8
Health
IT’S INCREASINGLY DIFFICULT to find large-animal vets who make farm calls. Thus, livestock owners tend to become their own vets. This is, however, not without risk. The most workable solution: Find a vet who’s qualified to treat your species (reread chapter 3 for useful tips on how to find a good one) and establish a relationship, but also learn to address minor problems and routine veterinary procedures yourself.
Calling the Shots
The first thing to learn about keeping your animals healthy is how to give their shots yourself. You need this skill to vaccinate your stock and to treat them when they’re ill. If you’ve never given a shot before, it sounds scary; but if you understand the basics and practice before giving your first shot, it is quite manageable.
Pick the Right Equipment
Choose the smallest syringe and largest needle you can use to perform the task at hand. Large syringes are cumbersome to use, especially in women’s smaller hands, and it’s better to use a large-bore needle to quickly inject a substance than to slowly force viscous fluids through a smaller needle.
Opt for disposable syringes and discard them after use. Don’t try to sterilize and reuse them, as boiling compromises their integrity. Keep a variety of sizes on hand.
There are two types of disposable syringes: smooth top and luer-lock; the needle slides onto the first and screws onto the second. When giving intramuscular shots, the smooth top is best if you prefer to insert the needle into muscle before attaching the syringe — a ploy sometimes used when injecting fractious animals. The luer-lock, however, is more secure and is the type we use and recommend.
Assemble a collection of needles. Subcutaneous injections (SQ; under the skin) should be given using 18- or 20-gauge needles that are H to I of an inch long. Give intramuscular injections (IM; into muscle) using 18- or 20-gauge needles that are 1 to 1H inches long. Transfer needles (for pulling vaccine or medicine out of the bottle) that are long and large-gauge are easiest to use. Some antibiotics are syrupy-thick, and the carriers used in their production make these injections really sting; for these, choose 16-or 18-gauge needles so you can inject the fluid quickly before the animal objects.
Start with enough needles to do the job. You’ll need a new needle for each animal, plus a transfer needle to stick through the rubber cap on each product you’re using (e.g., if you’re vaccinating 10 sheep using CD/T toxoid and Case-Bac, you’ll need 12 needles). Using a new needle each time is less painful for the animal, and it eliminates the possibility of transmitting disease via contaminated needles.
Preparing for the Injection
Don’t combine vaccines or drugs. Mixing could destroy the effectiveness and value of the individual products.
Reread the label on each product and follow directions. The label on health products includes the dosage to be given, the timing of administration, and the route of administration. The most common routes of administration are intramuscular (IM), subcutaneous (SQ), intravenous (IV), intranasal (IN), and topical. The label also states the best method of administration. Generally, bacterins (killed products) can be given subcutaneously. Modified live virus products are usually given intramuscularly, because this allows the virus to reproduce and reach the lymphatic system more easily. Whenever possible (if allowed on the label), use the subcutaneous route. The label will also list warnings, indications for use, withdrawal times if any, and proper methods of storage and disposal (some products can be stored at room temperature; others must be refrigerated), and expiration date.
Restrain the animal using a stout halter and lead, head gate, grooming or milking stand, or restraint chute, or recruit a helper strong enough to hold the animal reasonably still. Proper restraint reduces the potential of hurting the animal or yourself.
Subcutaneous shots are given just under the skin (see step 1 on page 122).
How to Prepare the Needle (for SQ and IM injections)
1. Insert a new, sterile transfer needle through the rubber stopper cap of each product. Never poke a used needle through the cap to draw vaccine or drugs.
2. To draw a shot, attach a syringe to the transfer needle and draw the vaccine or drug into it.
3. When you’re drawing fluid from the bottle, first inject half the amount of air into the bottle (e.g., if you’re drawing 8 cc of fluid, inject 4 cc of air) to avoid the considerable hassle of drawing fluid from a vacuum, then pull a tiny bit more of your required fluid amount into the syringe.
4. Detach the transfer needle, and attach the needle you’ll use to inject the pharmaceutical into your animal. Press out the excess fluid to remove any bubbles created as you drew the vaccine or drug.
