bloomery the earliest method of smelting iron. A bloomery is a pit or a chimney with an air supply in which iron ore is heated with charcoal. Carbon monoxide produced by the incomplete burning of the charcoal reacts with the ore in a reduction process that releases small particles of metal, which fall to the bottom of the furnace to produce a spongy mass called a bloom. This can then be worked with a hammer.
bronze an alloy of copper and either arsenic or tin, which produces a material that is harder and more durable than copper alone. Since ores of tin and copper rarely occur together, bronze working stimulated trade between different cultures in the ancient world. Bronze can be cast into various shapes or hammered into flat sheets from ingots.
Eurasian steppe an extensive area of grassland stretching from what is now Ukraine eastwards to Mongolia. During the Bronze Age the steppe supported the grazing herds of nomadic tribespeople, whose mobility was based on their domestication of the horse and probably sheep, goats and cattle. Their horsemanship was a great advantage in military terms, while the mobility of these tribes was significant in disseminating language and culture over a wide area. The Great Wall of China was built in part to protect the Central Plains from attack by the Eurasian nomads.
jade this is the name for two types of metamorphic rock, nephrite and jadeite; nephrite was the stone used for various decorative purposes in Bronze Age China. Nephrite can be a creamy-white or various shades of green, and nephrite deposits in China were mined as early as 6000 BCE.
metallurgy the science and technology of metals, including the methods of extracting metals from ores, the process of alloying, and the investigation of the composition and properties of different metals.
Silk Road a series of trading routes that connected East and West from about 200 BCE, named after the trade in Chinese silk carried out along its length, although the route also transmitted other trade goods as well as being a conduit for social, political, philosophical and cultural interchange.
vassal state a state that is subordinate to another. During the Zhou dynasty there were a number of states that recognized the authority of the Zhou court and supplied military assistance when requested. Some were little more than fortified towns, but others controlled significant amounts of territory and enjoyed a degree of autonomy.
Warring States period period following on from the Spring-and-Autumn period, 475 BCE to 221 BCE, roughly corresponding to the second part of the Eastern Zhou dynasty. As the Zhou weakened, various smaller states struggled for supremacy, and various alliances and wars took place, culminating in the victory of Qin state and the unification of China under Emperor Qinshihuang in 221 BCE.
From 1200 BCE, horses and chariots quickly became established at Yinxu. The majority of about 60 Shang horse and chariot pits discovered so far have been uncovered here. Raising horses and using chariots in hunting and fighting were of central importance for the Shang elites, and thus it was essential that these accompanied them into the afterlife. A group usually consisting of two horses and one chariot decorated with beautiful bronze fittings would be placed at the entrance to a Shang elite tomb. Horses gained a high place in the Shang linguistic hierarchy. In oracle bone inscriptions, the quantification of horses used counting words, the same as those used for humans, while other animals did not merit such distinction. The Zhou, whose ancestors probably learned the skills of horse raising and chariot driving from the tribes in the north, used horses and chariots on an impressive scale. This followed the breaking of the monopoly over the horse and chariot begun by the Shang elites, as more and more aristocrats competed for power and social status. In one sacrificial pit belonging to the tomb of a Qi state ruler, probably Jing Gong, more than 600 horses were buried, a number that the Shang kings would not have even dreamed of. Jing Gong did not have a large number of chariots, however, possibly for fear of exceeding what was merited by his status.
Introduced from central Asia, chariots and domesticated horses followed a different trajectory in terms of the development of power and social hierarchy in Bronze Age China from that experienced elsewhere.
A chariot pit containing six horses and one well-preserved chariot with magnificent decorations was discovered in the centre of Luoyang City in 2002. Archaeologists were thrilled to think they had found a chariot belonging to a Zhou king. If true, as was testified by numerous historical texts, then it was possibly a final attempt by the Zhou king to maintain his ever-declining economic and political power. Soon the rule breakers from the Qin and Chu states openly used this six-horse and one-chariot pit in elite tombs.
JING GONG
547–490 BCE
Ruler of Qi state and a major power player during the Spring-and-Autumn period.
Yijie Zhuang
Bronze harness pieces from a chariot team; chariots were elite status symbols from the Shang period onwards.
