Africa, 44–48
Aguayo, Marqués de (José Azlor de Vera), 106–107
Alabama-Coushatta, 230, 240, 244
Alarcon, Governor Martin de, 103–105
Albuquerque: 94
Black population of, 96
Alianza Federal de Pueblos Libres (Federal Alliance of Free City States), 20
Almquist, Alan F., 257
Alvarado, Governor Juan Bautista, 210–211
Analco, 90
anthropology departments (faculty hiring in), 15
Anza, Captain Juan Bautista de, 120, 133–138
Apaches: in Arizona and New Mexico, 90–91, 93, 117, 119–120, 124, 192, 228, 247
Aztlán, 25
kin relations, 311–312n.3
and Mexican Independence, 160
as Spanish allies, 94, 174–175
in Texas, 108–109, 114–115, 117, 230
Arizona: archaeology, 27, 29, 32
Aztlán, 25
demographics, 121, 124–125, 171, 228, 256, 275
founding of, 117–121
and Mexican Constitution, 162
schools, 179. See also Gadsen Treaty
General Law of Colonization 1824; racialization
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
Ashworth family, 231–233, 239–240
Ashworth Law (Texas Act of 1840), 231–233
Austin, Stephen F., 165, 198, 201
auto/ethnography, 297–309
Azcárate Commission, 164
Aztec: empire, 34–35
migration, 26
oral histories, 20–21 (see Aztlán)
restructuring empire, 49–59
Aztlán: archaeology, 26
Mexica, 34–35
origin-historical myth, 21–27, 312–313
philosophy, 19–20
Baja California, 128–130, 132–133, 139
Barreiro, Antonio, 179
Bautista Pino, Don Pedro, 172
Berbers, 44–46
Bering Strait, 26
Black Legend, 16
Bonaparte, Napoleon, 157
Borah, Woodrow, 167
Botiller v. Dominguez (1889), 263
Brayer, Herbert, 235
Brown Berets, 20 Brown v. The Board of Education of Topeka (1954), 291
Bucareli, 111
Bucareli y Ursúa, Viceroy Antonio María, 132–135
Bureau of Indian Affairs, 230, 247–248, 260, 298–301
Bustamante, Adrian, 172
Byrne v. Alas et al. (1888), 263
Cabeza de Vaca, Alvar Nuñez, 70–72, 315n.4
California: archaeology, 27, 31–32
demographics, 140–141, 169–170, 223, 257–258, 260, 264–265, 267, 275, 300
early Spanish settlement, 127–137
Mexican Constitution, 162
Mexican immigration, 281
schools, 177–181
United States wages, 274, 296. See also racialization
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
California Act of 1850, 257
California Colonization Law of 1833, 204–205
California Land Act of 1851, 261, 263–265
California Land Commission, 209, 269
California State Constitution, 220
Canary Islanders, 110–112
Carthaginian, 39
Casta system: abolishment of, 162, 188
in Arizona, 123
blurring of racial boundaries, 154–157, 159
demographics (1810), 158
legal classifications in, 62–66
and Oñate colony, 84–85
Texas, 110–112
Caucasian: concept, 37
family stocks, 36
Chalchauites, 33. See also Chichimec
Chapman, Charles, 136
Chicano Movement, 20
Chicano Youth Liberation Conference, 19–20, 23
Chichimec: Aztlán, 21, 23, 25–26
conquest, 76–77
Mixtón War, 72–75
resistance to Spanish, 68–70
Toltec-Chichimec, 33–34
Chicomoztoc: oral tradition, 8, 309, 312–313n.9
Chipman, Donald, 117
Cholula, 29. See also Teotihuacán
Chulhuacán, 34
Chumash: archaeology, 27, 31–32
auto/ethnography, 297–309
Father Junípero Serra, 136–137
land grants, 183
last full-blooded Chumash, 300
mission Indians, 141–143, 146–147, 206–208
Citlacotl, 73–74
Ciudad Juárez, 92
Civil Rights Act of 1866, 280
Civil Rights Act of 1875, 286
Civil Rights Act of 1964, 292–293, 295–296
Coahuila and Texas Colonization Law of 1825, 195–197
Coahuila and Texas State Constitution of 1827, 165
Coahuiltecans, 113–114
Cohen, Ronald, 174
Colorado, Aztlán, 25
Columbus, Christopher, 41–42
Comanche: Aztlán, 25, 109, 114–115, 117
Mexican Independence, 160