Giving the Injection
Injection sites vary from species to species, but overall you want to inject the vaccine or drug where it will work well without injuring the animal or, in some cases, damaging expensive cuts of meat. To minimize the risk of infection and the incidence of injection site lesions, avoid injecting into or under wet or dirty skin.
Never inject more than 10 cc into one site. When making multiple injections, make sure your injection sites are at least 5 inches (13 cm) apart and be careful not to reuse injection sites. When injecting more than one product, don’t inject them in close proximity to one another. Subcutaneous shots are given just under the skin (see step 1 on page 122).
Sheep, goat, and llama vaccines and drugs are usually given subcutaneously. Occasionally nodules develop on the injection site a few days later, and these can be mistaken for caseous lymphadenitis in sheep and goats. To minimize this concern, many producers inject all pharmaceuticals between the front legs where they’re less likely to be noticed and where caseous lymphadenitis abscesses don’t normally occur. Other preferred sites for subcutaneous injections are in the neck, over the ribs, and into the “armpit.” With llamas, the best place is between where the shoulder ends and the neck begins.
PROPER INJECTION SITES
How to Give a Subcutaneous (SQ) Shot
1. Tent the skin to allow the product to be injected under the skin and not into the muscle.
2. Pull the skin away from the animal’s body, then insert the needle into the fold of skin sideways parallel to the animal’s body — never at a right angle. Check to make certain you haven’t poked it out the other side of the fold.
3. Slowly depress the plunger until all product has been dispensed, and then withdraw the needle.
4. Rub the injection site to help distribute the drug or vaccine.
For intramuscular (IM) injections, cattle and equines are injected into the thick muscles in the “triangle” of the animal’s neck. Llamas are generally injected into the upper thigh just below the tail or into the stifle area of the hind leg. Pigs are injected high on the neck behind the base of the ear (piglets can be injected into the top of the hip or the thigh).
How to Give an Intramuscular (IM) Injection
1. Quickly but smoothly insert the needle deep into muscle mass. Be sure to inject straight in, not at an angle.
2. Aspirate (pull back on) the plunger G inch to see if you hit a vein, which is something you want to avoid. If blood rushes into the syringe, pull the needle out, taking great care not to inject any drug or vaccine as you do so, and try another injection site.
Absorption rates vary for subcutaneous and intramuscular injections, and some substances behave differently when given by different routes. If your vet prescribes one route, consult with him before switching to a different one.
Intramuscular injections should be given straight into muscle mass, not at an angle.
Don’t Forget the Epi!
Epinephrine, also called adrenaline or epi, is a naturally occurring hormone and neurotransmitter manufactured by the adrenal glands. It’s widely used to counteract the effects of anaphylactic shock.
Any time you give an injection, no matter which product or the amount injected, be prepared to immediately administer epinephrine to counteract an unexpected anaphylactic reaction. Signs of anaphylactic shock are glassy eyes, increased salivation, sudden-onset labored breathing, disorientation, trembling, staggering, or collapse. If the animal goes into anaphylaxis, you won’t have time to race to the house to grab the epinephrine. You might not even have time to fill a syringe; you have to be ready to inject epinephrine immediately, on the spot.
Keep a dose of epinephrine drawn up in a syringe in your refrigerator. Kept in an airtight container, it will keep as long as the expiration date on the epinephrine bottle. Take a loaded syringe of epi with you every time you give a shot. The standard dosage is 1 cc per 100 pounds; don’t overdose, as it causes the heart to race. Previously available over the counter, epinephrine is now a prescription drug, so you have to get it through a vet.
Administering Liquids and Pastes
Liquid medicines and some dewormers are given orally as drenches. Drenches can be administered using catheter-tip syringes, but the most efficient way to drench is with a dose syringe.
To drench an animal, restrain him and slightly elevate his head — just enough so gravity can help — using one hand under his chin. Insert the nozzle of the syringe between the animal’s back teeth and his cheek (this way he’s less likely to aspirate part of the drench) and slowly depress the plunger, giving the animal ample time to swallow.