Warfare and violence were commonplace in Bronze Age China, and military power was essential to the political authority of the Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties. Military campaigns featured frequently in inscriptions on oracle bones and bronzes, and armies consisting of several thousand soldiers were levied against hostile polities. The Western Zhou maintained a regular force composed of ‘Six Armies of the West’ and ‘Eight Armies of the East.’ The most common type of military force was probably infantry. Chariots were introduced by the late Shang and gained significance in both rituals and warfare. The emergence of the bronze industry contributed fundamentally to weapon production. Specialized weapons emerged, such as ge (dagger-axes), mao (spears) and jian (swords). Weapons were also made of jade, and most of these have been discovered in elite tombs. This symbolic representation of actual weapons in precious materials suggests the primacy of warfare and weapons. Military leadership and achievement were celebrated, as evidenced from the large numbers of weapons placed in tombs. One of the best-known military leaders was Fu Hao, a consort of King Wu Ding, who led numerous campaigns. Over 100 bronze and jade weapons were uncovered in her tomb, some of them bearing her personal name and featuring intricate designs.
Military proficiency was crucial for the maintenance of power and authority. Armies and weapons progressively became more specialized during the Chinese Bronze Age.
Shang oracle bone inscriptions note that military expeditions were often led by kings and elites. Certain types of weapons, such as yue (battle axes), have only been found in high-status tombs, together with large numbers of other weapons and ritual vessels. It is probable that they represented an individual’s military power and served as symbols of leadership. Military ability, therefore, was closely linked to identity, status and power.
WU DING
reigned c. 1250–1190 BCE
King of the Shang dynasty at Anyang.
FU HAO
died c. 1200 BCE
Royal consort of Wu Ding and a military leader.
Qin Cao
The introduction of bronze technology permitted the mass manufacturing and development of bronze weapons.
Even the seemingly consolidated Western Zhou regime faced constant attacks from neighbouring powers. Although he had large standing armies at his disposal, the Zhou king often had to seek help from the regional rulers. An agreement between the state and regional or private armies was established by a special event, often ending with the taking of a pledge by the participants. Bronze vessels were produced to mark such treaties. The Zhou king would not always protect the regional states, however; worse, he sometimes launched attacks on them. The regional rulers did not have the legal right to abandon their king. They could overthrow him but that would require the sanction of all the other regional rulers. Often all they could do was condemn the king as immoral, as manifested by bronze inscriptions. After the eastern migration of the Zhou court following their defeat by the Quanrong (nomads) and their allies, a period dominated by battles between the Zhou and the nomads and among the regional rulers, military alliances were essential for the consolidation of any state. At an extraordinary site in the Jin state capital, more than 5,000 fragments of jade and stone items were found in a number of pits, with characters written in red or black, alongside animal skeletons. These records dealt with the making of covenants, exchanging hostages and cursing enemies, indicating how frequently the Jin state was involved in conflicts.
At a time when warfare was the norm, vows and pledges were central activities in elite circles to expand and consolidate their territories.
When the rebel forces gathered outside Yinxu, their leader, King Wu, made this pledge before his army: ‘Ah! ye hereditary rulers of my friendly states; ye managers of affairs, the ministers of instruction, of war, and of public works; the many officers subordinate to them; the master of my bodyguards; the captains of thousands, and captains of hundreds; and ye, O men of Yong, Shu, Qiang, Mao, Wei, Lu, Peng and Pu; lift up your lances, join your shields, raise your spears; I have a speech to make.’ (translated by James Legge from The Book of Documents, Chapter 30, Mu shi)
KING WU
died c. 1040 BCE
Son of King Wen, conquered the Shang with his joint army of different regional military groups.
Yijie Zhuang
Many records of alliances have been found, indicating the importance of allies in this turbulent era.
King Mu is undoubtedly the most legendary monarch in Chinese history. Living c. 1000 BCE, he was said to have claimed the throne at the age of 50 and to have died 55 years later. Most scholars question the authenticity of the historical record, as to live for 105 years would be highly unlikely in that era.