Constitution of the Republic of Texas 1836, 228–229, 237
Cook, Sherburne F., 141, 167, 257–258
Cook v. Garza (1853), 245–246
corregimiento: under casta system, 64
description, 58–59;
Cortes (Spanish parliament), 157–160
Cortés, Don Martin, 65
Cortés, Hernán: Baja California, 316n.5
children of, 65
conquest, 42
Cowan, Robert, 213
Crespi, Fray Juan, 129, 131–132, 140
Crusade for Justice, (Chicano civil rights organization), 19–20
Dale, Edward, 256
De La Guerra, Pablo, 221–222, 278–279
Democrates Alter, 51. See also Ginés de Sepúlveda
Díaz del Castillo, Bernal, 54
Dillingham Commission, 274
Dolores, 108
Donato, Ruben, 287
Durán, Fray Diego, 20
Edwards, Hayden, 199
El Cañon, 109
Elk v. Wilkens (1884), 279, 284
El Paso (Texas), Oñate colony, 86
El Paso Valley, 92, 94, 96, 117, 172, 174, 201
under United States, 230, 240–242, 323n.14. See also land grants
encomiendas: during epidemics, 58
establishment, 51–52
intermarriage orders, 54–55
Engelhardt, Father Zephyrin, 303–304
Engstrand, Iris, 122, 168, 171
Enríquez de Almanza, Viceroy Martin, 76–77
epidemics, 57–61
Equal Pay Act of 1963, 293
Escandón, José de, 202
Esteban (Dorantes), 48, 70–72. See also Cabeza de Vaca
Fages, Governor Pedro, 127, 150–151
Ferdinand, King, 41
Fernandes, João, 47
Ferrelo, Bartolomé, 72
Figueroa, Governor José, 204–205
Forbes, Jack, 137, 170, 311n.1
Fourteenth Amendment (United States Constitution), 278–280, 285, 294
French colonies, 97, 100–102, 105–106
Frías Salazar, Captain Juan, 83–85
Fulani, 45
Fundo Legal property laws, 152
Gálvez, José de, 128–130
Garcés, Father Francisco, 134
General Law of Colonization 1824, 181–206
land grants, 188–189, 191, 246, 248
schooling, 179
gente de razón, 123, 166–169, 171–172, 209
Ghana, 44–46
Gillespie, Susan, 312
Gonzalez, Elena, 298, 301–302, 304–308
González, Elías: family, 123
Gonzalez, Martha, 298–299, 301, 304–307
Goodrich, Chauncey S., 257
Gordon, Milton, 174
Goyen, William, 239
Gran Chichimeca: location, 26–28
missions, 78–80
Mixton War, 72–75
passageways, 71
population mid-seventeenth century, 81
rebellion, 68–69
Grant, Campbell, 304
Great Pueblo Rebellion, 90–92
Greeks, 39
Guerrero, Vicente, 166, 199–200, 322–323n.6
Gutiérrez, Ramon, 95, 123, 167–168, 172
Heizer, Robert F., 257
Hernández de Córdoba, Francisco, 42
Hinojosa, Fray Joaquín de, 202
Hokan, 31. See also Chumash
Homestead Act of 1862, 234–236, 251–252, 255–256, 265, 270, 328n.14
Hopí: Aztlán
25
tribe, 93. See also Pueblo Indians
Huitzilopochtli, 22–23
Hull, Elizabeth, 285
Iberian Peninsula, 37–42
Iberians, 38
Ice Age, 26
Independent School District v. Salvatierra (1930), 289–290
Indian explorers: Agustín de la Cruz, 103
Tomás and Cristobal, 86
Indian Intercourse Act of 1834, 219–220
In re Ah Yup (1878), 283
In re Camille (1880), 283
In re Kanaka Nian (1889), 283
In re Rodriguez (1897), 282–285
Isabella, Queen, 41
Jackson, Helen Hunt, 263
Jemez, 90. See also Pueblo Indians
Jimeno Casarin, Manuel, 185, 205
Johnson, President Lyndon B., 292
Johnson v. McIntosh (1823), 259
Jumano: archaeology, 30–31
linguistics, 312n.6
Spanish contact, 71
Karankawa, 113
Kennedy, President John F., 291
Keresan, 90
La Bahía, 106–107, 113, 115, 117
schools, 180, 199. See also land grants, 276, 318nn.8,10
Lamar, Howard, 256
Land grants
under United States, 250–256
—California: Indian grants, 206–209
Mexican grants, 183–185, 210–214, 326n.14
Spanish grants, 148–152
under United States, 251, 257–274, 328n.16
—El Paso Valley, 201–203, 230, 238, 240–244 (see also Ysleta)
—Texas: exclusion of Blacks and Indians under republic and United States, 237–242
