CHAPTER 11
ETHNOBOTANY OF PLANT CONTRACEPTIVES
CONTENTS
11.2 Mechanism of Action of Antifertility Plants (Yadav et al., 2014)
11.3 Plants Used as Contraceptives
ABSTRACT
Study of ethnobotany assumes great importance in enhancing our knowledge about the plants grown and used by the native/ethnic and the tribal communities, the diversity produced and assembled by them through generations of informal training for their own sustenance and different traditional technologies, means and methods adopted by them for conservation of that plant diversity. Herbs used by various Tribal communities in India are rich source of providing herbal contraceptives. These herbs are being evaluated scientifically also to develop safe contraceptives. Herbs having antifertility effect have been compiled in this review.
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Over growing population is one of the major threats in the developing countries, facing new challenges, with its inevitable consequences on all aspects of development (Ciganda and Laborde, 2003). Therefore, there is an urgent need to control population explosion, and to ensure better health for one and all. Efforts have been taken to tackle this serious problem by developing antifertility agents called contraceptive; those chemical substances that inhibit either the sperm production or sperm motility in males or prevent the formation of ovum and produce some changes in the endometrium, making it unsusceptible to a fertile ovum in females (Kaunitz and Benrubi, 1998).
Plants having such properties may have a role in rapid discharge of the fertilized ova from the fallopian tube, inhibition of implantation due to a interruption in estrogenprogesterone balance, fetal abortion due to lack of supply of nutrients to the uterus and the embryo, and also on the male by affecting sperm count, motility, and viability. In recent years, many workers have reported a lot of traditional plants used for antifertility purpose (Kumar and Mishra, 2011; Mitra and Mukherjee, 2009; Yadav et al., 2006). With the passage of time, tribal communities have developed a great deal of knowledge on the use of plants and plant products in curing various diseases, ailments (Maheshwari et al., 1986; Das et al., 2014).
Synthetic hormonal contraceptives cannot be used continuously because of their health related effects, like increase in blood transaminase and cholesterol levels, dyspepsia, headache, depression, tiredness, weight gain, hyper menorrhea and intermenorrheal hemorrhage and also disturb the metabolism of lipid, protein, carbohydrate, enzymes and vitamins (Noumi and Tchakonang, 2001). Therefore, scientists are on the hunt for newer alternatives, with lesser side effects, self-administrable, less expensive and with complete reversibility. Much of these properties are observed in drugs of natural plant origin. Many plants are reported to have fertility regulatory activity.
11.2 MECHANISM OF ACTION OF ANTIFERTILITY PLANTS (YADAV ET AL., 2014)
Plant drugs have been used since time immemorial for their effects upon sex hormones particularly for suppressing fertility, regularizing menstrual cycle, relieving dysmenorrhea, treating enlarged prostate, menopausal symptoms, breast pain and during and after childhood. Specific biological effects under the division of fertility regulating category are nonspecific contraceptive or antifertility effects, abortifacient, uterine stimulant and uterine relaxants, labor induction and labor inhibition, oxytocic and anti-oxytocic, estrogenic and antiestrogenic, progestrogenic and antiprogesterogenic, ovulatory and anti-ovulatory, androgenic and anti-androgenic, spermicidal and anti-spermatogenic effects (Gediya et al., 2011; Goonasekera and Gunawardana, 1995). The site of action of antifertility agents in females consists ofthe hypothalamus, the anterior pituitary, the ovary, the oviduct, the uterus and the vagina. The Hypothalamus controls the action of the uterus via follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing hormone (LH) releasing hormones. Antifertility agents may therefore exert their effort at this level either by disrupting hormonal function of the hypothalamus and/ or the pituitary, or by interrupting the neural pathway to the hypothalamus that control the liberation of gonadotrophin releasing hormones. Early researchers in the area of female fertility regulation focused their attention to phytestrogens following the recognition that excess ingestion of plants containing estrogenic compounds resulted in infertility in animals and humans (Pradhan et al., 2012; Gupta and Sharma, 2006; Ittiavirah and Habeeb, 2013).
11.3 PLANTS USED AS CONTRACEPTIVES
Abrus precatorius L. Family: Fabaceae (Figure 11.1)
About teaspoon paste in tablet form twice a day in empty stomach for 3 days just after completion of menstrual period (Das et al., 2014).
About 5 g seeds boiled in 50 ml cow’s milk, seed coat removed, powdered it and mix equal amount of turmeric and jaggery, make into small pills, 1 pill taken daily for 5 days starting on the fourth day of menstruation (Shrivastava et al., 2007).
One gram of seed powdered, mixed with milk and boiled for 30 minutes. 200 ml of this taken twice daily during menstrual cycle acts as contraceptive (Kumar and Mishra, 2011).
Powder taken orally with water during menstruation (Zingare, 2012).
The seeds kept in cow milk for a period of overnight and such milk soaked seed is given to woman in the morning at the end of menstruation cycle for preventing pregnancy (Prasad et al., 2014).
Acacia leucophloea Willd. Family: Leguminosae
Leaves and bark are used as contraceptive (Meena and Rao, 2010).
Acacia nilotica L Delile. Family: Mimosaceae
Powder of Babul flower given with hot milk on empty stomach for 5-7 days, is sufficient to prevent fertility (Ekka, 2012).
Achyranthes aspera L. Family: Amaranthaceae (Figure 11.2)
The roots are boiled and decoction is given (One tea cup thrice a day) after menstruation to induce sterility in women (Shah et al., 2009).