When giving semisolid drenches such as paste-type dewormers or gelled medications, deposit the substance as far back on the animal’s tongue as you can reach. In either case, keep the animal’s nose slightly elevated until he visibly swallows. And be careful; if you stick your fingers between the animal’s back teeth you’re likely to be cut (in some species, such as sheep and goats, those molars are sharp) or accidentally bitten.
Wound Care
Animals have a knack for injuring themselves, even in seemingly safe surroundings, so you’ll need to learn how to treat minor wounds.
Keep a supply of saline solution on hand for cleaning cuts, bites, and abrasions. If you’re out of solution, flush wounds using lots of cool water from a hose. After flushing, apply a mild disinfectant like dilute Betadine solution to kill bacteria left on the wound. Be gentle; don’t scrub.
What do you put on this nicely cleaned wound? In many cases, nothing; clean, open wounds heal better (and faster) than injuries coated with gunk. When we do dress a wound, we use holistic liquid dressings such as Schreiner’s Herbal Solution (see Resources) and emu oil.
Don’t attempt to treat a serious wound (including all puncture wounds) yourself. Call your vet if an injury is extensive or bleeding profusely, contaminated by any sort of debris, on or near a tendon or joint, or if it’s already infected.
Taking Vital Signs
It’s important to know how to take your animals’ temperatures and assess their respiration and heart rates.
Temperature
To take an animal’s temperature, you’ll need a rectal thermometer. Veterinary models are best, but digital rectal thermometers designed for humans work, too.
Traditional veterinary thermometers are made of glass and have a ring on the end, to which you can attach a cord. Add an alligator clamp to one end of the cord and knot the other end to the thermometer; that way you can apply the clamp to your patient’s hair or tail before inserting the thermometer, which prevents it from falling to the ground and breaking or from being sucked too far into the rectum to be easily retrieved. Glass thermometers must be shaken down after every use: hold the thermometer firmly and shake it in a slinging motion to force the mercury back down into the bulb. Because a digital thermometer is faster, beeps when done, and needn’t be shaken down, digitals are better for working with livestock.
Restrain the animal in the same manner as when giving shots. Insert the business end of a lubricated thermometer a short way into the animal’s rectum. Use KY Jelly or lubricant designed for veterinary purposes; plain old saliva works in a pinch. Hold a glass thermometer in place for at least two minutes; hold a digital model until it beeps.
After recording the reading, shake down the mercury in glass models, clean the thermometer (glass and digital) with an alcohol wipe, and return it to its case. Always store thermometers at room temperature.
Veterinary thermometers have a ring on the end to accommodate a cord and alligator clip.
ADULT TEMPERATURE BY SPECIES
(temperatures in young may be slightly higher)
HEART RATE BY SPECIES
Heart Rate
The exact places and means of checking heartbeat vary slightly from species to species, but behind the left elbow and under the jaw are generally good spots. The easiest way to check heart rate is with a stethoscope; count the number of pulses in 15 seconds and multiply that number by 4 to get the number of beats per minute (bpm).
Respiration
Watch the animal’s rib cage as it moves and count the number of breaths the animal takes in 15 seconds, then multiply that number by 4.
External conditions can affect readings. Body temperatures rise slightly as the day progresses and may be higher on hot, sultry days. Extreme heat and fear or anger elevates pulse and respiration. Slightly elevated readings are sometimes the norm.
RESPIRATION RATE BY SPECIES
Identifying, Preventing, and Treating the Most Common Illnesses
It’s impossible to discuss every disease encountered by the species covered in this book; these are but a few to be aware of. There are vaccines approved for the ones marked with an asterisk (*); ask your vet for details.
Bloat
Bloat occurs when ruminants gorge on grain (perhaps through raiding an unlocked feed room), legume hay (when they aren’t accustomed to eating it), or tender, high-moisture spring grass. Gas becomes trapped in the rumen and expands until it presses so hard against the animal’s diaphragm that the animal will suffocate without immediate treatment. Equines also suffer from a similar, serious form of bloat caused by the same factors and referred to as tympanitic, or wind, colic.
