Annotations for 1 Timothy

1:1 Paul. Ancient letters started with the author’s name. God our Savior. People depicted many gods and even rulers as “saviors,” but Jewish texts apply the designation especially to the one true God (e.g., Isa 43:11; 45:21; Hos 13:4).

1:2 To Timothy. After naming the designated recipient, letters included greetings. Although most letters were private correspondence, some were written with a wider eventual audience in view (cf. “you all” in 6:21; 2Ti 4:22); Paul addresses Timothy but might also bolster Timothy’s public authority through the letter. my true son in the faith. See 1Co 4:17 and note on 1Co 4:14. Grace . . . peace. See note on Ro 1:7.

1:3 Macedonia . . . Ephesus. One leaving Ephesus for Achaia could travel north to Troas (2Ti 4:13), sail to Macedonia, and then follow the major Roman road through Macedonia until turning south into Achaia, the capital of which was Corinth.

1:4 myths and endless genealogies. Philosophers often despised or allegorized myths; they condemned myths and genealogies. Paul probably refers here to Jewish myths and genealogies (Titus 1:14). Jewish people usually denied that Scripture included myths, but many Jewish storytellers expanded on Biblical accounts and some even wrote new “revelations,” which they attributed to Biblical persons (see, e.g., note on Jude 14–15). Some suggest that “genealogies” here refers to expansions of Biblical genealogies, as in some Jewish works from this period, or perhaps to false post-Biblical attributions of ancestry.

1:5 a pure heart and a good conscience. Scripture values a pure heart (Ps 24:4; 51:10; 73:1; Pr 22:11); Greek sources value a good conscience.

1:6 meaningless talk. Many ancient sages ridiculed quibbling over trivial matters. Sometimes they also accused teachers of rhetoric of valuing persuasiveness above truth. Some Jewish teachers also quibbled over details or made arguments based on slight changes in spelling or pronunciation.

1:9–10 Ancient writers often listed various vices.

1:9 the law is made not for the righteous but for lawbreakers. Philosophers believed that wise people did not need laws, because their wise behavior itself modeled the moral truth on which laws were based. Civil law is normally designed to restrain harm, not to transform hearts. those who kill their fathers or mothers. Most people in antiquity would have despised sins such as irreligion and regarded murder of parents as among the most heinous conceivable crimes. (The Roman penalty for this crime was drowning.)

1:10 those practicing homosexuality. Although the ancient world knew of sexual preferences, it thought in terms of same-sex actions rather than orientation; Greek men often slept with other males as well as with women (see the article “Homosexual Activity in Antiquity”). slave traders. People sometimes raised for slavery the many babies left to die on trash heaps, but traders also bought and sold people, who often (especially in the case of girls) were raised as prostitutes. (Biblical and ancient Near Eastern law assigned a death penalty for enslaving people who were not prisoners of war; see Ex 21:16; Dt 24:7.) perjurers. Deemed impious, since they lied despite invoking the witness of a deity.

1:12 I thank. Ancient letters sometimes included a thanksgiving.

1:13 blasphemer . . . persecutor . . . violent man. Paul’s past offers hope for others that also need to repent (v. 20). persecutor. See Ac 7:58; 8:1–3; 9:1–2. I acted in ignorance and unbelief. Ancient thinkers usually regarded ignorance as mitigating guilt, though not eliminating it.

1:15 Here is a trustworthy saying. The Pastoral Letters often cite a “trustworthy saying” (3:1; 4:9; 2Ti 2:11; Titus 3:8).

1:16 as an example. Speakers and writers often used people or events as examples or models.

1:17 the King eternal, immortal, invisible, the only God. In praising a deity, Greeks and sometimes Jews would list his or her titles and attributes. Diaspora Jews sometimes spoke like Paul here; even Greek thinkers valued what was eternal and invisible, though to many Gentiles talk of an “only God” (rather than merely a supreme one) sounded intolerant.

1:18 the prophecies once made about you. Jewish groups differed as to whether prophecy continued, but no other ancient groups known to us included widespread prophecy to the extent found in early Christianity (1Co 14:31). One or more leaders prophesied to Timothy when they laid hands on him for ministry (1Ti 4:14). fight the battle well. Ancient thinkers sometimes depicted their work for spreading truth with military imagery.

