaty nations, meeting in Brussels on December 18, was flashed to the White House by Secretary of State Dean Acheson. United States Department of State, 3 Foreign Relations of the United States: 1950 Western Europe 594–95 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1950).
81. John Krout, interview by Travis Beal Jacobs, July 22, 1963, April 27, 1977, quoted in Jacobs, Eisenhower at Columbia 251–52.
82. DDE, At Ease 361.
83. Jacobs, Eisenhower at Columbia 252.
84. Columbia Spectator, December 20, 1950.
85. Time, February 12, 1951.
86. DDE, At Ease 372.
87. Ibid.
88. DDE, Mandate for Change 14.
89. C. L. Sulzberger, A Long Row of Candles: Memoirs and Diaries, 1934–1954 702 (New York: Macmillan, 1969).
90. James T. Patterson, Mr. Republican: A Biography of Robert A. Taft 30 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1972).
91. Minutes, Columbia Board of Trustees, February 8, 1951.
92. Carl W. Ackerman manuscript collection, Library of Congress.
93. Eric Foner, interview by Jean Edward Smith, April 20, 2010.
The epigraph is General Clay’s comment pertaining to Ike’s indecision over whether to seek the GOP nomination in 1952. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 591.
1. DDE, Mandate for Change 14.
2. Sulzberger, Long Row of Candles 614.
3. Quoted in Korda, Ike 631.
4. Sulzberger, Long Row of Candles 686.
5. Of the 250 Allied officers at SHAPE, 150 were either British or American. Ibid.
6. Lyon, Eisenhower 424.
7. Quoted in David Halberstam, The Fifties 209 (New York: Villard Books, 1993).
8. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 591–92.
9. Richard Norton Smith, Thomas E. Dewey and His Times 578 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1982).
10. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 584.
11. The sentiment was that of Ruth McCormick Simms, one of Dewey’s aides at the 1940 Republican National Convention. Charles Peters, Five Days in Philadelphia 19 (New York: Public Affairs, 2005).
12. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 584.
13. DDE to LDC, September 27, 1951, The Papers of Dwight D. Eisenhower, vol. 12, NATO and the Campaign of 1952 580. Cited subsequently as 12 NATO.
14. LDC to DDE, September 29, 1951, ibid. 607n5.
15. DDE to LDC, October 5, 1951, ibid. 605–7. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.)
16. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 586.
17. The story of President Truman’s offer to Eisenhower was first reported by Arthur Krock in The New York Times, November 8, 1951, and subsequently mentioned in Krock’s Memoirs: Sixty Years on the Firing Line 267–69 (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1968).
18. Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr., interview by Jean Edward Smith, May 5, 1971. “Lucius’s father and my grandfather served together in the United States Senate,” said Lodge, “and Lucius became absorbed in politics at a very early age. Lucius can be extremely blunt. In a rough-and-tumble political fight … a man like Clay can be extremely useful. He scared some people to death.” Smith, Lucius D. Clay 585.
19. LDC to DDE, December 7, 1951, DDE Personal File, EL. Also see LDC to DDE, December 13, 1951, ibid.
20. DDE to LDC, December 19, 1951, 12 NATO 796–97.
21. DDE to LDC, December 27, 1951, ibid. 817–18.
22. Ibid.
23. DDE to Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr., December 29, 1951, ibid. 829.
24. HST to DDE, handwritten, December 18, 1951, in David McCullough, Truman 888 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992). Mr. Truman’s letter was not delivered to Eisenhower until December 28, 1951.
25. DDE to HST, January 1, 1952, 12 NATO 830–31.
26. For the text of Lodge’s letter to Adams, see The New York Times, January 7, 1952.
27. Ibid.
28. Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr., interview by Jean Edward Smith, May 5, 1971.
29. DDE to LDC, January 8, 1952, The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower, vol. 13, NATO 860–61. Cited subsequently as 13 NATO.
30. For the text of Eisenhower’s statement, see The New York Times, January 8, 1952.
31. The transcript of President Truman’s press conference is in The New York Times, January 11 1952. Truman sent Eisenhower a recording of his remarks. “I am grateful for your thoughtfulness,” Eisenhower replied on January 23. “It is difficult to understand why any individual should want to produce irritation or mutual resentment between us.… I deeply appreciate your determination to avoid any such thing—a purpose which does and will govern my own conduct.” DDE to HST, January 23, 1952, 13 NATO 907–8.
32. The New York Times, February 8, 1952. Hoover’s “Gibraltar of freedom” metaphor derived from a speech he made to a national television and radio audience on January 27. For the text, see The New York Times, January 28, 1952.
33. DDE to LDC, February 9, 1952, 13 NATO 962–64.
34. Ibid.
35. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 593.
36. DDE, Mandate for Change 20.
37. Jacqueline Cochran, interview, EL.
38. DDE to LDC, February 12, 1952, 13 NATO 974–75.
39. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 591.
40. All primary figures are from Congressional Quarterly’s Guide to U.S. Elections 334–35 (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1975).
41. DDE to LDC, March 28, 1952, 13 NATO 1139–41.
42. LDC to DDE, March 29, 1952, ibid. 1141n1.
43. HST, 2 Memoirs 492. George Allen, a close friend of both the president’s and Ike’s had confided to Truman that Eisenhower intended to run.
44. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 595. Also see Richard N. Smith, Thomas E. Dewey 582.
45. DDE to HST, April 2, 1952, 13 NATO 1154–56. Also see DDE to Secretary of Defense Robert Lovett, April 2, 1952, ibid. 1157–59. Eisenhower was placed on the Army’s retired list on May 31, 1952 (ibid. 1238).
46. HST to DDE, April 6, 1952, ibid. 1156n10.
47. Lord Alanbrooke to DDE, May 17, 1952, EL.
48. Marquis William Childs, Eisenhower: Captive Hero 134 (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1958).
49. Halberstam, Fifties 211.
50. The New York Times, June 5, 1952.
51. Ibid. June 15, 1952.
52. Richard N. Smith, Thomas E. Dewey 586.
53. Ibid. 593.
54. Thomas C. Reeves, The Life and Times of Joe McCarthy 426 (New York: Stein and Day, 1982).
55. Herbert Brownell, interview by Jean Edward Smith, April 7, 1971, quoted in Smith, Lucius D. Clay 597–98.
56. Ibid. 599.
57. Richard N. Smith, Thomas E. Dewey 590.
58. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 599.