general discussion, 197–199, 201–203, 243–244
Internal Provinces, 194, 239, 242–243
McMullen v. Hodge and Others, 229, 240
—United States Congressional laws and, 234–238, 249–251, 254–255, 262–263, 266–267, 309
Laredo, 108, 113–114, 116, 172, 202, 276, 323n.14
La Salle, René Robert Cavelier de, 97
Las Casas, Fray Bartolomé de, 52–53
Law of Cadiz, 158–159, 161–162, 172
Laws of Burgos, 51, 55, 314nn.2,3
León, Captain Alonso de, 100
Logan, Greenborg, 238–239
Los Angeles, 138–140, 147, 151, 264, 276
schools, 179–180
Loving v. Virginia (1967), 292–293
Lueras v. Town of Lafayette (1937), 287
Mali, 43
Esteban, 71
Margil, Father Antonio, 105–106
Matagorda Bay, 106
Mauritania, 44
Toltec-Chichimec, 34
Mazanet, Damién, 100
Menchaca-Camarillo family, 271–273
Menchaca Esparza, Isabel, 4,7
Mendez v. Westminster (1946, 1947), 290–291
Merriam, Clinton Hart, 299
Mexica, 34–35. See also Aztec
Mexican American War, 213–214, 216, 268, 274–275, 298–299, 328n.15. See also Gadsen Treaty
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
Mexican Constitution of 1824: abolishing slavery, 165–166
immigration reform, 164
interpreted under United States law, 220
missions, 169
schools, 179–180
slave codes, 162–163
Mexican War of Independence, 12, 127
aftermath, 161–163, 168, 175–177
background to independence, 154–159
Mexico-United States immigration, 280–282
Micheltorena, José Manuel, 208, 210
Mier y Terán, General Manuel, 199–201
Minter, Alan, 244
missions
—Arizona: San Miguel de Guevavi, 119–120
San Xavier del Bac, 119–120, 124, 134, 171, 192–194
Tumacácori, 119–122, 124–125, 171, 192, 194, 254
—Baja California: San Gertrudis, 134
—California: Purísima Concepción, 138
San Carlos Borroméo, 132
San Diego de Alcalá, 138–139, 141, 206
San Fernando, 141
San Francisco de Asís, 144
San Gabriel, 133–135, 137, 141
San José de Guadalupe, 144
San Luis Obispo de Tolosa, 144, 206
San Luis Rey, 141–143, 180, 206, 263
Santa Bárbara, 139, 146–147, 206, 299, 301
Santa Inés, 206–207, 298, 302–305
—California mission pueblos: early history, 78–80
reducción, 77
San Antonio de Pala, 262
secularization, 159, 163, 169, 175–177
—Texas: Cíbola, 108–110
Espada, 197–198, 325n.8, 327n.10
Espíritu Santo de Zuñiga, 107, 172
Rosario and Refugio, 107, 172, 198
San Antonio de Valero (the Alamo), 104
San Miguel, 106
Santa Cruz de San Saba, 108–109
—Texas: Visita San Agustín de Laredo, 108. See also Indian removal
land grants
New Mexico
Mixton War, 72–75
Moctezuma Cortés, Isabel, 65
Mogollon, 29–30
Monroy, Douglas, 235
Montecito, 298–299
Monterey, 128–132, 135, 137, 140, 148, 322n.17
Moscoso, Luis de, 72
Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Warraq, 44
Muslim: 39
dynasties, 40
in Spain, 41, 313nn.13,15. See also Morocco
Nacogdoches, 115–116, 199–200, 239, 276
schools, 180. See also land grants
Mexican Independence, 160
New Mexico: archaeology, 30
Aztlán, 25
demographics, 93–96, 171–172, 175, 189, 190–191, 225, 248, 275
founding, 81–90
Great Pueblo Indian Rebellion, 90–92
Mexican Constitution, 162
reconquest, 93
schools, 177–181. See also General Law of Colonization 1824; racialization
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
Niza, Fray Marcos de, 71–72
Noble Savage debate, 51–53, 314n.6
Nuevo Santander, 107–108, 115–117, 202
O’Conor, Captain Hugo, 121
Officer, James, 255
Olivares, Father Antonio de San Buenaventura de, 102–105
Olmec, 27–28
Oñate, Cristóbal de, 75–81
Oñate, Juan de, 81–89
Orcoquisac, 111
Ordinance of Pacification 1573, 77, 81