In Tripura 1 teaspoon paste of whole plant as tablet is given twice a day for 7 days on empty stomach (Das et al., 2014).
Roots of Achyranthes aspera and Piper betle, Vitex negundo in equal proportion, two teaspoons of dry ginger and 10 nos. of Golmarich (Piper nigrum) are taken and ground with water. The mixture was prepared in the form of pills. One pill is to be taken in empty stomach for three consecutive days after the last date of menstruation. It is very effective medicine for the tribal women to prevent pregnancy (Basak et al., 2016).
Roots of Apang (Achyranthes aspera L.), Krishna tulsi (Ocimum americanum), Iswari (Aristolochia indica), Singara (Bauhinia purpurea) and Saora tree (Streblus asper Lour.) are mixed and powdered. Two teaspoons of the powder with one teaspoonful of Rasamanik and Rasasindur are taken together for three days. It prevents pregnancy completely (Basak et al., 2016).
Roots of Chirchiti (Achyranthes aspera), Pan (Piper betle) and Sarpagandha (Rauvolfia serpentina), Banda of Begna (Vitex negundo), seeds of Methi (Trigonella foenum-graecum), Golmarich (Piper nigrum) are grinded together with water. The mixture was dried in the form of pills. One pill is to be taken in empty stomach for five consecutive days after the last date of menstruation. It is very effective medicine for the tribal women to prevent pregnancy (Basak et al., 2016).
Plant Decoction of the whole plant is taken internally (Sathiyaraj et al., 2012).
Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa Family: Rutaceae
The boiled leaves are eaten for contraceptive purpose (Sathiyaraj et al., 2012).
Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. Family: Leguminosae
The aqueous extract of bark is used (2 teaspoons daily for one week before menses) against conception in women (Shah et al., 2009).
Allium cepa L. Family: Alliaceae (Figure 11.3)
Bulb paste is prepared in combination with Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arn. fruit bark and Allium sativum L. bulb in tablet form. 2 tablets twice a day for 5 days (Das et al., 2014).
Allium sativum L. Family: Alliaceae
Bulb is used same as Allium cepa L. (Das et al., 2014).
Aloe barbadensis Mill. Family: Liliaceae (Figure 11.4)
Dried juice, fresh Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. flower, latex of Ferula asafoetida L. and dried powder of Zingiber officinale Roscoe rhizome are mixed in equal ratio (5 grams each) along with V teaspoon honey. 1 teaspoon of this mixture twice a day in empty stomach for 8 days (Das et al., 2014).
About 6-12 grams powder of leaves of Patha if taken during 4 days of menstrual cycle, is sufficient to prevent fertility for long time (Ekka, 2012).
Amaranthus spinosus L. (Figure 11.5) and Amaranthus viridis L. Family: Amaranthaceae
Fresh root (10 gram) is eaten by women before two days copulation. It works as an antifertility agent (Shah et al., 2009).
In Bastar, Madhya Pradesh, about 10-15 grams of the roots are powdered and mixed with 15-20 ml of rice water and kept overnight. This decoction water is regularly administered orally from third consecutive day after menstrual period, empty stomach early in the morning by women. It has been observed that root powder extract posses anti-ovulatory properties and inhibits enzymatic activity which avoids pregnancy (Rai and Nath, 2005).
Homogeneous crushed roots in rice water taken after menstruation cycle twice a day (Shrivastava et al., 2007).
It inhibits fusion of sperm and ovum (Kamboj and Dhawan, 1982).
Leaves are used orally (Zingare, 2012).
Homogeneously crushed Chaulai root in rice wash water if taken after menstrual cycle, women will not conceive (Ekka, 2012).
Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees. Family: Acanthaceae
Leaves are used for contraceptive purpose (Sathiyaraj et al., 2012).
Anona squamosa L. Family: Annonaceae
2 to 5 unripe fruit taken raw with warm water act as contraceptive (Kumar and Mishra, 2011).
Seeds are taken orally with milk (Zingare, 2012).
Argemone mexicana L. Family: Papaveraceae
Satyanashi leaf (2 leaves) paste is taken with a glass of milk during menstruation cycle for 5 days is enough to prevent conception (Ekka, 2012).
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam. Family: Aristolochiaceae
Leaf extract is given for antifertility effects (Sathiyaraj et al., 2012).
Asparagus racemosus Willd. Family: Asparagaceae
Root paste of Satamuli (Asparagus racemosus) and Sarpagandha (Rauvolfia serpentina), fresh latex of Akanda (Calotropis procera), Rice water and soil of red water pond are macerated and taken orally during morning hours on every Saturday. It causes inhibition of fertilization and prevents pregnancy (Basak et al., 2016).
Satamuli plant (Asparagus racemosus), Ramdatan (root) (Smilax zeylanica), Ananta (root) (Hemidesmus indicus), Nilkanta (root) (Polygala chinensis) are ground with Golmorich (Piper nigrum) and form pills. Two pills are to be taken every day in empty stomach immediate after menstruation for fifteen days. It prevents pregnancy for six months without any side effects (Basak et al., 2016).
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Family: Meliaceae
1 teaspoon of kernel oil, known as Neem oil, is taken after menses before copulation makes the women sterile. Sometimes oil is also inserted into vagina before copulation (Shah et al., 2009).
Seed powdered and given 3 grams daily (Shrivastava et al., 2007).