59. Ibid.
60. The New York Times, July 12, 1952. Also see Patterson, Mr. Republican 563.
61. Herbert Brownell, interview by Jean Edward Smith, April 7, 1971.
62. Ibid.
63. Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr., interview by Jean Edward Smith, May 5, 1971.
64. Quoted in Halberstam, Fifties 213. Also see Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 602.
65. Ibid.
The epigraph is from Eisenhower’s acceptance speech to the Republican National Convention, July 11, 1952. George L. Hart, Official Report of the Proceedings of the Twenty-fifth Republican National Convention 432 (Washington, D.C.: Republican National Committee, 1952).
1. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 603.
2. GCM to DDE, July 12, 1952, EL.
3. DDE to GCM, July 17, 1952, 13 NATO 1277–78.
4. DDE, Mandate for Change 50.
5. DDE to Cliff Roberts, July 29, 1952, 13 NATO 1283–85. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.)
6. Roberts to DDE, ibid, note 7.
7. DDE to Roberts, July 29, 1952, ibid. 1283–85.
8. DDE, Mandate for Change 54–55. Labor Day in 1952 fell on September 1.
9. DDE, Mandate for Change 318n. Also see Lyon, Eisenhower 448–49.
10. The New York Times, August 15, 1952. I have reported the official Democratic explanation of why Eisenhower was not invited to the White House. It is conceivable that Truman messed up, did not think to invite Eisenhower, and Bradley took the fall.
11. Ibid. August 13, 1952.
12. DDE to HST, August 14, 1952, 13 NATO 1322–23.
13. HST to DDE, August 16, 1952, 13 NATO 1327n1.
14. Gary Wills, Nixon Agonistes: The Crises of the Self-Made Man 118 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970).
15. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 603–4.
16. The New York Times, September 10, 1952.
17. Herbert S. Parmet, Eisenhower and the American Crusades 128 (New York: Macmillan, 1972); Emmet John Hughes, The Ordeal of Power: A Political Memoir of the Eisenhower Years 41 (New York: Atheneum, 1963).
18. DDE, Mandate for Change 64.
19. The New York Times, September 16, 1952.
20. Lyon, Eisenhower 449.
21. Parmet, Eisenhower and the American Crusades 129.
22. New York Post, September 18, 1952.
23. Quoted in Wills, Nixon Agonistes 95–96.
24. Quoted in Earl Mazo, Richard Nixon: A Political and Personal Portrait 101 (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1959).
25. Robert Cutler, No Time for Rest 284–85 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1966). Also see Milton S. Eisenhower, The President Is Calling 251–52.
26. Roger Morris, Richard Milhous Nixon: The Rise of an American Politician 770–71 (New York: Henry Holt, 1990). The document is also reprinted in vol. 13 of the Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower at page 1358. The editor of the Papers suggests the message was not sent. I have gone with Morris, who as Nixon’s biographer was in a better position to know.
27. Lyon, Eisenhower 456.
28. New York Herald Tribune, The Washington Post, September 20, 1952. The early editions of the Saturday papers were available Friday evening, September 19, 1952.
29. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 605.
30. Ibid. 606.
31. Wills, Nixon Agonistes 102.
32. Lyon, Eisenhower 457–58. Nixon’s side of the conversation was monitored by Murray Chotiner, his campaign manager; James Bassett, his press secretary; and William P. Rogers, his close friend and later secretary of state.
33. Morris, Richard Milhous Nixon 816.
34. William Robinson to DDE, September 22, 1952, Robinson Papers, EL.
35. Paul Hoffman Papers, Truman Presidential Library, quoted in Morris, Richard Milhous Nixon 816.
36. Morris, Richard Milhous Nixon 818; Richard Norton Smith, Thomas E. Dewey and His Times 601–2. Herbert Browell, interview by Jean Edward Smith, April 7, 1971, COHP.
37. Morris, Richard Milhous Nixon 822–23; Richard Norton Smith, Thomas E. Dewey and His Times 601–2.
38. Morris, Richard Milhous Nixon 827.
39. Variety, September 14, 1952.
40. Parmet, Eisenhower and the American Crusades 138.
41. For the text of Nixon’s speech see The New York Times, September 24, 1952.
42. Ibid.
43. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 606.
44. Ibid.
45. For Dewey’s comments, see The New York Times, September 26, 1952. For Knowland and Stassen, see Morris, Richard Milhous Nixon 845.
46. Halberstam, Fifties 242.
47. Wills, Nixon Agonistes 117.
48. Perret, Eisenhower 416.
49. DDE, Mandate for Change 317.
50. Hughes, Ordeal of Power 42.
51. Ibid. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.)
52. DDE, Mandate for Change 318.
53. The New York Times, October 9, 1952.
54. Halberstam, Fifties 230.
55. Lou Cowan, interview by David Halberstam, quoted in ibid. 232.
56. David Halberstam, The Powers That Be 236 (New York: Knopf, 1979).
57. Halberstam, Fifties 232.
58. Robert J. Donovan Oral History, EL.
59. Informal Memo, New York SAC Edward Scheidt to FBI Director Hoover, April 17, 1952; Informal Memo, FBI Assistant Director Milton Ladd to FBI Director, June 24, 1952; Informal Memo, FBI Supervisor Milton Jones to Assistant FBI Director Louis Nichols, July 24, 1952; Memo, FBI Assistant Director Milton Ladd to FBI Director Hoover, August 15, 1952. All reprinted in Athan Theoharis, From the Secret Files of J. Edgar Hoover 284–86 (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1991).
60. David K. Johnson, The Lavender Scare: The Cold War Persecution of Gays and Lesbians in the Federal Government 122–23 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004); Curt Gentry, J. Edgar Hoover: The Man and the Secrets 402–3 (New York: Norton, 1991); Marquis William Childs, Witness to Power 67–68 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975).
61. The New York Times, October 17, 1952.
62. Ibid., October 25, 1952. In his memoirs, General Bradley dismissed Eisenhower’s pledge as “pure showbiz. Ike was well informed on all aspects of the Korean War and the delicacy of the armistice negotiations. He knew very well that he could achieve nothing by going to Korea.” Bradley and Blair, General’s Life 656.
63. Quoted in Sherman Adams, Firsthand Report: The Story of the Eisenhower Administration 43–44 (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1961).