1:19 suffered shipwreck. Ancient thinkers frequently employed images from sailing (cf. Eph 4:14; Jas 1:6) as well as from battles (see note on v. 18).

1:20 Hymenaeus. On Hymenaeus’s views (Hymenaeus was not a common name, so this is presumably the same one), see note on 2Ti 2:17–18. handed over to Satan to be taught not to blaspheme. Churches probably borrowed the model of different levels of discipline from Jewish communities (attested both in the Dead Sea Scrolls and later rabbis). Jewish communities sometimes excluded a person from common meals or fellowship for a period of time, beat them (not attested in early Christianity), or expelled them from the community completely, for various lengths of time or even permanently. The exclusion here (and in Mt 18:15–20; 1Co 5:5) is to solicit repentance.

2:1–2 petitions, prayers, intercession and thanksgiving be made . . . for kings and all those in authority. Rome allowed the peoples of its empire to worship their own gods, but most also showed their loyalty to Rome by worshiping the goddess Roma and the spirit of the emperor. Because Jewish people rejected all gods but their own (cf. v. 5), Rome allowed them to pray and sacrifice for the emperor’s health without praying and sacrificing to him. Synagogues also offered prayers for his welfare. In AD 66, however, when Jewish revolutionaries decided to overthrow Roman rule, they stopped the sacrifices in the temple, thereby declaring war against Rome. Christian prayers for the emperor and provincial and local officials allowed Christians to demonstrate that they were good citizens of the society in which they lived (Jer 29:7). Paul is interested in peace (v. 2) and in the honor of the gospel (vv. 3–4).

2:5 one God and one mediator between God and mankind. Although some polytheists identified Israel’s God with the supreme God, many considered Jewish people intolerant for believing in only one God. Christians’ further limitation to one mediator might seem even more intolerant, though Christians were multiethnic and affirmed that God wanted all to be saved (v. 4). Jewish people viewed Moses as a sort of mediator between God and Israel; Jesus is a fuller mediator between God and all humanity.

2:6 ransom. Could be a price for others’ freedom (Ex 30:12; Nu 3:12; Mk 10:45).

2:8–15 Paul addresses appropriate conduct in the house churches. He might focus more on women (vv. 9–15) than men (v. 8) because the former outnumber the latter (as was the case among converts to Judaism) or because women are causing more problems in this congregation.

2:8 lifting up holy hands. Both Jewish and Gentile worshipers and petitioners of deities lifted or stretched out their hands toward the deities (e.g., Ps 77:2; 134:2). Scripture spoke of hands pure from wrongdoing (Ps 24:4; 73:13), and Diaspora Jews washed their hands before prayers.

2:9–10 dress modestly . . . adorning themselves, not with elaborate hairstyles . . . but with good deeds. A common topic of moral teachers’ warnings, both among Jews and Gentiles, involved excessive adornment, using language similar to what appears here. Jewish teachers were particularly concerned about men being sexually tempted; Gentile writers complained about ostentation. Wealthy women sometimes braided their hair with gold, displaying their extravagance. Because women normally covered much of their body but single women kept their heads bare, men often found hair especially attractive. Wealthier women, in whose homes the churches often met, often kept their heads uncovered, especially in their homes (see the article “Head Coverings in Antiquity”). Greco-Roman moralists often stressed that it was inward adornment rather than outward adornment that would please a good husband.

2:11 quietness and full submission. Greek culture, predominant in Ephesus, valued women’s meekness and quietness. (For behaving respectably in the culture, cf. notes on 5:7; 6:1–2.) More generally, teachers expected new students to learn quietly (cf. v. 2) and submissively (see note on 1Co 14:35). In a first-century setting, what might stand out as more unusual here was that, given these conditions, Paul expressly encourages women to learn; see the article “Women’s Education in Antiquity.” This would be important if some women are being targeted by false teachers (2Ti 3:6).