Seeds are crushed and the oil is expelled from local ghani available in tribal villages. The extracted oil is applied for 10-12 days in genital parts of men and womb (uterus) of tribal women 1-2 hours before sexual inter-course. This treatment is given to women right from 3rd day onwards of menses till the date or period pregnancy is to be avoided. The oil extracted from Azadirachta indica contains azadirachtin which possesses enzymatic activity for preventing conception. It has been observed that the oil acts as herbal contraceptives and avoids pregnancy (Rai and Nath, 2005).
Oil is applied locally (Zingare, 2012).
Leaf is used as a contraceptive (Sathiyaraj et al., 2012).
Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile Family: Balanitaceae (Figure 11.6)
Fruit powder is used orally (Zingare, 2012).
Tablets are prepared from roots mixed with Hing (Ferula asafoetida), by adding Piper betle leaf juice are taken once with water for 9 days, soon after the menstruation, to avoid unwanted pregnancy (Vijigiri and Sharma, 2010).
Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. Family: Poaceae
Leaves extract is taken orally to reduce the sperm count (Sathiyaraj et al., 2012).
Berberis aristata DC. Family: Berberidaceae
Rasaut, Harra (Terminalia chebula Linn.), Amla (Emblica officinalis L.) (3 grams powder each), equal quantity of each if taken by women during menstrual cycle period, women will not conceive pregnancy (Ekka, 2012).
Bombax ceiba L. Family: Bombacaceae
Flower is boiled with black pepper (Piper nigrum). The mixture is orally taken to prevent pregnancy (Kumar and Mishra, 2011).
Borassus flabelifer L. Family: Palmae
Root is used as contraceptive and to induce sterility (Meena and Rao, 2010).
Bridelia retusa (L.) Spreng. Family: Euphorbiaceae
Bark is given orally to women to induce sterility and hence act as contraceptive (Meena and Rao, 2010).
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. Family: Fabaceae
Inflorescence is dried and taken (3 grams daily for 15 days) possess contraceptive properties (Shah et al., 2009).
In Jharkhand, petals are boiled in cow milk for one hour. The mixture taken thrice-daily acts as contraceptive (Kumar and Mishra, 2011).
In Madhya Pradesh about 10-15 roasted seeds are powdered and taken every day on empty stomach (Shrivastava et al., 2007). The gum is taken orally with water for a week (Zingare, 2012).
About 5-6 grams of gum collected from bark of trees is mixed with cow- milk. This mixed milk is regularly administered orally to women, early in the morning empty stomach right from the first day after menses for consecutive three days. It is said that by drinking such milk some enzymatic activity takes place in women which prevents or inhibits conception. It has been observed that milk mixed with gum purifies blood and destroys pathogen, avoids pregnancy and acts as herbal contraceptives (Rai and Nath, 2005).
The fresh seeds (about 15 to 20) are to be taken every day on empty stomach by both males and females (Sinha and Nathawat, 1989). Seeds are also used as contraceptives (Dwivedi and Kaul, 2008).
Gum is used as the male herbal contraceptives by the tribals of Gujarat and Rajasthan (Billore and Audichiya, 1978).
Roasted Palas seed powder taken during 4 days of menstrual cycle, lead to permanent sterilization (Ekka, 2012).
Calotropis gigantea (L.) Dryand Family: Asclepiadaceae
Decoction of roots is taken internally (Sathiyaraj et al., 2012).
Carica papaya L. Family: Caricaceae
About 30 seeds powdered and to be taken with water regularly after the menses till the commencement of next menses (Shrivastava et al., 2007).
Prevents fusion of sperm with ovum by reducing the activity of sperms (Kamal et al., 2003).
Fresh or dried seeds paste is prepared. 2 teaspoons paste decoction taken every day after menstrual period till commencement of next menstrual period (Das et al., 2014).
Peel the bark of male plant root and sizeable fruit Xylopia aethiopica, little oil of Elais guineensis and cook with cat fish, then eat. To restore fertility, carry out the above but with female plant (Kumar and Mishra, 2011).
About 50 seeds are to be eaten with water by both male and female regularly. It is to be taken early morning, empty stomach (Sinha and Nathawat, 1989). Seed powder is also used as contraceptive (Dwivedi and Kaul, 2008).
About 50 seeds are to be eaten with water by both male and female regularly. It is to be taken early morning, empty stomach (Sinha and Nathawat, 1989).
Leaf juice is used for contraceptive purpose (Sathiyaraj et al., 2012).
Cassia alata L. Family: Caesalpiniaceae
10 grams fresh root is mixed with 10 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers., 5 fresh Piper betle L. leaves, and 10 grams fresh Ricinus communis L. root. Paste decoction is prepared. 5 ml of this is taken daily in empty stomach for 7 days after completion of menstruation cycle (Das et al., 2014).
Cassia auriculata L. Family: Caesalpiniaceae
Flowers are crushed and mixed with water and taken orally (Sathiyaraj et al., 2012).
Cheilocostus specious (J. Koen.) C. Specht (Syn.: Costus speciosus (J. Koen.) Sm. Family: Zingiberaceae (Figure 11.7)
The paste of rhizome is used orally (Choudhury et al., 2011).
Cissampelos pareira L. Family: Menispermaceae
Juice of tender leaves is taken orally (Sathiyaraj et al., 2012).
Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle Family: Rutaceae
A paste is made by crushing leaves of Kagji (Citrus aurantifolia), Barundaru (Crateva nurvala), and leaves of Vilati tulsi (Hyptis suaveolens). Pills are made with the paste. Three pills should be taken each day for three consecutive days from the first day of menstruation. It prevents pregnancy for that month (Basak et al., 2016).
Citrus limon (L.) Burm.f. Family: Rutaceae
Juice is used locally (Zingare, 2012).
Coriandrum sativum L. Family: Umbelliferae
Coriander powder if taken during menstruation period, it prevents conception (Ekka, 2012).
Crataeva nurvala Buch.-Ham. Family: Capparaceae
Powdered bark is regularly administered orally to tribal women, early in the morning empty stomach right from the first day after menses for three days. It is reported by tribals that this treatment not only purifies blood but also destroys pathogen, avoids pregnancy and acts as herbal contraceptives (Rai and Nath, 2005).
Pills are made from the roots of Barundaru (Crataeva nurvula) and Kanta saru (Lasia spinosa) plants. One pill with leaf bud mucilage of Kadam (Haldina cordifolia) should be taken for all the days of menstruation for checking conception. It prevents pregnancy permanently (Basak et al., 2016).
Bark powder of Varun, if taken in menstrual period, women will not be pregnant (Ekka, 2012).
Crotalaria juncea L. Family: Fabaceae
The flowers are boiled in water and filtered. The extract is taken orally (Sathiyaraj et al., 2012).
Curcuma longa L. Family: Zingiberaceae
Powder of turmeric (10-15 grams taken with water after menses for 5 days) induces sterility in women (Shah et al., 2009). 3 grams powder taken during menstruation cycle every day (Shrivastava et al., 2007).
In Bastar region of Chhattisgarh, about 8-10 pieces of rhizomes are washed, dried and powdered. 5-6 grams of powder is mixed with 5 grams of jaggery and is regularly administered orally for 4-5 days during menstrual period empty stomach early in the morning to women. The uses has been found to be very good herbal contraceptive (Rai and Nath, 2005).
In some villages it was found that Rhizomes of Curcuma longa L. (Haldi) are collected from forest by tribals, dried and crushed into fine powder. About 10-12 grams of haldi powder prepared from rhizome was mixed with fresh milk of cow and boiled. The milk on boiling when became warm was given 250 ml to women to drink early in the morning empty stomach right from the third day after menses for a period of about 10-12 days. It is reported by tribals that this treatment purifies blood and destroys pathogen. It has been found in tribal community that haldi powder is very good oral herbal contraceptive (Rai and Nath, 2005).
Haldi powder and old jaggery are taken in menstrual period, it prevents pregnancy if it is repeated many times it will not be needed (Ekka, 2012).
Haldi powder (3 grams) if taken during menstruation cycle till 6 days is enough to prevent conception (Ekka, 2012).
Decoction is taken by mouth before sexual intercourse (Sathiyaraj et al., 2012).
Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Family: Cuscutaceae (Figure 11.8)
Seeds of the plant are given (3 grams after menses) to induce sterility in women (Shah et al., 2009).
Fresh plant paste is prepared separately and mixed with leaves paste of Stephania japónica (Thunb.) Miers in equal volume and tablets are prepared from it, one tablet contain 1/2 spoon paste. 2 tablets twice a day in empty stomach (Das et al., 2014).
Leaves are boiled and mashed. The extract is filtered with a piece of cloth and allowed to cool. The filtered extract is again boiled for 2-3 hours and allowed to cool. The extract is regularly administered orally to women, early in the morning on empty stomach right from the third day after menses for 21 days. It has been observed that this extract acts as anti-ovulatory and avoids pregnancy and makes tribal women permanently sterile (Rai and Nath, 2005).
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Family: Poaceae
Same as Cassia alata L. (Das et al., 2014).
Daucus carota L. Family: Apiaceae
Munda tribes takes its decoction to prevent pregnancy (Kumar and Mishra, 2011).
Seed powder is taken orally with liquor (Zingare, 2012).
Desmodium gangeticum DC. Family: Fabaceae
Whole plant 5 grams is powdered and taken during menstruation period daily (Shrivastava et al., 2007).
Panchang (whole plant) of Shalparni is to be taken during menstrual period, women become sterile (Ekka, 2012).
Dioscorea alata L. Family: Dioscoreaceae
Crushed tuber (Bajhkand) if taken one tuber daily during 4 days of menstruation; is one of the best sterilizers (for long life) (Ekka, 2012).
Dioscorea bulbifera L. Family: Dioscoreaceae
About 8-10 tubers are washed, dried and crushed. One tuber is regularly administered orally for 4-5 days during menstrual period empty stomach early in the morning to women. It has been found that tuber powder of climber acts as herbal contraceptive (Rai and Nath, 2005).
Tubers peeled out dried, roasted powdered about 10 grams for 5 days just after menses (Shrivastava et al., 2007).
Whole plant paste is prepared and mixed equally with Ficus religiosa L. leaves paste. Tablets are then prepared from this mixture and one tablet contains 1-2 teaspoons mixture and is taken twice a day till commencement of next menstrual cycle (Das et al., 2014).
Tuber is used as contraceptive (Meena and Rao, 2010).
Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Kunth. Family: Dioscoreaceae
For birth control, the rhizome extract is taken before and after intercourse (Bhat et al., 2012).
Dioscorea floribunda M. Martens & Galeotti Family: Dioscoreaceae.
HO tribes use its tuber and root as contraceptive (Kumar and Mishra, 2011).