64. Quoted in McCullough, Truman 912.
65. Herbert Brownell, interview by Jean Edward Smith, April 7, 1971, COHP.
66. The New York Times, November 5, 1952.
67. Congressional Quarterly’s Guide to U.S. Elections 294. The Republicans won the House 221–211, and the Senate 48–47–1, the one independent being Wayne Morse of Oregon, who voted with the GOP to organize the Senate. In Kentucky, Stevenson received 495,729 votes to Ike’s 495,029—less than one-tenth of one percentage point separating them.
68. HST to DDE, November 5, 1952, in 13 NATO 1412–13, notes.
69. DDE to HST, November 5, 1952, ibid. 1412.
The epigraph is from Eisenhower’s speech “The Chance for Peace,” delivered to the American Society of Newspaper Editors, April 16, 1953. Public Papers of the Presidents: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1953 179–88. Cited subsequently as Public Papers.
1. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 606–7.
2. Ibid. 607.
3. Ibid. 609.
4. Murray Kempton, “The Underestimation of Dwight D. Eisenhower,” Esquire, 108–9, September 1967.
5. Paul Cabot, interview by Jean Edward Smith, December 12, 1970.
6. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 610–11. Clay was on the board of directors of General Motors.
7. Ibid.
8. Childs, Eisenhower 167.
9. Ibid.
10. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 612.
11. DDE diary, February 7, 1953, Eisenhower Diaries 227.
12. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 612.
13. The New Republic, December 15, 1952.
14. For Stevenson’s comment, see Alden Whitman and The New York Times, Portrait: Adlai E. Stevenson: Politician, Diplomat, Friend 108 (New York: Harper and Row, 1965).
15. Carl M. Brauer, Presidential Transitions: Eisenhower Through Reagan 22 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986).
16. Lyon, Eisenhower 470.
17. Korda, Ike 658.
18. DDE, Mandate for Change 95.
19. Bradley and Blair, General’s Life 658.
20. James F. Schnabel and Robert J. Watson, History of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, vol. 3, The Korean War 932–34 (Wilmington, Del.: Glazer, 1979).
21. Mark Clark Oral History, COHP. In his memoirs, From the Danube to the Yalu 233 (New York: Harper, 1954), Clark inexplicably says he was not given an opportunity to present his plan to Eisenhower. I have adopted Clark’s version in his oral history.
22. DDE, Mandate for Change 95.
23. Quoted in Brauer, Presidential Transitions 23.
24. I am indebted to Stephen Ambrose for this summary of the Helena voyage. Ambrose, 2 Eisenhower 34.
25. The New York Times, December 15, 1952.
26. John S. D. Eisenhower, Strictly Personal 156. News reports at the time suggested that both John and Ike were offended that John was ordered back. That was not the case.
27. Quoted in McCullough, Truman 921.
28. J. B. West and Mary Lynn Kotz, Upstairs at the White House: My Life with the First Ladies (New York: Coward, McCann, and Geoghegan, 1973).
29. Ibid. 137.
30. David and David, Ike and Mamie 195–97.
31. DDE diary, January 21, 1953, Eisenhower Diaries 225.
32. DDE to HST, January 23, 1953, The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower, vol. 14, The Presidency 9. Cited subsequently as 14 The Presidency.
33. Brauer, Presidential Transitions 33.
34. Richard Strout, “The Administration’s Abominable No Man,” The New York Times Magazine, June 3, 1956.
35. Perret, Eisenhower 440.
36. Ezra Taft Benson to DDE, January 28, 1953, EL.
37. DDE to Dulles, February 3, 1952, 14 The Presidency 22. Nine members favored a silent prayer; five preferred an oral one. Parmet, Eisenhower and the American Crusades 176.
38. Parmet, Eisenhower and the American Crusades 176.
39. Ibid.
40. DDE diary, February 7, 1953, Eisenhower Diaries 227.
41. DDE diary, February 1, 1953, ibid. 226. Across the nation, Eisenhower’s decision to join the National Presbyterian Church made front-page news. See The New York Times, New York Herald Tribune, and The Washington Post, February 2, 1953.
42. Cutler, No Time for Rest 241.
43. Ibid. 295–395.
44. Quoted in Krock, Memoirs 281.
45. Quoted in Robert J. Donovan, Eisenhower: The Inside Story 10–11 (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1956).
46. Quoted in Parmet, Eisenhower and the American Crusades 192. Professor Parmet cites a “confidential source,” who evidently was George Humphrey.
47. Press Conference, February 25, 1953, Public Papers, 1953 58–70.
48. Donovan, Eisenhower 40.
49. Cutler, No Time for Rest 320–21. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.)
50. Lyon, Eisenhower 531.
51. Statement of the President Concerning the Illness of Joseph Stalin, March 4, 1953, Public Papers, 1953 75.
52. Quoted in Lyon, Eisenhower 531.
53. Quoted in Hughes, Ordeal of Power 101.
54. Ibid. 103. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.)
55. Ibid. 103–4. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.)
56. Ibid. 105.
57. Ibid.
58. Clark, From the Danube to the Yalu 240–42.
59. Ibid. 244.
60. Press Conference, April 2, 1953, Public Papers, 1953 147–48.
61. NCS notes, April 9, 1953, quoted in Ambrose, Eisenhower: Soldier and President 327.
62. See DDE to Dulles, April 2, 1953, 14 The Presidency 146–47.
63. Hughes, Ordeal of Power 107.
64. Ibid. 112.
65. DDE, Mandate for Change 147.
66. “The Chance for Peace,” April 16, 1953, Public Papers, 1953 179–88. (Emphasis added.)
67. The New York Times, New York Post, April 17, 1953.
68. The New Yorker, May 2, 1953.
69. DDE to Syngman Rhee, June 18, 1953, 14 The Presidency 309–10.
70. DDE, Mandate for Change 187.
71. Radio and Television Address Announcing the Signing of the Korean Armistice, July 26, 1953, Public Papers, 1953 520–22.
72. Donovan, Eisenhower 128–29.
The chapter title is from Don Van Natta, Jr.’s book of the same name (New York: PublicAffairs, 2003.) The epigraph is from Eisenhower’s comment to his brother Milton, quoted in Ambrose, Eisenhower 57. Also see Milton S. Eisenhower, The President Is Calling 318.
1. Don Van Natta, Jr., First Off the Tee: The Presidential Hackers, Duffers, and Cheaters from Taft to Bush 138 (New York: PublicAffairs, 2003).
2. Arthur Daley, “3,265,000 Reasons for Playing Golf,” The New York Times Magazine, May 31, 1953.
3. Herbert Warren Wind, The Story of American Golf: Its Champions and Its Championships 58 (New York: Farrar, Straus, 1962).