2:12 to teach or to assume authority over a man. Both in Jewish and Gentile cultures, it was extremely rare (in many circles unheard of) for a woman to teach or to assume authority over a man. The present situation would make such a warning even more vital: people were misinterpreting Scripture (1:4–7), women were less trained in Scripture (see the article “Women’s Education in Antiquity”), and the misinformed were targeting women (who, as noted, were less trained) to spread their teachings (see notes on 5:13; 2Ti 3:6). Paul’s warning makes good sense in such a context. If part of the problem is that the women are uninformed, Paul may offer a long-range solution to this deficiency in v. 11 (cf. Ro 16:1–4, 7; Php 4:2–3). The matter is, however, debated (see note on v. 14).

2:14 it was the woman who was deceived. For the argument from sequence of creation, cf. 1Co 11:7–12 (where Paul urges head coverings), though cf. God often blessing the younger over the older in Genesis, e.g., Ge 25:23; 48:14–19. Jewish tradition elaborated, and sometimes argued women’s intellectual inferiority from, Eve’s deception in Ge 3:1–6. Paul sometimes applies Scripture in an ad hoc manner (see, e.g., note on Gal 3:16), but he more often employs it universally (see, e.g., Ro 5:12–21 and notes on Ro 15:12, 13). Some interpreters thus apply this passage to women universally, suggesting that women should not teach because, being more deceivable, they are apt to mislead others. Other interpreters contend that Paul applies this analogy only to the deceivable, targeted women of Ephesus (for the situation there see notes on vv. 11, 12). They cite Paul’s support for some ministry of women (Ro 16:1–4, 7; Php 4:2–3), and his use of the Eve analogy elsewhere to other groups deceived at the time (especially 2Co 11:3). The matter is thus debated.

2:15 women will be saved through childbearing. In Paul, “saved” most often involves deliverance from sin or judgment (as in v. 4; 1:15; 4:16). Some thus understand this passage as suggesting that women have eternal life by following their proper role, including as child-bearers (cf. 5:10), perhaps for the sake of defying the false teachers (cf. 4:3) or for the gospel’s respectability (cf. 5:14–15; 6:1; Titus 2:4–5, 8, 10). Others, noting that the Greek term here translated “saved” usually meant deliverance or safety, especially in a childbearing context, suggest divine protection during childbirth. Both Jewish and Gentile women regularly prayed for this, and some Jewish traditions associated the judgment on Eve with dying in childbirth. On this view, Paul might qualify his analogy with Eve (vv. 13–14), here avoiding association with the judgment of Ge 3:16.

3:1–7 Ancient writers often listed qualifications for offices, and even more often listed virtues appropriate to those holding such offices. Exceptions were not stated in general lists of qualifications but might be made for particular qualifications in extenuating circumstances.

3:1 Some thinkers encouraged anyone qualified for leadership to serve society. overseer. A Greek administrative title also appearing in the Greek translation of the OT and (in Hebrew form) in the Dead Sea Scrolls. Cf. note on Titus 1:7.

3:2 above reproach. Along with being of “good reputation” (v. 7), expectations of high character frame the list; being honorable in the public view was considered important for leaders, and even more crucial for leading representatives of minority movements, which were sometimes readily slandered. faithful to his wife. Cf. 5:9 (see note there). The false teachers shunned marriage (4:3), but adultery and sexual immorality were common (see the article “Prostitution and Sexual Immorality”), and some men had multiple concubines or practiced bigamy. (Polygamy, by contrast, was not legal in the Greek and Roman worlds, and thus was not Paul’s primary concern here.) hospitable. See note on Ac 16:15.

3:4 must manage his own family well. Cf. note on v. 15. Many thinkers argued that leaders in society should first prove their leadership skills in the home. (This concern might prove especially important for churches, which at this time met in homes.) his children obey him. Family members’ behavior could bring honor or shame on the entire household (cf., e.g., Pr 10:1; 27:11; 29:15). Men held considerable authority over their families; all ancient cultures expected minor children to obey (cf. Dt 21:20). In principle, Roman fathers maintained the right of life and death over their children, although this was barely ever exercised in this period except with newborns and would not be relevant in Ephesus. Nevertheless, the principle illustrates the degree of authority that ancient Mediterranean society accorded fathers.

3:6 not be a recent convert. See note on v. 10.

3:8 deacons. The Greek term here can refer to any kind of minister, or active agent of God’s message (e.g., in 2Co 3:6), but here probably refers to a church office (cf. Php 1:1). Perhaps the term involves administration of house churches or what grew into the second-century diaconate; evidence for the first-century meaning, however, remains elusive.