Embelia ribes Burm.f. Family: Myrsinaceae (Figure 11.9)
It is another plant with contraceptive properties mentioned in the ancient textbook of Ayurveda-the Yogaratnakar. It is being used today as a contraceptive by practitioners of the traditional systems of medicine in combination with Piper longum and borax (Chaudhary, 1993).
Embelia ribes alone was administered in a dose of 2 grams for five days followed by 1 gram daily for another 10 days. After observing the effect on 2051 cycles over four years, it was reported that the plant protected 95% of women from pregnancy (Tewari et al., 1976).
Ensete superbum (Roxb.) Cheesman. Family: Musaceae
Eating the inner part of the bud of this plant helps to prevent pregnancy (Prasad et al., 2014).
Eugenia jambolana Lam. Family: Myrtaceae
Flowers can be used to reduce sperm count (Sathiyaraj et al., 2012).
Euphorbia antiquorum L. Family: Euphorbiaceae
Ashes of dry small pieces of Sehud, if taken for 21 days with honey are one of the best for sterility (Ekka, 2012).
Euphorbia hirta L. Family: Euphorbiaceae
Leaf is crushed and mixed with hot water (Sathiyaraj et al., 2012).
Ferula asafoetida L. Family: Apiaceae
Same as Aloe barbadensis Mill. (Das et al., 2014).
The herb is considered useful in the treatment of several problems concerning women such as sterility, unwanted abortion, pre-mature labor, unusually painful, difficult and excessive menstruation and leucorrhoea (Mahendra and Bisht, 2012).
Ficus religiosa L. Family: Moraceae
5-10 receptacles are grinded with sugar and taken before one week of menses make the women sterile (Shah et al., 2009).
Leaves paste is mixed equally with the whole plant paste of Dioscorea bulbifera L. Tablets are then prepared from this mixture and one tablet contain 1-2 teaspoons mixture and is taken twice a day till commencement of next menstrual cycle (Das et al., 2014).
Seeds are dried and mixed with seeds of small tree Embelia ribes Burm. f. These seeds are roasted with suhag (Borax) and are orally administered for a period of 8-10 days empty stomach early in the morning to women after 5th day of menstrual period. It has been observed that the seeds when consumed act as herbal contraceptives, which avoids pregnancy (Rai and Nath, 2005).
Mixed powdered seed 5 grams with equal quantity of suhago (Borax) and taken for 4 days during menstruation period (Shrivastava et al., 2007).
Peepal, Baibedanga (Embelia ribes) and roasted suhaga (Borax); each mixed in equal quantity and taken for 4 days during menstruation period; is enough to prevent conception. (Ekka, 2012).
Foenicum vulgare Mill. Family: Apiaceae
Powder of fruits given with water (20 grams twice daily for 7 days) after menses induces sterility in women (Shah et al., 2009).
Gossypium herbaceum L. Family: Malvaceae
Decoction of fresh root is prepared and 1-teaspoon decoction is taken daily for 5 days (Das et al., 2014).
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Family: Malvaceae
Flowers 5-8 are dried, crushed and mixed with honey and taken every morning on empty stomach (Shrivastava et al., 2007).
Roots are crushed and taken orally (Sathiyaraj et al., 2012).
Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Family: Lamiaceae
Decoction of leaf is taken orally (Sathiyaraj et al., 2012).
Indigofera glandulosa Willd. Family: Fabaceae
Extract of whole plant (one cup full) of Janglee neel is to be taken during menstrual period till 3 days is enough, women become sterile (Ekka, 2012).
Jasminum amplexicaule L. Family: Oleaceae
Flowers and buds of Chameli 3 grams if taken orally, women will not be pregnant; or one bud daily till 7 days if taken, women will not be pregnant (Ekka, 2012).
Lantana camara L. Family: Verbenaceae
Decoction of leaves is used orally (Sathiyaraj et al., 2012).
Lawsonia inermis L. Family: Lythraceae
Paste of fresh leaves is prepared and mixed with little amount of esabgul (Plantago ovata) powder. Tablets are then prepared from 4 teaspoon mixture, taken twice daily for 21 days from last menstrual period (Das et al., 2014).
Roots are soaked in water for 24 hours. The medicated water is taken orally (Zingare, 2012).
50 grams of juice of fresh leaves is to be taken regularly every day after the menses till the commencement of the next menses. Prolonged use can lead to permanent sterilization (Sinha and Nathawat, 1989).
Lygodium flexuosum (L) Sw. Family: Schizaeaceae
Leaves paste is prepared and mixed with paste of fresh Moringa oleífera Lam. root and in equal ratio. 1/2 teaspoons mixture is used to prepare 1 tablet and is taken daily on empty stomach after completion of menstrual cycle (Das et al., 2014).
Melia azedarach L. Family: Meliaceae
Bark is used for contraceptive purpose (Sathiyaraj et al., 2012).
Mentha arvensis L. Family: Lamiaceae
Whole plant is dried in shade and then made into a powder. Ten grams of powder is taken before intercourse for antifertility (Shah et al., 2009).
Leaves and branches are boiled and mashed. The extract is filtered with a piece of cloth and allowed to cool. This extract is administered orally to women two hours before performing sexual intercourse. It is said that this extract acts as antiovulatory and inhibits enzymatic activity which avoids pregnancy. The extract has been observed as an excellent herbal contraceptive popular among tribal localities in villages surveyed in Bastar region (Rai and Nath, 2005).