4. Van Natta, First Off the Tee 57.
5. Quoted in ibid. 58.
6. The information in these paragraphs is drawn from Van Natta’s marvelous First Off the Tee, which documents the golfing skills (and lack thereof) of the presidents. His portion dealing with Taft, Wilson, Coolidge, and Reagan (“Worst Off the Tee”) is priceless. The Eisenhower material I have used is on pages 56–60.
7. Ibid. 64–65.
8. Quoted in ibid. 67.
9. DDE diary, May 1, 1953, 14 The Presidency 195–97. Also see Patterson, Mr. Republican 599–600.
10. DDE diary, June 1, 1953, 14 The Presidency 265–67.
11. Patterson, Mr. Republican 611–14.
12. Ambrose, 2 Eisenhower 56.
13. Ibid. 57.
14. Ibid. 59.
15. DDE, Mandate for Change 212. By contrast, after Senate criticism, Dulles asked Bohlen if he intended to step down, and he insisted they ride in separate cars to Capitol Hill so as to avoid being photographed together. Walter Isaacson and Evan Thomas, The Wise Men: Six Friends and the World They Made 568 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986).
16. Congressional Record 2277–81, 83rd Cong., 1st sess.
17. Ibid. 2282–83, 2285, 2291–92.
18. Press Conference, March 26, 1953, Public Papers, 1953 130.
19. 14 The Presidency 136.
20. Parmet, Eisenhower and the American Crusades 261.
21. Fred Greenstein, The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower as Leader 175 (New York: Basic Books, 1982).
22. Roy Cohn, McCarthy 88 (New York: New American Library, 1968).
23. Quoted in Kai Bird, The Chairman: John J. McCloy; The Making of the American Establishment 468 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992).
24. Remarks at Dartmouth College Commencement Exercises, June 14, 1953, Public Papers, 1953 411–15.
25. The New York Times, June 17, 1953.
26. Max Rabb, interview by Herbert Parmet, January 12, 1970, quoted in Parmet, Eisenhower and the American Crusades 254–55.
27. Ralph Bunche, interview by Herbert Parmet, January 31, 1970, quoted in ibid. 255.
28. Milton S. Eisenhower, The President Is Calling 318; Ambrose, 2 Eisenhower 57.
29. Gallup poll, January 15, 1954. Cited in Parmet, Eisenhower and the American Crusades 266.
30. Greenstein, Hidden-Hand Presidency 184–85; Parmet, Eisenhower and the American Crusades 346.
31. Chicago Tribune, February 25, 1954.
32. The New York Times, March 10, 1954.
33. DDE to Ralph Flanders, March 9, 1954, Flanders Papers, Syracuse University Library.
34. In Search of Light: The Broadcasts of Edward R. Murrow, 1938–1961 247–48, Edward Bliss, Jr., ed. (New York: Knopf, 1967).
35. Perret, Eisenhower 502.
36. DDE to Paul Hoy Helms, March 9, 1954, The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower, vol. 15, The Presidency 937–39. Cited subsequently as 15 The Presidency.
37. James Hagerty diary, February 25, 1954, EL.
38. In his scholarly account of the Eisenhower presidency, The Hidden-Hand Presidency, Professor Greenstein provides one primary case study: “The Joe McCarthy Case,” pages 155–227.
39. DDE to Charles Wilson, May 17, 1954, Public Papers, 1954 483–84.
40. James Hagerty diary, March 28, 1954, EL.
41. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Imperial Presidency 156 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973).
42. Quoted in Ambrose, 2 Eisenhower 188.
43. James Hagerty diary, March 28, 1954, EL.
44. Press Conference, March 24, 1954, Public Papers, 1954 339.
45. Donald Rumsfeld, Known and Unknown: A Memoir 50 (New York: Sentinel, 2011).
46. David M. Oshinsky, A Conspiracy So Immense: The World of Joe McCarthy 471 (New York: Free Press, 1983).
47. DDE, Mandate for Change 330–31.
48. The rule was enunciated clearly by Justice Field in the case of Geofroy v. Riggs, 133 U.S. 258 (1890):
The treaty power, as expressed in the Constitution, is in terms unlimited except by those restraints which are found in that instrument.… But with these exceptions, it is not perceived that there is any limit to the questions which can be adjusted touching any matter which is properly the subject of negotiations with a foreign country.
49. In the leading cases of United States v. Belmont, 301 U.S. 324 (1937) and United States v. Pink, 315 U.S. 203 (1942), the Supreme Court elevated executive agreements to the same constitutional status as treaties. As Justice Douglas said for the court in Pink, an executive agreement is “a modest implied power of the President who is the ‘sole organ of the Federal Government in the field of international relations.’ ”
50. The operative portions of the Bricker Amendment read as follows:
Senate Joint Resolution
183rd Congress, 1st Session
Section 1. A provision of a treaty which conflicts with this Constitution shall not be of any force or effect.
Section 2. A treaty shall become effective as internal law in the United States only through legislation which would be valid in the absence of treaty.
Section 3. Congress shall have power to regulate all Executive and other agreements with any foreign power or international organization. All such agreements shall be subject to the limitations imposed on treaties by this article.
Section 4. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
Section 5. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States within seven years of the date of its submission.
51. Robert A. Caro, Master of the Senate 528 (New York: Knopf, 2002).
52. The remark is generally attributed to New York Herald Tribune television critic John Crosby.
53. Quoted in Hughes, Ordeal of Power 143.
54. Cabinet minutes, April 3, 1953 EL.
55. Ibid. July 17, 1953.
56. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 616.
57. Ibid.
58. Ibid. 616–17.
59. 15 The Presidency 848–49.
60. George substitute for the Bricker Amendment:
Sec. 1. A provision of a treaty or other international agreement which conflicts with this Constitution shall not be of any force or effect.
Sec. 2. An international agreement other than a treaty shall become effective as internal law in the United States only by an act of the Congress.
Sec. 3. On the question of advising and consenting to the ratification of a treaty the vote shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against shall be entered on the Journal of the Senate.
Sec. 4. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States within 7 years from the date of its submission.
61. Caro, Master of the Senate 536.
62. Ibid. 539. Also see Robert F. Maddox, The Senatorial Career of Harley Martin Kilgore 317 (New York: Garland, 1981); Duane Tananbaum, The Bricker Amendment Controversy: A Test of Eisenhower’s Political Leadership 179–80 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1988).