3:10 must first be tested. People normally expected leaders to begin with and first be tested in lower offices. This was not possible for some recently founded churches (Titus, e.g., does not mention this requirement), but the church in Ephesus had now existed for more than a decade.

3:11 the women. Scholars debate whether “the women” here refers to female deacons or to male deacons’ wives (in ancient society, men were sometimes ridiculed for their wives’ behavior). By the early second century, a Roman governor in Asia Minor is apparently familiar with female deacons. See the NIV text note. not malicious talkers. Women often conversed in their neighborhoods, and custom allowed them to gossip (cf. perhaps 5:13); shaming people in this way served as a form of moral social control, but the scandalous rumors behind it were often false or exaggerated (hence “malicious talkers”).

3:12 See notes on vv. 2, 4.

3:14 I hope to come to you soon. Letters sometimes served as a substitute for one’s presence. They also sometimes announced one’s coming and often communicated a fond desire to see the recipient in person.

3:15 God’s household, which is the church of the living God. Ancient political thought treated the household as a microcosm for society; some suggest that family-based house churches here might similarly be meant to mirror God’s larger household, the church as a whole (cf. vv. 4–5, 12).

4:1 The Spirit clearly says. Reports a divine message (cf. Ac 21:11). Ancient Jewish thinkers highlighted the Biblical association between the Spirit and prophecy. later times. Probably evokes OT passages about the promised future time of restoration (Isa 2:2; Mic 4:1), but applicable to the present era between the Messiah’s first and second comings (cf. Ac 2:17). some will abandon the faith. Many Jewish thinkers expected widespread apostasy in the period just before the end of the age (cf. note on 2Th 2:3).

4:2 hypocritical liars, whose consciences have been seared. Might refer to consciences that no longer function, but might instead refer (in view of “hypocritical”) to consciences “branded” with a mark of demonic ownership (cf. v. 1; perhaps Rev 13:16).

4:3 They forbid people to marry. Most people in antiquity valued marriage, but some did oppose marriage (see the article “Celibacy in Antiquity”). abstain from certain foods. See the article “ ‘Pure’ and ‘Unclean’ Foods,” see also note on Ro 14:2.

4:4 everything God created is good . . . received with thanksgiving. The usual Jewish blessing before a meal praised God who created the fruit of the vine; a blessing after the meal, though of uncertain date, announced that “God is good and does good.” God had already declared created foods good (Ge 1:12, 21, 25; 2:9), as also marriage (Ge 2:18).

4:7 godless myths and old wives’ tales. Women were usually illiterate. Men sometimes ridiculed older women, e.g., for idleness or gossip, and disdained their tales and ideas as fit only for children. Although Paul uses the figure of speech, he commands respect for older women (5:2; though cf. Titus 2:3).

4:8 physical training is of some value. Greek men stripped naked for exercise; the gymnasium was the center of civic life in Hellenized towns. Greek and Roman thinkers often used the image of such physical training for moral, intellectual and spiritual discipline. godliness has value for all things. Jewish teachers especially praised study of the law, which they deemed profitable for both life in the present age and that of the age to come.

4:12 because you are young. Timothy joined Paul before AD 50, and was probably young at that time (Ac 16:1–3); society deemed young men adults soon after they reached puberty, and disciples were often in their mid-teens. The narrative date of 1 Timothy may be c. 62–64; Timothy thus could be anywhere from his mid-20s to his mid-30s, probably in his 20s. (The term translated “young” here usually applied to someone under age 29, although it could extend up to age 40.) Despite the valuing of youthful vigor, many regarded youth (especially adolescence) as less responsible, more violent, sexually uncontrolled and impetuous. Many ancient leadership positions became available only at ages 30 or 40. Some young men did achieve early leadership, however, inviting respect. On “elders,” with whom Timothy’s youth would be contrasted, see notes on v. 14; 5:1–2.

4:13 public reading of Scripture, to preaching and to teaching. Jesus’ followers followed the synagogues’ model of reading Scripture during their gatherings. Most congregations could afford at least a law scroll that someone could read, in many locations in the local Greek language; someone would then explain the section that had been read (cf. already Ne 8:8). By the early to mid-second century, churches were also reading first-century texts from the circle of Jesus’ apostles. Ancient thinkers expected letters to convey in some (figurative) sense the writers’ presence; Biblical exposition was the next best thing to Paul’s direct ministry.