Mentha longifolia L. Family: Lamiaceae
Dried leaves are grinded and mixed and given (5-10 grams for a week) after menses to induce sterility (Shah et al., 2009).
Michelia champaca L. Family: Magnoliaceae
Stem bark powder taken orally with water for 7 days (Zingare, 2012).
Mimosa púdica L. Family: Mimosaceae
The decoctions of roots are used for the contraceptive purpose (Sathiyaraj et al., 2012).
Momordica charantia L. Family: Cucurbitaceae
Fresh seed paste is prepared and mixed with paste of Stephania japónica (Thunb.) Miers stem in equal volume. Tablets are then prepared from containing 1-2 teaspoons paste taken twice a day after completion of menstrual cycle to commencement of next menstrual cycle (Das et al., 2014).
The seed powder is mixed with water and the mixture is orally taken (Sathiyaraj et al., 2012).
Momordica dioica Roxb. ex Willd. Family: Cucurbitaceae
Root powder with jaggery is given orally (Zingare, 2012).
Moringa oleifera Lam. Family: Moringaceae
The leaf is used as contraceptive in females (Choudhury, 2011).
Leaves paste is prepared and mixed with paste of fresh root of Moringa oleífera Lam. and in equal ratio. 4 teaspoon mixture is used to prepare 1 tablet and is taken daily in empty stomach after completion of menstrual cycle (Das et al., 2014).
A paste is made by crushing bark of Sojna (Moringa oleífera) and flowers of Kagji (Citrus aurantifolia), talans (Piper nigrum, Ferula foetida, Coriandrum sativum, Terminalia chebula). The dose is 4 pills per day taken orally at the date of onset of menstruation in empty stomach. It prevents pregnancy for that month (Basak et al., 2016).
Morus alba L. Family: Moraceae
Leaf juice is taken orally (Sathiyaraj et al., 2012).
Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. Family: Fabaceae
Seed powder of 3 seeds given once daily for 3 days after menses (Shrivastava et al., 2007).
Seeds are used as oral contraceptives (Dwivedi and Kaul, 2008).
Musa balbisiana Colla Family: Musaceae
Tablets are prepared from fresh or dried seeds paste containing 5 grams paste and taken twice a day in empty stomach for 7 days (Das et al., 2014).
Musa paradisica L. Family: Musaceae
Juice of root is taken orally (Zingare, 2012).
Juice of root is used orally to stop conception (Meena and Rao, 2010).
Nelumbo nucífera Gaertn. Family: Nelumbonaceae
Flowers of Padma (Nelumbo nucífera) and Tal (Borassus flabellifer), roots of Pan (Piper betle) and Dhawai (Woodfordia fruticosa) are grinded with water. They are mixed with eggs of snail and are dried in the form of pills. Five pills are to be taken in empty stomach for three consecutive days after the last date of menstruation. It is very effective to prevent pregnancy (Basak et al., 2016).
Nerium oleander L. Family: Apocynaceae
The powder of leaves is mixed with water and taken orally (Sathiyaraj et al., 2012).
Ocimum sanctum L. Family: Lamiaceae
Leaves of Ocimum sanctum, buds of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, flowers of Butea monosperma and root of Halud (Curcuma domestica) are ground together. One teaspoon of the mixture has to be taken at every morning in empty stomach for one week. This mixture will prevent pregnancy with normal sexual life (Basak et al., 2016).
Oroxylum indicum Vent. Family: Bignoniaceae
Paste of fresh stem bark is prepared and mixed with Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt stem, fresh Tacca laevis Roxb. root, fresh Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. leaves paste in equal ratio. Tablets are then prepared containing 1-teaspoon mixture and taken once a day in empty stomach for 7 days (just 2 days after menstrual period) (Das et al., 2014).
Parthenium hysterophorus L. Family: Asteraceae
Powder of whole plant of Gajar Ghass (2-3 gram), if taken during menstruation period, women will not be pregnant (Ekka, 2012).
Phlogacanthus thyrsiformis (Roxb. ex Hardw.) Mabb. Family: Acanthaceae
1 teaspoon leaves paste as tablet twice a day for 3-4 days in empty stomach (Das et al., 2014).
Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn. Family: Euphorbiaceae
Leaf juice is taken orally (Sathiyaraj et al., 2012).
Phyllanthus emblica L. Family: Euphorbiaceae
A mixed paste of fruit along with Terminalia chebula Retz., Phyllanthus emblica L., Terminalia bellerica Roxb., are prepared. Rasanjan is added to this mixture. Tablets are prepared from this and one tablet contains 6 rati mixtures. 1 tab daily once for one month (Das et al., 2014).
Piper betle L. Family: Piperaceae
Roots of Pan (Piper betle) and Begna (Vitex negundo) and stem of Akanda (Calotropis procera) are macerated with a pinch of rock salt with the help of water.The mixture then mixed with small amount of mustard oil and ghee. The mixture should be taken on Saturday after puja. It prevents pregnancy for that month (Basak et al., 2016).
Roots of Pan (Piper betle), Nishinda (Vitex negundo) and Sarpagandha (Rauvolfia serpentina) are grinded together. Three teaspoonful of paste have to eat with water and common salt. After menstruation the drug has to be taken for three consecutive days at morning and in empty stomach. It prevents pregnancy for that month with no side effect (Basak et al., 2016).
About 2-4 grams of root of Pan (Piper betle) and 2-4 grams of Bamboo seeds (Bambusa bambos L.) are taken orally in the form of Goli (tablet) in empty stomach (Chandra et al., 2007).