However, King Mu is legendary not for his age, but for his epic journeys. According to historical texts written between 800 and 200 BCE, King Mu led the imperial troops to fight against the western tribes and met the Queen Mother of the West (the goddess of eternal life in ancient Chinese myth). This meeting was recorded in a novel called The Legend of King Mu, the earliest novel known in China. The discovery of the novel was itself dramatic. In 281 CE, an ancient tomb in Ji county, Henan province was robbed. The robbers found many bamboo slips. Some of them were used for lighting, while the rest were left outside the tomb and were subsequently brought back to the capital for collating and interpretation. The Legend of King Mu was among those books identified, most of which dated to the Warring States period (475–221 BCE).
The book says that King Mu had a carriage drawn by eight horses. After travelling 90,000 li (1 li = c. 500 metres) westwards, King Mu reached ‘The Kingdom of the Queen Mother of the West’ and held a banquet with her. This account has provoked the curiosity and imagination of readers on questions such as the route of King Mu’s journey and where he met the Queen Mother of the West. Some scholars believe that he went across the southern edge of the Tarim basin, through the Pamirs, Iran and over the Caucasus mountains, and arrived in Eastern Europe. ‘The Kingdom of the Queen Mother of the West’ was located on the peak of Mount Elbrus in the Caucasus to the northwest of Teheran. Others think that he went to a country in central Asia from the southern Tianshan mountains. A third view holds that he set off from the Hexi corridor to Turpan, then went across the northern Tianshan mountains and reached the Yili valley.
Chao Tang & Yijie Zhuang
A painting showing King Mu of Zhou being entertained by a woman playing the guzheng. This depiction is from a period later than the Bronze Age.
The most famous Chinese military treatise, The Art of War, is attributed to Sun Zi (or Sun Tzu), an army commander of the Wu state. In the formation of a world made up of a number of rival states, the practice of war became more specialized. This period witnessed the compilation of many texts that considered a new subject – warfare and its relation to states. Drawing on contemporary combat examples, The Art of War is divided into 13 themed chapters, covering the key stages of waging a war, from preparation to manoeuvring and attacking. Many chapters are devoted to the arts of strategy and manipulation. For instance, the final chapter, ‘Using Spies’, emphasizes the importance of knowing an enemy’s circumstances. Five types of spies – ‘local’, ‘internal’, ‘converted’, ‘doomed’ and ‘surviving’ – should be drawn upon to obtain accurate information. One of the most famous quotations from The Art of War is ‘If you know the enemy and know yourself, you need not fear the result of a hundred battles’. The Art of War was highly regarded by later Chinese dynasties. From the 1960s, its wisdom was applied in business contexts by the Japanese, and its influence has reached beyond its original military scope.
The Art of War is considered to be one of the classic treatises on military strategy and tactics.
Over the centuries, many scholars have debated the content of The Art of War and its attribution to Sun Zi. In 1972 inscribed bamboo slips with the text of The Art of War were unearthed in a Western Han tomb at the foot of Yinque Mountain, Linyi, Shandong province, dating back to the 2nd century BCE. This archaeological discovery confirmed the authenticity of the 13-chapter treatise.
SUN ZI
c. mid 6th–mid 5th century BCE
General of the Wu state and author of The Art of War.
Qin Cao
Sun Zi, author of The Art of War, one of the most influential military treatises of any period in human history.
The capital cities of Bronze Age dynasties usually served as craft-production centres which made not only everyday goods for commoners such as ceramics and bone tools, but also prestige items such as bronzes and jade artefacts that were restricted to elites or royals. The natural resources required for manufacturing high-status objects, as well as certain necessities like salt and stone, were not immediately available in the heartland of these dynasties. For this reason the grand expansions of the Erlitou and early Shang cultures are often considered a strategy to establish outposts so as to monitor the transport of resources. The best-known example is Panlongcheng, an early Shang colony in present-day Huanpi, Hubei province, which safeguarded the transport to the north of copper and tin produced from ores in the Yangtze river valley. Even though the late Shang did not follow this strategy in setting up widespread outposts, long-distance exchange continued to thrive. For example, turtle shells and cowry shells excavated at Yinxu may have been transported there from the far south, for example the Yangtze river valley or the coastal area. Scientific analysis of jade objects from the Fu Hao tomb also confirmed that considerable numbers of them are Xinjiang nephrite, indicating the existence of a trade network that linked the late Shang core with communities in the west.