Symptoms. Bulging, taut sides; the animal looks back at or kicks at her abdomen, grunts, cries out in pain, grinds her teeth; labored breathing; horses may want to roll.
Treatment. This is an emergency situation; call your vet.
Prevention. Store grain and legume hay where animals can’t overindulge; feed grass hay in the morning before turning livestock onto lush, spring pasture.
Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus*
Bovine viral diarrhea virus (also called BVD or BVDV) is a widespread problem for cattle raisers, but it also affects other species such as sheep, goats, and especially llamas. The BVD virus has the ability to replicate into many different variants. If the virus finds itself in a stressful environment or situation, another variant forms. These variants lead to changes in the virus’s disease-causing capabilities, making the disease an especially difficult one to diagnose and treat. Anyone involved in raising miniature cattle or llamas should discuss BVD with his or her vet.
Brucellosis*
Brucellosis is a serious, federally reportable disease. Called Bang’s disease in cattle, B. ovis in sheep, and undulant fever in humans, brucellosis is caused by bacteria from the genus Brucella. Brucellosis can be passed to humans who handle aborted fetuses or consume unpasteurized milk from infected livestock. Brucellosis in animals cannot be treated; any animals that test positive must be destroyed, and all other animals on the same farm must be tested for the disease.
Symptoms. Triggers spontaneous abortions, retained placentas, intermittent fevers, and sometimes manifests in males as orchitis (inflamed testicles) and in females as mastitis.
Prevention. An effective brucellosis vaccine is available for cattle, and it’s sometimes used to vaccinate other species, especially equines; however, before using it off-label (meaning in a way other than what’s prescribed on the product label), check with your vet. There is a blood test for brucellosis (and it’s required for shipping into and out of several states), but it sometimes gives false readings; any animal that tests positive should be retested right away.
Caseous Lymphadenitis (CL or CLA)*
Caseous lymphadenitis (also called cheesy gland) is caused by the bacterium Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis. Although primarily an infection of sheep and goats, CL occasionally occurs in equines, cattle, camelids (including llamas), and pigs. The same bacterium causes ulcerative lymphangitis (an infection of the lower limbs), chronic abscesses in the chest region, and contagious acne in horses.
CL is contagious and incurable. Transmission is by way of pus from ruptured abscesses.
Symptoms. Thick-walled, cool-to-the-touch external abscesses containing odorless, greenish white, cheesy-textured pus. CL abscesses form on lymph nodes and lymphoid tissue, particularly on the neck, chest, and flanks, but also internally on the spinal cord and in the lungs, liver, abdominal cavity, kidneys, spleen, and brain.
Individuals with internal abscesses may waste away, depending on which organs are involved. However, don’t automatically panic when a goat or sheep develops a lump; few of them are caseous lymphadenitis. Sheep and goats are notorious for developing injection site nodules that mimic CL abscesses to a tee. Abscesses can also form when any of hundreds of organisms breach the skin through puncture wounds, splinters, and cuts or abrasions. The only way to be certain an abscess is CL is to have the contents cultured. Isolate animals with ripening (progressively softer-centered) lumps and proceed as indicated below.
Treatment. Any animal with a ripening abscess (whether or not you know for sure it is CL) should be quarantined and the abscess drained and treated according to a veterinarian’s instructions. Don’t allow pus to contaminate your property. Because CL is transmissible to humans, it’s important to wear protective clothing. When the procedure is completed, sterilize or burn the clothing along with anything else contaminated by pus. The animal should remain quarantined until the abscess has healed.
Prevention. Buy only from CL-free flocks and herds. Blood tests are available; have your animals tested, then vaccinate. Colorado Serum’s Case-Bac is an effective vaccine for healthy sheep; to date, there are no species-specific vaccines for llamas or goats. To effectively suppress future abscesses, CL-positive sheep and goats can be vaccinated with an autogenous vaccine custom-made from bacteria of one of your infected animals.