4:14 On Paul’s first recorded journey in Timothy’s region, Paul appointed elders in Timothy’s town of Lystra (Ac 14:21–23); after a subsequent visit he took Timothy with him (Ac 16:2–3). through prophecy. Prophecies to leaders were common in ancient Israel, sometimes including at their calling (e.g., 2Ki 9:6–10); see the article “Prophecy in Antiquity.” elders. Ruled OT villages and continued to fill a respected leadership role in this period, though in the Diaspora the specifics varied from one location to another. Usually they functioned as a group. laid their hands on you. Moses laid hands on Joshua (Nu 27:18, 23; Dt 34:9); in the early Christian era, mature Jewish teachers often accredited other Jewish teachers by laying hands on them.

4:16 Watch your . . . doctrine closely. Cf. Introduction to 1 Timothy: Setting and Purpose.

5:1–2 father . . . brothers . . . mothers . . . sisters. Ancient Mediterranean cultures respected elders; some others also advised treating elders like parents and peers like siblings. Some of these elders fill leadership roles (see vv. 17–25; 4:14); many Diaspora synagogues also granted an honored person the title of “father” or “mother” of the synagogue. Jewish tradition stressed humbly giving and receiving correction; correction should be done publicly only if private attempts failed.

5:3–16 Because Paul addresses elders by age (vv. 1–2) and then turns to widows (vv. 3–16) and then to the church office of elders (vv. 17–22), some suggest that the enrolled widows (vv. 9, 11) refer to an order of widows who served the church, as in churches in the second century. Others view them as simply all widows supported by the church; because sufficient wages were far more readily available to men, widows were often destitute without family support. Local synagogues also helped destitute widows among them.

5:4 if a widow has children. Widows without resources of their own usually had to depend on relatives, especially adult children. Many emphasized that one should repay aged parents and grandparents for raising one by supporting them in their old age. Jewish tradition also viewed this obligation as part of what it meant to honor parents (cf. also Mk 7:9–13). Caring for aged parents was a matter not only of custom but also of law, and was the standard practice even in Western society until recent times.

5:5 continues night and day to pray. Jewish tradition valued highly the contribution of prayer offered by older widows dependent on community funds (cf. Lk 2:37).

5:6 dead even while she lives. Some used the term “dead” figuratively; here it involves immoral living (cf. Eph 2:1).

5:7 so that no one may be open to blame. Mainstream society often suspected members of minority movements of sexual immorality; those exposed in such immorality brought not only blame on themselves but also criticism of their movements (cf. 6:1–2).

5:8 worse than an unbeliever. Even Gentiles provided for aged parents (cf. note on v. 4).

5:9–10 Lists of qualifications were common (see note on 3:1–7).

5:9 over sixty. Many counted old age from age 60; some discouraged remarriage for widows after age 50 and for widowers after age 60, since procreation after these times was rare. (For younger widows, see note on v. 4.) faithful to her husband. The Greek phrase so translated here often appears on ancient inscriptions with the meaning translated thus here; husbands who found their wives faithful and honorable often used this phrase on the deceased wives’ tombs.

5:10 good deeds, such as bringing up children. Ancient culture respected women especially for bringing up children. showing hospitality. Because the wife normally was in charge of the home and cooking, she also played an important role in hospitality, a highly valued virtue (see v. 2; see also note on Ac 16:15). washing the feet of the Lord’s people. Although hosts provided guests water for the guests to wash the guests’ feet, the hosts did not wash guests’ feet themselves. In virtually any setting, those actually washing feet were servants or sometimes others who took such a humble position (cf. 1Sa 25:41; see note on Jn 13:5).

5:11 sensual desires overcome their dedication to Christ. People sometimes took vows of commitment when joining a group (here, perhaps, a group of long-term celibate widows supported by the church); breaking such a vow incurred judgment.

5:13 busybodies who talk nonsense. Ancient custom expected many uneducated women to indulge in gossip, behavior condemned by ancient moral teachers. The wording here also could apply to those spreading false ideas; the false teachers (cf. 1:6–7) may have targeted widows (cf. 2:11–12; 2Ti 3:6) because (1) women were usually less educated and (2) widows were the women who most often owned their own homes, useful for meeting places for new congregations.