63. DDE, Mandate for Change 227.
64. The Memoirs of Earl Warren 260 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1977).
65. Herbert Brownell, interview, Earl Warren Oral History Project, Bancroft Library, University of California.
66. Memoirs of Earl Warren 269.
67. Ibid. 270–71. Also see Bernard Schwartz, Super Chief: Earl Warren and His Supreme Court 5–7 (New York: New York University Press, 1983); Jack Harrison Pollack, Earl Warren: The Judge Who Changed America 152–57 (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1979).
68. The New York Times, October 1, 1953.
69. Quoted in Pollack, Earl Warren 160–61.
70. Edgar Eisenhower to DDE, September 28, 1953, 14 The Presidency 552n1; Milton Eisenhower to DDE, undated, ibid. 578n1.
71. DDE to Edgar Eisenhower, October 1, 1953, ibid. 551–52.
72. DDE to Milton Eisenhower, October 9, 1953, ibid. 576–78. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.)
73. DDE diary, October 8, 1953, ibid. 564–70.
74. The New York Times, February 26, 1954.
75. In addition to Warren, Harlan, and Brennan, Eisenhower also appointed Charles E. Whittaker and Potter Stewart to the Supreme Court. Observers of the Eisenhower era have often expressed surprise that Ike appointed William Brennan to the court. According to Herbert Brownell, following the resignation of Sherman Minton in October 1956, Eisenhower told Brownell that he wanted to appoint a Democrat, and preferably an Irish Catholic. Eisenhower had apparently been impressed by John F. Kennedy’s campaign for the Democratic vice presidential nomination in 1956, and told Brownell he thought the court needed an Irish Catholic. Brennan, a well-known judge on the New Jersey Supreme Court, was the obvious choice. Brennan was the first state supreme court justice appointed to the court since Hoover appointed Benjamin Cardozo in 1932. Herbert Brownell and John P. Burke, Advising Ike: The Memoirs of Attorney General Herbert Bownell 179–80 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993); Professor Henry F. Graff, interview by Jean Edward Smith, September 6, 2010.
The epigraph is a comment by DDE to Robert Cutler, his national security assistant, May 1, 1954. The source is an interview of DDE by Stephen Ambrose cited in Ambrose’s 2 Eisenhower 184, 688. The quotation has often been reprinted, but as Richard Rayner has pointed out, Ambrose’s citations to interviews with DDE must be approached skeptically. To my mind, this one rings true. See Richard Rayner, “Channeling Ike,” The New Yorker 21–22, April 26, 2010.
1. Halberstam, Fifties 398–99; Parmet, Eisenhower and the American Crusades 353–55; Chester L. Cooper, The Lost Crusade: America in Vietnam 62–72 (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1970).
2. Time, September 28, 1953.
3. Deputy War Minister Pierre de Chevigné, quoted in Halberstam, Fifties 403.
4. DDE, Mandate for Change 339, 351.
5. Ibid. 351.
6. DDE to Flanders, July 7, 1953, 14 The Presidency 371–73.
7. Bernard Fall, Hell in a Very Small Place: The Siege of Dien Bien Phu (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1967). (Fall was on the faculty at Howard University in Washington, D.C.)
8. Quoted in Halberstam, Fifties 404.
9. Minutes, Legislative Leaders Meeting, February 8, 1954, EL.
10. Ibid.
11. Ambrose, 2 Eisenhower 177.
12. John Prados, The Sky Would Fall: Operation Vulture, the U.S. Bombing Mission in Indochina, 1954 92 (New York: Dial Press, 1983).
13. DDE to WSC, April 4, 1954, The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower, vol. 15, The Presidency 1002–4. Cited subsequently as 15 The Presidency. “I have known many reverses,” Churchill told Admiral Radford. “I have not given in. I have suffered Singapore, Hong-Kong, Tobruk; the French will have Dien Bien Phu.” From Pearl Harbor to Vietnam: The Memoirs of Admiral Arthur W. Radford 408–9, Stephen Jurika, Jr., ed. (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1980).
14. Press Conference, April 7, 1954, Public Papers, 1954 381–83.
15. DDE, Mandate for Change 345.
16. Matthew Ridgway, Soldier: The Memoirs of Matthew B. Ridgway as Told to Harold H. Martin 275–78 (New York: Harper, 1956).
17. General Ridgway, interview by David Halberstam, quoted in Halberstam, Fifties 407. In a memorandum to Defense Secretary Wilson, April 22, 1954, Ridgway said intervention in Vietnam was “a dangerous strategic diversion of limited United States military capabilities in a non-decisive theater to the attainment of non-decisive objectives.” Memo, Ridgway to JCS, April 6, 1954. Quoted in George C. Herring and Richard H. Immerman, “Eisenhower, Dulles and Dien Bien Phu: ‘The Day We Didn’t Go to War’ Revisited,” 71 Journal of American History 354–55 (September 1984).
18. DDE to Gruenther, April 26, 1954, 14 The Presidency 1033–35. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.)
19. Remarks to the 42nd Annual Meeting of the United States Chamber of Commerce, April 26, 1954, Public Papers, 1954 421–24.
20. Press Conference, April 29, 1954, Public Papers, 1954 427–28.
21. Memorandum of Discussion at the 194th Meeting of the National Security Council, April 29, 1954, United States Department of State, 13 Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952–1954: Indochina 1431–45 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982).
22. Ambrose, 1 Eisenhower 184.
23. Halberstam, Fifties 408.
24. Eisenhower’s draft was retained by White House staffer William Bragg Ewald, Jr., and published for the first time in Ewald’s Eisenhower the President: Crucial Days, 1951–1960 118–20 (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1981).
25. Melanie Billings-Yun, Decision Against War: Eisenhower and Dien Bien Phu, 1954 160 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988).
26. Stephen Kinzer, All the Shah’s Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror preface (Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley and Sons, 2003).
27. Ibid. 94.
28. Ibid. 89.
29. The Wall Street Journal, June 9, 1951.
30. Franks to F[oreign] O[ffice] 371/91534, quoted in Mostafa Elm, Oil, Power, and Principle: Iran’s Oil Nationalization and Its Aftermath 158 (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1992). In his Memoirs, Clement Attlee wrote that choosing Morrison to replace Bevin was “the worst appointment I ever made.” Clement R. Attlee, As It Happened 246–47 (New York: Viking, 1954); Kenneth Harris, Attlee 472 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1983).
31. James Chace, Acheson: The Secretary of State Who Created the American World 353 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1998).