Choke
An animal chokes when it has an object (nearly always a bolus of poorly chewed food) stuck in its throat. It’s a serious matter but not the extreme medical emergency it is when humans choke, because the blockage is in the animal’s esophagus instead of its windpipe and it can still breathe. Choke generally occurs when a famished or greedy animal gobbles its food; animals are particularly likely to choke on pelleted concentrates, unsoaked beet pulp, dry hay cubes, and bulky treats like whole apples or large chunks of carrot.
Symptoms. Most animals panic while experiencing choke. More stoic species like sheep, llamas, and donkeys may stand with their heads down, neither eating nor drinking. Copious amounts of slimy, green matter sometimes streams from the nose.
Treatment. This is an emergency situation; call your vet.
Prevention. Switch to nonpelleted grains or eliminate concentrates altogether. Soak dry feeds such as beet pulp and hay cubes before feeding. Slice or break treats into manageable chunks. Place obstructions such as fist-size rocks in feeders so animals have to shove them out of their way or eat around them and thus stop gobbling their food.
Colic
Colic is defined as severe abdominal pain; it’s a clinical sign or a symptom rather than a disease. All livestock species are prone to colic. There are several types of colic and many causes; all are serious and require prompt veterinary intervention. Colic is a major cause of premature death among equines.
Symptoms. Whereas most colicky horses show dramatic signs of abdominal pain (pawing, looking back or nipping at their sides, stomping, and rolling), species more stoic than horses (such as sheep, llamas, and donkeys) are likely to draw back into themselves, refuse food, and suffer in relative silence. Always suspect colic when a generally outgoing animal seems depressed, stops eating, and stops making manure. Other symptoms include increased respiration, excessive sweating, and sometimes (but not always) lack of gut sounds.
Treatment. If colic lasts longer than 30 minutes, call your vet. In the meantime (and until the vet arrives), allow the animal to rest but prevent horses from rolling as this can contribute to twisted gut. If your vet doesn’t live nearby, discuss colic treatment strategies before you need him. He may prescribe Banamine (flunixin meglumine), a powerful prescription painkiller in paste or injectable form, to have on hand to administer while he’s in transit.
Prevention. It’s better to prevent colic than attempt to cure it. Unfortunately, different things cause different types of colic. The most common type, spasmodic colic, is caused by gas buildup in the digestive tract. Things apt to trigger gas-related colic are eating spoiled feed or drinking stagnant water; overeating rich grass, legume hay, or grain; and sudden changes to the diet or feeding routine. Stress can be a contributing factor, too. Animals that ingest sand and dirt while grazing or eating feed directly off the ground may suffer from sand impaction colic. Old animals unable to properly chew their food, as well as animals with heavy intestinal parasite loads, sometimes suffer impactions, too. Other contributing factors include feeding excess concentrates to animals that don’t need it and not providing enough drinking water — as is apt to occur when water sources freeze during the winter months.
Cushing’s Disease
Cushing’s disease or Cushing’s syndrome (also called hyperadrenocorticism) is a disease of the endocrine system caused by an abnormality of the pituitary gland, which then causes the body to produce excessive amounts of cortisol — the body’s natural steroid hormone. Cushing’s is primarily seen in equines and, less commonly, goats. Elderly equines are more prone to Cushing’s than are younger ones, but it’s not strictly a disease of old age. There is currently no method of prevention.
Symptoms. Increased thirst, appetite, and/or urination; a thick, wavy summer hair coat; a potbellied appearance with loss of topline muscling; chronic laminitis; depression; lethargy; and a compromised immune system leading to increased susceptibility to respiratory disease, abscessed hooves, skin infections, and periodontal disease.
Treatment. There is no cure for Cushing’s, but several effective drugs are used in its treatment.
Encephalitis (Equine)*
There are at least six viruses that cause encephalitis (sleeping sickness) in horses, donkeys, and mules: eastern equine encephalitis (EEE), western equine encephalitis (WEE), Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE), West Nile virus (WNV), the neurological form of equine herpes virus (EHV-1), and rabies. EEE, WEE, VEE, and WNV are transmitted by mosquitoes, which pick up the respective viruses from birds and can pass them on to horses, humans, and other vertebrate species. There are effective vaccines available for all of these diseases, so if you live where mosquitoes are endemic, vaccinate.