5:14 younger widows to marry, to have children. Both Jewish and Gentile cultures valued the rapid remarriage of widows of childbearing age. Moral teachers also urged that wives be sexually pure, modest, meek and obedient to their husbands; they should be devoted to domestic duties, particularly bearing and raising young children. The ideal wife of Pr 31:10–31 works hard, including in public; by contrast, the Greeks’ ideal wife stayed largely out of public sight, managing the home. (Greek culture dominated Ephesus.) Although the division of public space from private space was less strict in practice, Greeks treated public space as more the male sphere and private, domestic space as more the female sphere. slander. Avoiding grounds for outsiders’ slander was essential (see note on v. 7).

5:15 turned away to follow Satan. Developing OT teaching, Jewish tradition associated Satan with temptation as well as with deception and accusation. He dominated the unrighteous world.

5:16 If any woman . . . has widows in her care. Although most benefactors were men, a number (some estimate 10 percent) were women. Sometimes they had social dependents, which could include blood relatives, slaves, freedpersons or clients.

5:17 elders. See note on 4:14. double honor. When “honor” was spoken of, the term sometimes included monetary payment, a sort of “honorarium” (which fits this context, v. 18). Those who performed exceptional service were often given double pay.

5:18 Do not muzzle an ox. . . . The worker deserves his wages. Paul cites the OT (Dt 25:4; cf. 1Co 9:9) and then, apparently as on the same authoritative level, Jesus’ teaching (recorded in Lk 10:7).

5:19 two or three witnesses. Scripture required a minimum of two or three witnesses for hearings (Dt 17:6; 19:15); the same principle applies to other accusations.

5:20 reprove before everyone. Rome allowed Diaspora synagogue communities to discipline members of their own communities; the discipline here is public shaming. Christians normally reproved in private; public rebuke was reserved for the most serious cases.

5:21 in the sight of God and Christ Jesus and the elect angels. Ancients often called on deities or their surrogates to attest claims. keep these instructions without partiality. Scripture forbade judging with partiality (cf. Lev 19:15; Dt 1:17; 16:19).

5:22 laying on of hands. See note on 4:14; leaders must be tested before being commissioned (see note on 3:10).

5:23 use a little wine. Most people drank wine with their meals. It was watered down (often about two parts water to one part wine), and not distilled to a higher than natural degree of fermentation. Some have suggested that Timothy was abstaining from wine to avoid the criticism of the false teachers (4:3). your stomach. Wine was often used to settle stomachs and was thought to prevent dysentery; it could be used to disinfect water. Some restorative diets recommended water, others wine; wine was also used in some remedies (i.e., medicinally).

5:24–25 On the need to evaluate leaders carefully, see note on v. 22.

6:1–2 Because groups lacking power were easily slandered, their members’ behavior was crucial (cf. 5:7 and note). Groups thought to undermine traditional order, including slave-master relations, were particularly suspect (see note on Eph 5:21–6:9).

6:2 and are devoted to the welfare. The NIV text note (“and benefit from the service”) captures a point that may have surprised ancient hearers: Paul speaks of slaves as benefactors, a term more often applied to wealthy people donating benefactions. Thus Paul, like the philosopher Seneca, might depict slaves as persons free in God’s sight who can count their service as an act of generosity toward the slaveholders. For slavery, see Introduction to Philemon; see also the articles “Slaves and Slaveholders in Ephesians 6,” “Ancient Slavery and the Background for Philemon.”

6:4 unhealthy interest in controversies. Pseudointellectuals liked to quibble about detailed nuances of words rather than deal with crucial issues (see note on 1:6).

6:5 think that godliness is a means to financial gain. Jewish people often recognized wealth as a sign of God’s blessing (e.g., Ge 26:12–13), and many teachers taught that those who served God would become more prosperous. This teaching was, however, meant as a general principle (as in, e.g., Pr 8:18; 10:4, 22): the one who works harder earns more. But these teachers also recognized that wealth could be used for good or evil, and many warned of the dangers of being corrupted by wealth, or even linked godliness to poverty. Similarly, many Gentile philosophers allowed that wealth was acceptable if put to good use, whereas others (especially Cynics) thought that it should be rejected altogether as burdensome. Philosophers did not, however, normally see wealth as a reward for doing good. It is debated whether Paul’s opponents preach that godliness is a means of gain or simply use religion as a means of gain (cf. Jer 6:13; 8:10; Mic 3:11).