Organic Act of Arizona, 227
Organic Act of New Mexico, 223–225
Ortega, José Joaquín, 183–185, 324n.20
Otermín, Governor Antonio de, 92
Otomí, 26
paleo-Indians, 27
papal bull of 1493, 97
Paschal, T.M., 281–285
Peabody Harrington, John, 302
Penutian, 32
People v. Juan Antonio (1865), 262
Peralta, Julio, 268–270
Pérez de Villagrá, Captain Gaspar, 82, 85
Perez v. Sharp (1948), 293
Phillips v. Martin Marietta Corporation (1971), 294
Phoenician, 38
Pico, Pío: family, 170
land reforms, 203
Pima: archaeology, 30, 118–119
Aztlán, 25
Mexican Christian Indians, 171, 192
Spanish period, 118–119, 125, 133
Pino v. Hatch (1855), 249–250
interpreted by U.S., 220
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), 287–288
Ponce de León, Juan, 70
Popé, 93
Portolá, Gaspar de, 128–132, 134
positioning, 10–11
Poyo, Gerald, 111–112
Preemptive Act of 1853, 260–261
Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, 294
presidios
—Arizona: Tubac, 120–121, 124, 134–135, 192–193
—Baja California: Loreto, 128–129
—California: San Carlos de Borroméo (Monterey) 132, 148
San Diego, 148
Santa Bárbara, 148
—New Mexico: Santa Fe, 164
—Texas: Bejar, 104
Del Norte at La Junta, 110, 114–115, 174
El Paso del Norte, 92, 94, 203
Nuestra Señora de la Bahía del Espiritu Santo, 106–107
Nuestra Señora del Pilar de Los Adaes, 106
San Elizario, 92, 94–95, 164, 202–203
San Francisco, 106
San Luis de Las Amarillas, 108
Presidio, Texas: Cabeza de Vaca, 70
mission, 108
Pueblo Indians: Acoma conquest, 86–88
citizenship under U.S., 224–225
ethnic divisions, 312n.5
Great Pueblo Indian Rebellion, 90–92
after Mexican Independence, 175–176
reconquest, 93. See also Anasazi
General Law of Colonization 1824; Mogollon
Tewa
Tiwa
Quetzalcoatl, 34
racial dictatorship, 3
racialization: theory 3, 311n.1
after Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, 217–246, 252, 256–258, 274–275, 328n.15
Ramón, Captain Domingo, 102
ranchería, defined, 101
Regents of the University of California v. Bakkee (1978), 294–295
repartimiento: dismantled, 316n.10
during epidemics, 58–59. See also slavery
Río Abajo (New Mexico), 91
Río Arriba (New Mexico), 91
Rivera y Moncada, Captain Fernando, 128–131, 135–136, 138–140
Robinson, William W., 263–264
Robinson and Wife v. Memphis and Charleston Railroad Company (1883), 286, 294–295
Rodríguez-Cabrillo, Juan, 72
Rodriguez Flores, Emilio, 8, 312–313
Romano-V, Octavio, 14–15
Romans, 39–40
Romero, Evarista, 298–300
Rosenfeld v. Southern Pacific Company (1971), 294
Royal Order of 1790, 123
Rubí, Marques de (Cayetano María Pignatelli Rubí Corbera y San Climent), 114–115, 121
Ruiz, Verónica, 299–301
Sahlins, Marshall, 67
San Antonio, 104, 105, 109–111, 113, 115–117, 194, 276
schools, 178, 180. See also land grants
San Diego, 128, 130–133, 136, 141, 152–153, 266
San Elizario, 92, 94–95, 164, 171, 202–203, 317n.30
schools, 178
San Gabriel (Yukewingge), 88
Sanhaja, 46
founding, 137
schools 179
San Juan de los Caballeros (Caypa), 86–87
San Luis Obispo, 170
San Pedro Valley, 119–120, 126
Santa Bárbara (Calif.), 131–132, 138, 146–147, 149, 170, 206, 221, 276, 298–299, 301, 308–309, 322n.17
schools 178, 180
Santa Bárbara (Chihuahua): during Chichimec Wars, 76–77
founded, 316n.9
Santa Cruz Valley (Arizona), 119–120, 125–126
schools, 179
Santa Inés: city, 259, 298, 305–306
Santa Paula, 183, 246, 269–271, 288
Saucedo, José Antonio de, 197–198
schooling, Southwest, 177–181
Seed, Patricia, 156
segregation (United States): dejure, 277–278, 285–291
schools, 296
Sepúlveda, Ginés de, 51–53
Serra, Father Junípero, 128–130, 132, 136–137