Symptoms. Depression, lack of muscular coordination, weakness, circling, head tilt, paralysis, muscle tremors, and convulsions.
Treatment. Treatment is generally unsatisfactory; most equines that contract encephalitis die.
Prevention. Vaccinate.
Encephalitis (Ontario)
Ontario encephalitis is caused by a coronavirus called haemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus (HEV). The virus is widespread in the pig populations of North America but is generally of little concern because clinical disease is rare. This is because most sows have been infected and are immune. They pass their immunity to their piglets in colostrum, and this protects the young animals through the vulnerable period. Although the virus can infect susceptible pigs at any age, it only causes clinical disease in newborn piglets born to sows who are not immune to the virus.
Symptoms. There are two different syndromes. Both manifest around four days of age and affect whole litters. Piglets huddle together, they vomit bright green-yellow vomit, and they are constipated. One syndrome causes piglets to lose their ability to suck or swallow, become very thirsty, and stand with their head over water but be unable to drink. These piglets rapidly waste away and die. The other syndrome causes them to froth and champ at the mouth, tremble, and develop bluing of their extremities and bloated abdomens. They have a stilted gait, which rapidly progresses to partial paralysis. They lie down, go into convulsions, and die within two to four days.
Treatment. There is no cure.
Prevention. None.
Enterotoxemia*
Five types of enterotoxemia (A, B, C, D, and E) have been identified in livestock; various types affect cattle, equines, sheep, goats, llamas, and pigs. Also known as entero, overeating disease, and pulpy kidney, the disease is caused by common bacteria found in manure, soil, and the rumens and guts of perfectly healthy animals. When for one reason or another (overeating on grain or milk, abrupt changes in quantity or type of feed, drastic weather changes) these bacteria quickly proliferate, they produce toxins that, in some types, can kill their host in hours.
Symptoms. Bloating, rocking-horse stance, teeth grinding, crying out in pain, seizures, foaming at the mouth, coma, and death.
Treatment. Treatment is generally ineffective.
Prevention. Vaccinate with species-specific vaccine.
Hoof Rot*
Hoof rot (sometimes called foot rot) is a disease of equines, sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs caused by an interaction of two bacteria, Bacteroides nodosus and Fusobacterium necrophorum. Fusobacterium necrophorum is commonly present in manure and soil wherever livestock is kept; it’s when F. necrophorum forms a synergistic partnership with B. nodosus that hoof rot occurs. F. necrophorum can live in soil for only two to three weeks; it can, however, live in an infected hoof for many months.
Symptoms. Animals with hoof rot are excruciatingly lame; they may hold up an infected hoof and hop on three legs; if one or both forefeet are infected, some species kneel to feed. Trimming infected hooves exposes a putrid-smelling pasty substance lodged between the horny outer surface of the hoof and its softer inner tissues. Infected hooves exude a horrible stench.
Treatment. The infection is spread from infected hooves to the soil to the hooves of healthy livestock, so isolate all infected animals and make no exceptions. To expose disease-causing bacteria to oxygen, trim infected hooves back to the affected areas and remove as much rot as possible. Treat according to your veterinarian’s directions; treatments include the use of topicals (Coppertox, merthiolate, mercurochrome, bleach solution), foot baths and soaks (zinc sulfate, copper sulfate, formaldehyde), and antibiotics.
Prevention. Don’t buy livestock from sale barns or from infected herds. Make certain commercial transporters who carry your animals disinfect their trailers after every trip. Disinfect your shoes after visiting infected facilities. Because hoof rot flourishes in manure and muck, keep barnyards and holding areas as dry as you can. Quarantine infected animals and set up a foot bath (ask your vet which chemicals to use and at what strength to mix them) for noninfected stock where they must walk through it at least twice a day. Vaccinate.