Plumbago rosea L. Family: Plumbaginaceae
The fresh root is used in the vagina (Choudhury et al., 2011).
Plumbago zeylanica L. Family: Plumbaginaceae
About 5-6 pieces of roots weighing 10-12 grams are powdered and mixed with 10-15 ml. rice water and is kept overnight. This water is regularly administered orally for three consecutive days during menstrual period empty stomach early in the morning by tribal women. It has been observed in tribal community that root powder of the shrub causes sterility in women (Rai and Nath, 2005).
Chitrak root homogeneously mixed with rice wash water (6 ml Quath) if taken after menstrual cycle for 3 days, it is also one of the best for sterility (Ekka, 2012).
Plumeria rubra L. Family: Plumbaginaceae
About 10-12 grams of leaves are boiled and kept over-night in 250 ml of water. The leaves are crushed in the morning and extract is filtered. The filtered extract is regularly administered orally to women, early in the morning empty stomach right from the third day after menses for 15 days. It has been observed that this extract avoids pregnancy and acts as herbal contraceptive (Rai and Nath, 2005).
Leaves of Champa soaked overnight in water, in the morning these leaves crushed with this water and taken in menstrual period, women will not be pregnant during the time or number of year same as the number of leaves taken (Ekka, 2012).
Polygala chinensis L. Family: Polygalaceae
In a new mud pot, root of Nilkantha (Polygala chinensis), Ananta (Hemidesmus indicus), Kantikiari (Solanum surattense) and stem of Rakta chandan (Anadenanthera pavonia) and Swet chandan (Santalum album) is cooked in fire. Rasamanik, Rasasindur, Makaradhwaj, Golmarich (Piper nigrum), blood of black chicken is mixed. The Women will take as much as they can. The rest of the amount will be prepared in the form of pills. 3 pills in each day will be taken for one month. It prevents pregnancy permanently but if the women want to revive pregnancy they have to take different medicines from medicine men (Basak et al., 2016).
Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce Family: Mimosaceae
Leaf juice is taken orally in morning (Sathiyaraj et al., 2012).
Púnica granatum L. Family: Punicaceae
Decoction is used by “Oraon” tribe as anti-fertility agent (Kumar and Mishra, 2011).
Randia dumetorum L. Family: Rubiaceae
Powder of Fruits is mixed with milk and given twice-daily about 50 ml (Shrivastava et al., 2007).
Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz. Family: Apocynaceae
Roots of Sarpagandha (Rauwolfia serpentina) and Pan (Piper betle) are to be immersed in water for 7 days. The water should be mixed with juice of Ganda (Tagetes patula) and Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) leaves. This mixture should be taken with small amount of Pipal powder (Piper nigrum) and Hincha (Enhydra fluctuans) on 5th day of menstruation. It prevents pregnancy for that month (Basak et al., 2016).
Ricinus communis L. Family: Euphorbiaceae
The seeds are grinded into powder form and 1 gram is given to women before intercourse as contraceptive (Shah et al., 2009).
Seeds are taken orally with water during menstruation (Zingare, 2012).
Seed oil is used locally (Zingare, 2012).
5-10 ml sap of seed in menstruation period once daily (Shrivastava et al., 2007).
Seeds are used as contraceptive (Dwivedi and Kaul, 2008).
Sap of Aundi seed in menstruation period if it is taken, prevents conception (Ekka, 2012).
Santalum album L. Family: Santalaceae
Chandan, Sarson (Brassica compestris Hook.f. & Thoms.) and Sugar mixed with 4-6 grams with rice wash water, are taken after menstrual cycle period, women become sterile (Ekka, 2012).
Saraca asoca (Roxb.) Willd. Family: Fabaceae
The bark of Asoka (Saraca asoka) tree washed thoroughly and sun-dried to reduce its moisture content. It is then grinded and sieved. The dry powder is pasted with floral parts of Jaba (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis). The medicine has to be taken every day in morning. It prevents pregnancy with no side effects (Basak et al., 2016).
Sesamum indicum L. Family: Pedaliaceae
Seeds oil is mixed with Lac of Ber (Ziziphus jujuba) and boiled. Taken orally (Zingare, 2012).
Solanum surattense Burm.f. Family: Solanaceae
Seed soaked in water and used to reduce sperm count (Sathiyaraj et al., 2012).
Soymida febrífuga (Roxb.) A. Juss. Family: Meliaceae
25 grams of Rohin (Soymida febrífuga) and Saora (Streblus asper Lour.) bark, 5 grams of white Akanda (Calotropis procera) flower, 10 grams of Golmarich (Piper nigrum), 10 grams of Darchini (Laurus cinamonum) and 10 grams of Pipul (Piper longum) was powdered and mixed to form pills. One pill has to be taken per day for 5 days from the last day of menstruation. It has to be continued for six months. It prevents pregnancy for one year. It has a long-term effects without any side effect (Basak et al., 2016).
Stephania japónica (Thunb.) Meirs Family: Menispermaceae
Leaves are used same as Momordica charantia L. (Das et al., 2014).
Syzygium aromaticum L. Family: Myrtaceae
One lounga daily till 21 days regularly is sufficient to prevent conception (Ekka, 2012).
Tacca laevis Roxb. Family: Taccaceae
Rhizomes are used same as Oroxylum indicum Vent. (Das et al., 2014).