Sespe Ranch, 268–269
Shoshone: archaeology, 32, 312
Aztlán, 313
Mexican independence, 160
mission Indians, 141
Siete Partidas, 61–62
slavery: under Casta system, 64
emancipation proclamation, 166
during epidemics, 59–61
location of slaves, 60
after Mexican Independence, 163, 322n.2
New Mexico, 225–226
Portuguese slave trade, 47
Siete Partidas, 61–62
sixteenth-century, 43
struggles over slavery, 165
Solano, Chief Francisco, 207, 209
Sonora, 118, 120, 125, 133–134, 138
Sosa Peñalosa, Alonso de, 84
Eufemia (wife), 87
Sotelo colony, 88–89
Soto, Hernando de, 72
Spain, archaeology, 37–40
Spanish conquest, entrance, 42, 48. See also Aztec
Spanish intermarriage laws, 53–57
Sprogis v. United Air Lines (1971), 293
State of Nevada v. Ah Chew (1881), 280
Sterne, Adolphus, 200
Sublimis Deus, 53
Sundjata, 46–47. See also Malinké
Suñol v. Hepburn (1850), 220, 259, 263
Tac, Pablo, 180
Tanos, 92
Tartessians, 37–41
Tehuacán Valley, 27
Tejones, 113
Tenamaxtle, 73–75
Terrell Wells Swimming Pool v. Rodríguez (1944), 287
Texas: abolishing slavery, 165
Anglo-American immigration, 165–166
Aztlán, 25
Canary Islanders, 110–112
demographics, 106–108, 111–113, 116–117, 172–173, 230, 275
founding, 97–110
Marques de Rúbi, 114–115
Mexican Constitution, 162
missions, 97–106
schools, 177–181. See also racialization
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
Texas War for Independence, 12, 216, 228–229
Texpepan, 26
Thirteenth Amendment (United States Constitution), 278, 285, 294
Thompson, Seymour D., 235
Tiwa, 90–93. See also Ysleta
El Paso Valley
Tjkshon, 121, 124, 192. See also Tucson
tlatoques: conquest of Chichimecs, 68, 72–73, 75
Tlaxcalan: conquest of Chichimecs, 68
migration, 26
missions and pueblos in Gran Chichimeca, 78–81
Tolosa, Juan de, 75
Tolosa Cortés Moctezuma, Isabel de, 82–83
Toltecs: Aztlán, 25–26
Tompiros, 92
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, 215, 218, 274
Arizona (see Gadsen Purchase), 255
land, 233–237
naturalization, 284–285
New Mexico, 224–226, 246–247, 249
Texas, 241. See also racialization
Trouillot, Michel-Rolph, 84–85
Tubac, 120–121, 124, 134–135, 192–193, 254
Tucson, 118, 124–125, 192–193, 253, 255
Tupatú, Luis, 93
United States Indian removal policies: Arizona, 228
California, 218, 222–223, 257–258, 261, 329n.18
New Mexico, 224
Texas, 229–230. See also Indian Intercourse Act of 1834
United States naturalization laws, 281–285
United States v. Joseph (1874, 1876), 248
United States v. Lucero (1869), 224–225, 247
United States v. Sandoval (1913), 279
United States v. Wong Kim Ark (1898), 280
Urrea, Lieutenant Mariano de, 125
Ute, Aztlán, 25
Valencia, Carlos, 307–309
Valencia, Richard, 10, 259, 297–299, 301
Valencia-Cruz, Betty, 298–299, 301, 305, 307–308
Vallejo, Guadalupe Mariano, 203–205, 207, 210, 265–266
Vargas, Governor Diego de, 93
Vásquez de Coronado, Francisco, 72
Velasco, Viceroy Luis de, 81–82
Velázquez, Governor Diego, 42
last full blooded Chumash in Ventura, 300
Veracruz, 27. See also Olmec
Vigil, James Diego, 14–15
Visigoths, 40
Vitoria, Father Francisco de, 52–53
Vizcáino, Sebastián, 128
map, 131
route, 133
Weber, David, 10, 15–16, 18–19, 117, 136
Y’Barbo, Antonio Gil, 111, 115, 325n.6
under United States, 230, 240–242
Yucatan Peninsula: conquest, 55
and Hernán Cortés, 42
Toltec-Chichimec, 34. See also Teotihuacán
Yuma, 125, 132–133, 138, 140, 152, 320n.6
Yuma Crossing, 132–140
Zacatecas, 4–5, 8, 75–77, 312–313
Zaldívar, Captain Juan de, 86–87
Zumárraga, Father Juan de, 78
Zuñiga y Acevedo, Viceroy Gaspar de, 82