Hypocalcemia (Milk Fever)
Hypocalcemia is caused by a drop in blood calcium a few weeks prior to and immediately after birthing. It is easily confused with pregnancy toxemia. Both are life-threatening situations; call your vet.
Symptoms. Affected animals lose interest in eating, experience muscle tremors, and become progressively weaker until they lie down and won’t get up again; mild bloat; subnormal temperatures as the condition progresses.
Treatment. Proceed according to your vet’s recommendations. The usual treatments include orally dosing with energy boosters such as glucose or NutriDrench and using oral or injectable calcium substances such as calcium gluconate or CMPK (a fluid calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and potassium product).
Johne’s Disease
Johne’s (pronounced YO-nees), also called paratuberculosis, is a contagious, fatal, slow-developing disease of cattle, sheep, goats, and, to a lesser degree, llamas; it’s most commonly seen among dairy cattle. Johne’s is caused by Mycobacterium paratuberculosis, a close relative of the bacterium that causes tuberculosis in humans, cattle, and birds. According to Johne’s Information Center (see Resources) statistics, 7.8 percent of America’s beef herds and 22 percent of dairy herds are infected with M. paratuberculosis. Johne’s disease typically enters flocks and herds when an infected but healthy-looking animal is added to the mix. The infection then spreads to other animals in the group. Young animals are also infected by nursing from infected dams.
Symptoms. Progressive weight loss; weakness.
Treatment. None.
Prevention. Adults should be tested and the flock or herd divided into infected and disease-free herds, then maintained separately from one another. The off-spring of infected females must be removed from their dams before they nurse and grafted onto disease-free foster mothers or bottle raised using milk replacer or milk known to be free of M. paratuberculosis.
Hyperlipemia
Hyperlipemia is a potentially fatal condition triggered by starvation or a stressful event that causes an enormous mobilization of fat from the tissues to the liver. The liver is completely overcome by the overload; it fills with fat and fails, usually resulting in death. Late-gestation female llamas, as well as donkeys, miniature horses, and small-breed ponies, are very prone to developing hyperlipemia if they stop eating for more than a day or two. Jennies and mares (especially if they’re pregnant or lactating) are more likely to develop hyperlipemia than geldings, stallions, or jacks.
Symptoms. Initially, anorexia, lethargy, weakness, and depression; followed by jaundice, ventral edema, head pressing and circling, and other indicators of liver and kidney failure.
Treatment. This is an emergency situation; if an animal, especially a late-gestation female, stops eating and you suspect hyperlipemia, call your vet.
Laminitis (Founder)
Laminitis is inflammation of the sensitive laminae (layers) of the hooves; chronic laminitis is often referred to as founder. Equines and cattle are most prone to laminitis but goats, sheep, and pigs are also affected. Predisposing causes include overeating or sudden access to concentrates, high-grain and low-roughage diets, or high-protein diets. Laminitis can also develop as a complication of acute infections such as mastitis, metritis, or pneumonia, especially after giving birth.
Symptoms. Heat in the hoof wall; increased digital pulses in the pastern; lying out flat, reluctant to rise; hesitant gait (“walking on eggshells”); standing in a sawhorse stance with the front feet stretched out in front to alleviate pressure on the toes.
Treatment. Treatment varies by species; call your vet.
Prevention. Feed a proper diet; make certain livestock can’t gain access to feed rooms to overeat.
Leptospirosis*
Leptospirosis is a worldwide fatal disease of humans, wildlife, dogs, and domestic livestock — particularly cattle, horses, sheep, and pigs. It’s caused by more than 17 species of bacteria known as Leptospira. These bacteria localize in the kidneys or reproductive organs and are shed in the urine, sometimes in large numbers and over a period of months or years. These organisms survive in surface waters such as swamps, streams, and rivers for extended periods, so disease is often waterborne. They also survive in mud and moist soil. Floods often trigger new outbreaks.
Symptoms. Fever, kidney failure, infertility, abortion, anemia, production of abnormal milk (thick, yellow, and blood-tinged, with thick clots and a high somatic cell count), and uveitis (severe eye infection often leading to blindness).