6:6 godliness with contentment is great gain. Moralists sometimes used “gain” figuratively, contrasting it with material wealth. Jewish teachers sometimes portrayed present wealth as paltry compared with the true wealth of the world to come. Many philosophers and those influenced by them emphasized contentment; by this philosophers normally meant that people should be self-sufficient, recognizing that they need nothing other than what Nature has given them.

6:7 Here Paul draws on a widely cited principle in antiquity (cf. Job 1:21), sometimes (as in one Roman writer) even with similar wording.

6:8 if we have food and clothing. Even the most ascetic thinkers agreed that food and clothing were fundamental needs, though they and the poorest peasants each had just one cloak. content. See notes on v. 6; Php 4:11–13.

6:9 Those who want to get rich fall into temptation. Ancient writers who warned against seeking to become rich normally addressed those seeking to accumulate wealth (cf. Pr 28:20) rather than those who had already become wealthy through inheritance or industry (v. 17). rich. A relative term; the highest elite displayed extravagant opulence, but even artisans would have been astonished at the lifestyle of middle-class Westerners who own their own lot, home and car.

6:10 the love of money is a root of all kinds of evil. Paul draws here on a widely cited principle in antiquity that had even become proverbial, with similar wording.

6:11 man of God. Scripture applied this title to God’s agents, usually prophets (e.g., Dt 33:1; 1Sa 2:27; 9:6–10). Sometimes later Jewish sources kept the OT title; sometimes they changed it to “prophet.” flee from all this. Writers on moral subjects frequently urged their audience to flee from vices. righteousness . . . gentleness. Lists of virtues were common.

6:12 Fight the good fight of the faith. Ancient writers often used military or, as more likely here, athletic competition images for moral or intellectual battles (cf. 4:7–8; see the article “Athletic Imagery in 1 Corinthians 9”).

6:13 In the sight of God. A charge with deities as witnesses (cf. also 5:21) could be as binding on the person charged as if that person had sworn an oath.

6:14 until the appearing of our Lord Jesus Christ. Greeks often used “appearing” for a self-revelation of a deity; Jewish sources often apply it to God. The language here thus implies Jesus’ deity.

6:15 King of kings and Lord of lords. Especially in the east, rulers who claimed to be supreme kings, such as the Babylonian or the Parthian king, called themselves “King of kings and Lord of lords” (cf. Ezr 7:12; Eze 26:7), meaning the greatest ruler over other rulers. Jewish sources apply it to God (cf. Dt 10:17; Ps 136:3); for Jesus, cf. Rev 19:16.

6:16 alone. See note on 1:17. immortal. Greek-speaking Jews often called God “The Immortal,” adapting Greek descriptions of their gods. unapproachable light. Kings’ great authority made them unapproachable for common people. Jewish traditions described the glory of light around God’s throne (cf. Eze 1:27–28). Most Jewish sources recognized that no one could witness God’s full glory and live (cf. Ex 33:20), though some Jewish mystics claimed to have seen something of God’s glory (developing Isa 6:1; Eze 1:26–27).

6:17 those who are rich in this present world. Most of the wealthy elite profited from renting out inherited land, or from produce that slaves raised on the land. A socially inferior but nonetheless wealthy class of merchants also arose, especially of ship owners; urban Ephesus, with its major harbor, contained more of this latter, newer form of wealth.

6:18 be generous and willing to share. Jewish teachers emphasized the Biblical principle (cf., e.g., Pr 14:31; 21:13) of generosity toward those in need.

6:19 lay up treasure . . . for the coming age. Jewish people sometimes spoke of heavenly rewards as treasure in heaven (cf. Mt 6:20–21).

6:20 opposing ideas of what is falsely called knowledge. Many ancient thinkers claimed to have knowledge; many ancient thinkers also regarded other thinkers’ or groups’ claims to knowledge as false. The debates were widespread; there is no reason to associate the error here with Gnosticism, which is not clearly attested until the second century.