32. HST to Attlee, United States Department of State, 10 Foreign Relations of the United States 1952–1954: Iran 59–63 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1989). Cited subsequently as 10 FRUS: Iran 1952–1954.
33. Time, January 7, 1952.
34. HST to Henry Grady, Henry Grady Papers, Truman Presidential Library, Independence, Mo.
35. C. M. Woodhouse, Something Ventured 117 (London: Granada, 1982). Woodhouse, later a Tory MP, was elevated to the peerage as Lord Terrington and became editor in chief of Penguin Books.
36. “Memorandum by the Secretary of State of a Meeting at the White House Between the President and General Eisenhower,” November 18, 1952, United States Department of State, 1 Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952–1954: General: Economic and Political Matters 25–26 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983). Also see Donovan, Eisenhower 15–16.
37. DDE diary, January 6, 1953, 13 NATO 1481–83.
38. DDE to Hazlett, June 21, 1951, DDE, Ike’s Letters to a Friend 84–88.
39. Kermit Roosevelt, Countercoup: The Struggle for the Control of Iran 115–16 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979).
40. Memorandum, Office of National Estimates, Central Intelligence Agency, for the President, March 1, 1953, 10 FRUS: Iran, 1952–1954 689–91.
41. Memorandum of Discussion, 135th Meeting of the National Security Council, March 4, 1953, ibid. 692–701.
42. Foreign Office 371/104614, Ministerial Visit to the U.S.: Record of meeting with President Eisenhower, March 6, 1953, EL. Also see Full Circle: The Memoirs of Anthony Eden 236 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1960).
43. Eden to WSC, March 6, 1953, Eden, Full Circle 235.
44. Memorandum of Discussion, 136th Meeting of the National Security Council, March 11, 1953, 10 FRUS: Iran, 1952–1954 711–14.
45. Kinzer, All the Shah’s Men 160.
46. Ambrose, 2 Eisenhower 111–12.
47. Mossadegh’s letter of May 28, 1951, is reprinted in DDE, Mandate for Change 161–62.
48. Kinzer, All the Shah’s Men 161; John Prados, Presidents’ Secret Wars: CIA and Pentagon Secret Operations Since World War II 95 (New York: William Morrow, 1986); Elm, Oil, Power, and Principle 297.
49. Kermit Roosevelt, Countercoup 18; Elm, Oil, Power, and Principle 299.
50. DDE, Mandate for Change 162.
51. Memorandum of Telephone Conversation, by the Secretary of State, July 24, 1953, 10:55 a.m., 10 FRUS: Iran, 1952–1954 737. (Emphasis added.)
52. Department of State Bulletin 178, August 10, 1953.
53. DDE, Mandate for Change 163.
54. Kermit Roosevelt, Countercoup 147–49. Also see Elm, Oil, Power, and Principle 301–2.
55. Donald N. Wilber, Adventures in the Middle East: Excursion and Incursions 188–89 (Pennington, N.J.: Darwin, 1986).
56. DDE, Mandate for Change 162–65.
57. Ambrose, 2 Eisenhower 129.
58. The American companies were Standard Oil of New Jersey, Standard Oil of California, Socony-Vacuum, Texaco, and Gulf. Later, to comply with U.S. antitrust requirements, independent oil producers were given 5 percent, which reduced the share of each of the majors to 7 percent. Shell held 14 percent, and Compagnie Française 6 percent.
59. Kinzer, All the Shah’s Men 195–96.
60. The New York Times, March 18, 2000.
61. Ambrose, Eisenhower: Soldier and President 333.
62. Blanche Wiesen Cook, The Declassified Eisenhower: A Divided Legacy of Peace and Political Warfare 220–21 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1981); Halberstam, Fifties 377–79.
63. Cook, Declassified Eisenhower 224.
64. Quoted in Lyon, Eisenhower 590. The government’s confiscation left United Fruit with 162,000 acres, only 50,000 of which were under cultivation. Ambrose and Immerman, Ike’s Spies 221.
65. Halberstam, Fifties 375. When Smith left the State Department in 1955, he joined the board of the United Fruit Company.
66. E. Howard Hunt, Undercover: Memoirs of an American Secret Agent 96–97 (New York: Berkley Publishing, 1974).
67. Milton Eisenhower, “Report to the President,” quoted in Richard H. Immerman, The CIA in Guatemala: The Foreign Policy of Intervention 18 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1982).
68. Kermit Roosevelt, Countercoup 209–10; Kermit Roosevelt, interview by David Halberstam, cited in Halberstam, Fifties 371.
69. Halberstam, Fifties 376.
70. Eleanor Dulles, interview by Richard Immerman, October 9, 1979, cited in Immerman, CIA in Guatemala 134. Also see Halberstam, Fifties 381.
71. E. Howard Hunt, interview by Stephen Ambrose, cited in Ambrose and Immerman, Ike’s Spies 226.
72. Quoted in David Wise and Thomas B. Ross, The Invisible Government 176 (New York: Random House, 1964). Also see Newsweek, March 4, 1963.
73. The New York Times, June 19, 1954.
74. The New York Times’s correspondent Sydney Gruson and his wife, Flora Lewis, were expelled from Guatemala prior to the coup to prevent them from reporting on it. For Gruson’s account, see Halberstam, Fifties 381–83.
75. Ambrose, 2 Eisenhower 195.
76. DDE, Mandate for Change 425–26.
77. Halberstam, Fifties 385.
78. Ibid. 371.
79. Allen to DDE, June 24, 1954, EL.
The epigraph is part of Eisenhower’s response to a question about defense policy at his news conference, March 17, 1954. Public Papers, 1954 330.
1. West and Kotz, Upstairs at the White House 140–41.
2. Ibid. 132.
3. Ibid. 146.
4. Ibid. 160.
5. Ibid. 141.
6. DDE, Mandate for Change 264–65.
7. DDE, Ike’s Letters to a Friend 111.
8. After World War I, mailboxes and postal trucks were painted green as an economy measure, utilizing the War Department’s surplus olive drab paint. It was scarcely a money-saving gesture to repaint them red, white, and blue. Historian, United States Postal Service.
9. West and Kotz, Upstairs at the White House 160.
10. The cottage at the Augusta National, one of seven, is known as “Mamie’s Cabin,” and is a spacious three-story white frame structure with green shutters that looks remarkably like FDR’s cottage at Warm Springs. It cost $150,000 ($1.222 million currently) and was paid for by the Gang. Perret, Eisenhower 555; Van Natta, First Off the Tee 75.