The manufacture of elite goods using exotic resources and the redistribution of these items was a cornerstone of the Bronze Age political system.
Long before the Silk Road was opened up, long-distance exchange between East and West Asia had already taken place and introduced not only exotic goods but also significant technologies – horses, chariots and metallurgy (both bronze and bloomery iron) – into China through the Hexi corridor before or during the Bronze Age. These exchanges had transformative social impacts that eventually became the defining features of Bronze Age China.
Wengcheong Lam
The discovery of jade and bronze artefacts far from the sources of the raw materials required for their production is evidence of the huge distances over which goods were traded in ancient China.
The most common mode of subsistence for the Bronze Age nomads in northern China was hunter-gathering and pasturage, though they did settle occasionally and turn to agriculture. Scholars believe that the reason they moved southwards was the harsh environment caused by climatic changes and the consequent lack of food. In the oracle bone records, the Shang referred to the people around them as ‘fang’, some of these might have been nomads. A clearer picture of them emerges from the Western Zhou period. The invasion of the Western Zhou capital by the Quanrong (barbarians named Quan) was probably the most significant meeting of the two sides. The Zhou were defeated and forced to move their capital to the east. The Great Wall of China was also initiated, to some extent, by the necessity of repelling the nomads. Nevertheless, communication between the nomads and the agricultural communities extended beyond warfare. ‘Wearing Hu dress and shooting from a horse’ is an account of Wu Ling, the king of Zhao state during the Warring States period, who ordered his soldiers to learn from the nomads and to substitute short and close-fitting clothing for their flowing garments, in order to increase their combat effectiveness. The nomadic tribes also made great contributions to various areas of knowledge, such as the use of horses and chariots, metallurgy and the interchange of many kinds of plants and animals.
On the vast steppes in the north of China were communities that moved around foraging for food, some of which headed south and made contact with the settled agricultural communities.
As a result of their particular environment and way of life, material remains of nomads are quite different from those of agricultural settlements. They usually lived in caves or tents, so dwelling foundations are relatively few. Ceramics are not suitable for a mobile lifestyle, so these are rarely found. Bronze tools and weapons, and gold and silver jewellery are, however, comparatively common. Animal sacrifices have also been found in tombs and animal motifs are common decorations on artefacts.
WU LING
Reigned 325–299 BCE
King of Zhao state during the Warring States period.
Sai Ma
Animals were common subjects for gold and bronze artefacts made by the nomadic tribes of the Eurasian steppe.
The ‘northern zone’ is the term used to refer to the region north of the Great Wall, where the landscape is dominated by semi-arid grassland. Because of its location, this area was a connecting route as well as cultural intermediary between the Central Plains and the Eastern Eurasian Steppe from the Neolithic period. From the late Neolithic period, this area is known for the widespread use of metal objects. Because of the generally early date of these metal finds and the region’s dynamic relationship with the surrounding cultures, it is believed that early metallurgy techniques were transmitted from the Eurasian Steppe to the Central Plains via this region. However, although many cultural features were shared between the peoples of the Central Plains and those living in this region, their strategies in metallurgy were in stark contrast. Communities in the northern zone used bronze to manufacture tools and personal decorations, whereas in the Central Plains bronze was mainly used for ritual items; in the Central Plains, casting employed sophisticated piece-moulding, in contrast with the simple bi-valve moulds used in the northern zone; arsenical copper and precious metals were seldom used in the Central Plains, but were widely used in the northern zone. These distinctions indicate that this area was culturally independent from the Central Plains during most of the Bronze Age.
The northern zone lies in a critical position between the Eurasian Steppe and the Central Plains of China, acting as mediator of cultural interaction between these two regions. Metallurgy was probably introduced to the Central Plains from this region.
The Lower Xiajiadian culture in the Liao river valley is one of the most important Bronze Age cultures in the northern zone. It is broadly dated between the late third millennium and the late second millennium BCE. Its society was probably based on kinship, and members of rich families boast large collections of tomb artefacts, especially bronze ornaments. The most impressive cemetery revealed 60 metal objects, 52 of which were found in the tombs of wealthy families.
Siran Liu
Tools and items of jewellery were characteristic of the metalwork of the northern tribes.