Tamarindus indica L. Family: Fabaceae
The flowers with Ferula asafoetida are used for contraception (Choudhury et al., 2011).
Tecomella undulata (Sm.) Seem. Family: Bignoniaceae
Bark is chewed (Zingare, 2012).
Tectona grandis L.f. Family: Verbenaceae
The fruits and the young leaves (about 5 each) are to be eaten regularly with either milk or honey after the menses and till the commencement of next menses. It is to be taken early morning in empty stomach (Sinha and Nathawat, 1989).
Terminalia bellerica Roxb. Family: Combretaceae
Fruit is used same as Phyllanthus emblica L. (Das et al., 2014).
Terminalia chebula Retz. Family: Combretaceae
Fruit Bark is used same as Phyllanthus emblica L. (Das et al., 2014).
Tinospora cordifolia (L) Merr. Family: Menispermaceae
Guduchi powder (3 gram) of whole plant, if taken orally, women will not be pregnant (Ekka, 2012).
Vicoa indica Cass. Family: Asteraceae
Also called Banjhouri, the plant decoction is used for sterility in females. (Dwivedi and Kaul, 2008)
It is used for inducing sterility in the village of Sukhodeora in Bihar (Choudhary et al., 1988).
Vitex negundo L. Family: Verbenaceae
Banda of Boan (Vitex negundo), flowers of Palash (Butea monosperma) and Mushroom (Psalliota campestris L.) are crushed to form paste with all talans (Myristica fragrans Houtt./Jaiphal; Piper longum L./Pipul; Piper nigum L./Kali mirch). One pill is taken with one cup of Mahua (Madhuca indica) liquor early in the morning and in empty stomach for 7 consecutive days. This combination is an effective oral herbal contraceptive used among the tribal women (Basak et al., 2016).
Roots of Nishinda (Vitex negundo), banda of Ramdatan (Smilax zeylanica) and bark of Nim (Azadirachta indica) are pasted with Mahua (Madhuca indica) liquor. It prevents pregnancy (Basak et al., 2016).
A paste is made by crushing roots of Nishinda (Vitex negundo) and Shimul (Bombax ceiba), leaves of Bel (Aegle marmelos) with 10 Golmarich (Piper nigrum). The dose is 10 pills per day taken orally at the date of termination of menstruation in empty stomach. It prevents pregnancy for that month (Basak et al., 2016).
Zingiber officinale Roscoe Family: Zingiberaceae
Rhizome is used same as Aloe barbadensis Mill. (Das et al., 2014).
Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Family: Rhamnaceae
Lac of Ber mixed with 25-50 grams Til oil (Sesamum indicum) then boiled for some time, if taken during 4 days of menstrual cycle, women become sterile (Ekka, 2012).
Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Mill. Family: Rhamnaceae
Root of Siakul (Ziziphus oenoplia), leaves of Hinga ara (Enhydra fluctuans Lour.), Banda of Aqun (Terminalia arjuna Roxb.) and Begna (Vitex negundo) are dried and smashed into pellets with the help of water. One pellet is taken with warm milk in empty stomach on the 5th day of menstruation and continued for three consecutive days during menstrual periods. This combination is very effective to prevent pregnancy (Basak et al., 2016).
Generally the tribal people take the medicine either with fresh cold drinking water or with country liquor, rice beer or with honey as advised by the medicine men. Internal medicine is prescribed to take in empty stomach in the morning, repeated at noon and again in the evening, according to necessity. Most of the tribal medicines are prepared in combination with some ingredients like long pepper/pipul (Piper longum), black pepper (Piper nigrum), darchini (Laurus cinamonum), elachi, etc., which are known as “Talan” (Basak et al., 2016).
11.4 CONCLUSION
It is observed that the dosages and duration of medicine generally depend on the intensity of the disease and age of patient. It is observed that tribals harvest that plant part, used for medicinal purpose at particular growth period or season, for example, before flowering and fruiting period, etc. presumably
to obtain maximum concentration of the active principle. As tuberous plants remain in dormant phase and have a limited period for completing their life cycle, tribal preserve the tuber for various remedies, which is harvested in their particular period. Hence, the tribals have a specified way of collecting the herbs, preparing and applying the medicine. It is observed that single plant species or a combination of different plant species is used for curing various diseases (Choudhary et al., 2008).
Tribals are custodians of vast traditional knowledge and their wisdom with respect to plants is noteworthy. Their day-to-day need is totally dependent on forest and they obtain food, medicine, shelter and other materials from plants (Kumar and Mishra, 2011). Plants, since ancient times, have been used globally across varied cultures throughout the known civilizations as valuable and safe natural source of medicines and as agents of therapeutic, industrial and environmental utilities. The medical historians have recorded plants that could be used as contraceptives, emmenagogues, abortifacients and aphrodisiac (Kiritkar and Basu, 1975). The use of medicinal plants as decoction and infusion may be consistent with phyto-pharmaco- logical effects. Traditional medicines are practiced worldwide for regulating fertility since ancient times. A large number of plants species have been screened for their antifertility efficacy. The recent review of Kumar et al. (2009) reported 577 plant species belonging to 122 families, having been used traditionally in antifertility regulatory agents in female. However, the search for an orally active, safe and effective plant preparation or compound is yet needed for fertility regulation due to incomplete inhibition of fertility or side effects.
KEYWORDS
- antifertility
- ethnobotany
- ethnomedicine
- folklore medicine
- herbal contraceptives
- plant contraceptives
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