11. David and David, Ike and Mamie 216.
12. Stanley R. Wolf and Audrey (Wolf) Weiland, Ike: Gettysburg’s Gentleman Farmer 28–29 (Privately published, 2008).
13. For Arthur Nevins’s account, see Nevins, Gettysburg’s Five-Star Farmer (New York: Carlton Press, 1977). General Nevins is the brother of Columbia history professor Allan Nevins.
14. DDE, At Ease 360; Holt, Mamie Dowd Eisenhower 64. Holt cites the Elizabeth [Dorothy] Draper Papers for cost figures.
Eisenhower gave his aide Colonel Schulz precise instructions as to how his study should be arranged. One entire wall, said Ike, should be fitted with bookshelves.
The top shelf should be approximately six feet from the floor. I think the shelves should be 12 inches high and about 12 inches deep. Books should be divided as follows:
a. Encyclopedia and reference works
b. Professional military books of all kinds
c. Histories
d. Biographies
e. Art, including technical books on the art of painting.
f. Classics in literature
g. Fiction
1. Historical novels
2. General popular fiction
3. Anything that I keep that could be classed as Westerns
h. Miscellaneous
Eisenhower to Colonel Robert L. Schulz, May 13, 1955, The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower, vol. 16, The Presidency 1710–11. Cited subsequently as 16 The Presidency.
15. Perret, Eisenhower 602.
16. Wolf and Weiland, Ike 66–80.
17. DDE, State of the Union Address, February 2, 1953, Public Papers, 1953 17.
18. Radio-Television Address on National Security and Its Costs, May 19, 1953, Public Papers, 1953 306–16.
19. Press Conference, March 16, 1954, Public Papers, 1954 56–57.
20. Bradley to Secretary of Defense Wilson, March 19, 1953, quoted in Robert R. Bowie and Richard H. Immerman, Waging Peace: How Eisenhower Shaped an Enduring Cold War Strategy 102 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998).
21. DDE to Hazlett, November 14, 1951, DDE, Ike’s Letters to a Friend 93.
22. DDE to Hazlett, August 20, 1956, ibid. 167–69.
23. DDE to Joseph Dodge, December 1, 1953, 15 The Presidency 710–12.
24. DDE, Mandate for Change 452.
25. Stephen Jurika, Jr., ed. From Pearl Harbor to Vietnam: The Memoirs of Admiral Arthur W. Radford 326 (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press). Also see The New York Times, December 15, 1953.
26. John Foster Dulles, “Evolution of Foreign Policy,” speech to the Council of Foreign Relations, January 12, 1954, Department of State Press Release 8, 1954. For Eisenhower’s role in writing the speech, see Bowie and Immerman, Waging Peace 199.
27. Press Conference, January 13, 1954, Public Papers, 1954 58.
28. Quoted in Robert Gilpin, American Scientists and Nuclear Weapons Policy 123, 130 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1962).
29. Perret, Eisenhower 460. Also see The New York Times, November 11, 1953.
30. The Diary of James C. Hagerty: Eisenhower in Mid-Course, 1954–1955 181–84, Robert H. Ferrell, ed. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1983). Cited subsequently as Hagerty Diary.
31. Memorandum of Conference with the President, February 24, 1955, EL.
32. Memorandum of Conference with the President, March 30, May 24, 1956, EL.
33. In 1960, Maxwell Taylor published The Uncertain Trumpet, which was highly critical of Eisenhower’s defense policy. The book was cited frequently by Democratic candidates during the campaign. Maxwell D. Taylor, The Uncertain Trumpet (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1960).
34. Henry Kissinger, Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1957). The book grew out of a study under the auspices of the Council on Foreign Relations, for which Kissinger was the director. His 1961 book, The Necessity for Choice: Prospects of American Foreign Policy (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1961), makes the same argument more concisely.
35. Quoted in Colin L. Powell and Joseph E. Persico, My American Journey 576 (New York: Random House, 1995). Secretary Albright expressed the view during a National Security Council discussion of U.S. policy in Bosnia. “I thought I would have an aneurysm,” said Powell.
36. DDE, Mandate for Change 491–92.
37. Special Message to the Congress on Education, January 27, 1958, Public Papers, 1958 127–32.
38. In the Senate, Richard Neuberger picked up the seat in Oregon held by Republican Guy Cordon.
39. Caro, Master of the Senate.
40. Adams, Firsthand Report 86.
41. Caro, Master of the Senate 521.
42. D. B. Hardeman and Donald C. Bacon, Rayburn: A Biography 377 (Austin: Texas Monthly Press, 1987). Also see Donovan, Eisenhower 312.
43. Hardeman and Bacon, Rayburn 378.
44. The Dallas Morning News, January 3, 1953.
45. Quoted in Richard Rovere, The Eisenhower Years: Affairs of State 203–4 (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Cudahy, 1956).
46. Ann Whitman diary, July 1, 1960, EL.
47. DDE, Mandate for Change 493.
48. Quoted in Donovan, Eisenhower 312. Cf. Ewald, Eisenhower the President 28–29.
49. Ewald, Eisenhower the President 189; Milton Eisenhower, The President Is Calling 338.
50. Public Papers, 1954 479.
51. Hagerty Diary 14 (February 5, 1954).
52. DDE, At Ease 166–67.
53. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 618–19.
54. Hagerty Diary 193–95 (February 16, 1955).
55. Special Message to Congress Regarding a National Highway Program, February 22, 1955, Public Papers, 1955 275–80.
56. DDE, speech in Wheeling, W.Va., September 24, 1952, quoted in Steven Wagner, Eisenhower Republicanism: Pursuing the Middle Way 5 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2006).
57. Blanche Wiesen Cook private papers.
58. DDE, Mandate for Change 459–62.
59. Ibid. 464.
60. DDE to Gruenther, July 2, 1954, 16 The Presidency 422–23.
61. DDE, Mandate for Change 465.
62. Special Message to the Congress Regarding United States Policy for the Defense of Formosa, Public Papers, 1955 207–11.
63. The operative portion of the Formosa Resolution (84th Cong., 1st sess., H.J. Res. 159) reads as follows:
Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That:
The President of the United States be and he hereby is authorized to employ the Armed Forces of the United States as he deems necessary for the specific purpose of securing and protecting Formosa and the Pescadores against armed attack, this authority to include the securing and protection of such related positions and territories of that area now in friendly hands and the taking of such other measures as he judges to be required or appropriate in assuring the defense of Formosa and the Pescadores.
This resolution shall expire when the President shall determine that the peace and security of the area is reasonably assured by international conditions created by action of the United Nations or otherwise, and shall so report to the Congress.
64. Hagerty Diary 197.
65. DDE, Mandate for Change 477–78.
66. Press Conference, March 23, 1955, Public Papers, 1955 358.
67. DDE, Mandate for Change 478–79. Also see 15 Facts on File 98.
68. DDE diary, March 26, 1955, Eisenhower Diaries 296.
69. DDE, Mandate for Change 480.
70. 15 Facts on File 137.
71. Press Conference, April 27, 1955, Public Papers, 1955 425–26.
72. Ambrose, Eisenhower: Soldier and President 384.
73. DDE, Mandate for Change 483.
74. Robert Divine, Eisenhower and the Cold War 65–66 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981).
The epigraph is from Eisenhower’s statement to the staff at Fitzsimmons Army Hospital in Denver upon his release, November 11, 1955. Public Papers, 1955 840–41.
1. Quoted in Rovere, Eisenhower Years 276.
2. Harold Macmillan, Tides of Fortune, 1945–1955 586–87 (New York: Harper and Row, 1969).
3. DDE, Mandate for Change 506.
4. Quoted in Lyon, Eisenhower 650.
5. Quoted in Parmet, Eisenhower and the American Crusades 404.
6. Ibid.
7. Adams, Firsthand Report 176.
8. DDE to Hazlett, June 4, 1955, Ike’s Letters to a Friend 146.
9. Radio and Television Address to the American People Prior to Departure for the Big Four Conference at Geneva, July 15, 1955, Public Papers, 1955 701–5.
10. Richard H. Rovere, The Eisenhower Years: Affairs of State 276–77 (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Ludahy, 1956).
11. Ibid. 291.
12. Eden, Full Circle 345.
13. Quoted in Rovere, Affairs of State 283.
14. DDE, Mandate for Change 525. Eisenhower’s memoirs differ significantly from the obvious pleasure he exuded at his press conference on July 27, 1955, pertaining to his lunch with Zhukov. Public Papers, 1955 742.
15. Charles Bohlen notes, luncheon meeting of Eisenhower and Zhukov, July 20, 1955, EL.
16. Statement on Disarmament Presented at the Geneva Conference, July 21, 1955, Public Papers, 1955 713–16. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.)
17. DDE, Mandate for Change 521.
18. Donovan, Eisenhower 350; Townsend Hoopes, The Devil and John Foster Dulles 297 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1973); The New Yorker, July 27, 1955.
19. Closing Statement at the Final Meeting of the Heads of Government Conference, July 23, 1955, Public Papers, 1955 721–23.
20. DDE to Milton Eisenhower, July 25, 1955, 16 The Presidency 1792–93. One of the most perceptive treatments of the impact of the Reagan-Gorbachev meeting in Geneva is presented by Beth Fischer in The Reagan Reversal: Foreign Policy at the End of the Cold War 46–50 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1997).
21. Gallup poll, August 6, 1955.
22. The New York Times, August 29, 1955. Also see James Reston, Sketches in the Sand 420 (New York: Knopf, 1967).
23. DDE to Nikolai Aleksandrovich Bulganin, July 27, 1955, 16 The Presidency 1794–95.
24. Macmillan, Tides of Fortune.
25. The New York Times, March 20, 1956.
26. Rovere, Affairs of State 309.
27. DDE, Eisenhower Diaries 288.
28. Ibid. 288–91.
29. DDE to Milton Eisenhower, December 11, 1953, 15 The Presidency 759–60.
30. DDE to Hazlett, December 8, 1954, ibid. 1434–38.
31. Remarks to the Bull Elephants Club, August 2, 1955, Public Papers, 1955 748–53. The request of the Bull Elephants is on page 753.
32. Press Conference, August 4, 1955, ibid. 760.
33. Ann Whitman diary, September 23, 1955, EL.
34. DDE to LBJ, September 23, 1955, Johnson Library, Austin, Tex.
35. Quoted in Clarence G. Lasby, Eisenhower’s Heart Attack: How Ike Beat Heart Disease and Held On to the Presidency 71 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1997).
36. DDE, Mandate for Change 536.
37. The comment is that of General Leonard Heaton, Oral History, EL.
38. DDE diary, November 20, 1954, Eisenhower Diaries 288.
39. DDE to the Adjutant General, June 8, 1955, EL.
40. A verbatim transcript of the September 24 news conference is reprinted in U.S. News and World Report 66, October 7, 1955.
41. The New York Times, September 25, 1955. Also see U.S. News and World Report, October 7, 1955.
42. James Rowley to Chief U.S. Secret Service, September 26, 1955, EL.
43. Paul Dudley White, My Life and Medicine: An Autobiographical Memoir 175–94 (Boston: Gambit, 1971).
44. Quoted in Donovan, Eisenhower 373.
45. Remarks on Leaving Denver, November 11, 1955, Public Papers, 1955 840–41.
46. Remarks Upon Arrival at the Washington National Airport, November 11, 1955, ibid. 481.
47. Hagerty Diary 240–46. Eisenhower, who had developed something of a father-son relationship with Hagerty, admired his press secretary’s political acumen and discussed presidential possibilities freely with him. These discussions are reported at length in Hagerty’s diary entries of December 10, 11, 12, and 14, 1955, and are the basis for the paragraphs above.
48. Leonard Hall, interview by Jean Edward Smith, Garden City, N.Y., April 4, 1971.
49. Lucius D. Clay, interview, COHP.
50. The New York Times, February 15, 1956. Also see Donovan, Eisenhower 402–3; Lasby, Eisenhower’s Heart Attack 188–89.
51. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 626–27.
52. Press Conference, February 29, 1956, Public Papers, 1956 263–73.
53. Ibid. 266.
54. Richard M. Nixon, Six Crises 160–61 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1962). “I could not be certain whether the President really preferred me off the ticket,” Nixon wrote, “or sincerely believed a Cabinet post would better further my career. It probably was a little of both.”
55. Ambrose, Eisenhower: Soldier and President 402.
56. Ann Whitman diary, March 13, 1956, EL.
57. Quoted in Hughes, Ordeal of Power 173. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.)
58. Press Conference, April 25, 1956, Public Papers, 1956 431–32.
59. Nixon, RN 172.
60. Ibid. 172–73.