Treatment. Intensive antibiotic therapy depending on species.
Prevention. Vaccination in species for which a vaccine exists; fencing livestock away from potentially contaminated streams and ponds.
Listeriosis
Listeriosis is an uncommon but serious disease caused by a bacterium called Listeria monocytogenes. The bacterium is found in soil, plant litter, water, and even in healthy animals’ guts. Listeriosis is a type of encephalitis (inflammation of the brain). Problems arise when dramatic changes in feed or weather conditions occur, causing bacteria in the gut to multiply. Parasitism and advanced pregnancy can trigger bacteria proliferation, too.
Symptoms. Disorientation; depression; stargazing, staggering, weaving, circling; one-sided facial paralysis, drooling; rigid neck with head pulled back toward flank. Symptoms resemble polioencephalomalacia, rabies, and tetanus. Cattle, goats, sheep, llamas, pigs, and very, very rarely equines are affected.
Treatment. Treat according to your vet’s recommendations.
Prevention. Avoid drastic changes in type and amount of feed, and never feed moldy hay or grain.
Mastitis
Mastitis is inflammation of the udder and can be caused by a number of bacterial and staph agents. It can be triggered by substandard hygiene when milking and by delayed milking in dairy animals, udder injuries, stress, and milk buildup after weaning.
Symptoms. Swollen, hot, hard udder; extreme pain; lameness; loss of appetite; fever; decreased milk production; clumps, strings, or blood in the milk; watery-looking milk. Gangrene mastitis: bruised-looking, extremely swollen and painful udder turning blue as infection takes hold.
Treatment. Both intramammary infusions of antibiotics and systemic antibiotics are generally used. It’s best to have milk samples cultured to determine which bacteria are involved in order to know which medications to use.
Prevention. Practice good milking sanitation. Reduce lactating females’ grain rations for several successive days before weaning and switch them from legume to grass hay, then eliminate all grain postweaning until their udders have dried up.
Metritis
Metritis is a fatal inflammation of the uterus caused by bacterial infection. It’s fairly common in cattle, equines, sheep, goats, llamas, and pigs during the immediate post-birthing period, especially after difficult or assisted deliveries. After giving birth, it is normal for a female’s uterus to contract and squeeze mucus, fluid, and afterbirth out through the vagina. Discharge can continue for several days up to a week or more, depending on the species. If the female is eating well and has a normal temperature with no mastitis, ignore the discharge. However, abnormal discharges at any other time indicate the presence of infection and require treatment. Simple metritis is not to be confused with contagious equine metritis (CEM), an acute, highly contagious venereal disease of horses.
Symptoms. Post-birthing: fever, lethargy. Any other time: white or brown discharge not associated with recently giving birth; inability to conceive.
Treatment. Varies by species; consult your vet.
Prevention. Assisted deliveries should be followed with antibiotic treatment; consult your vet for specific treatments.
Pinkeye
Pinkeye, also known as infectious keratoconjunctivitis, is a bacterial eye infection usually spread by flies and dust. Because it is contagious and can cause ulceration of the cornea and permanent blindness, it should be aggressively treated.
Symptoms. Watery eye, cloudy cornea, light sensitivity.
Treatment. Isolate infected animals in shade or a darkened building. Numerous over-the-counter products are effective against pinkeye; ask your vet for recommendations. Systemic and topical antibiotics are also used.
Pneumonia*
Pneumonia, a serious and potentially fatal inflammation or infection of the lungs, is caused by any of a host of bacteria, fungi, and viruses that often gain a toehold due to environmental factors such as stress; aspiration of milk, vomit, or drench material; damage caused by lungworm infestation; drafts or being hauled in goat totes or stock-type trailers in freezing weather; and dusty feed, bedding, or surroundings. Some forms are contagious.
Symptoms. Loss of appetite; depression; rapid respiration and labored breathing; standing with forelegs braced wide and neck extended; thick, yellow nasal discharge; congestion, coughing, an audible “rattle” in the chest.
Treatment. Call your vet.
Prevention. Remove environmental factors. Effective cattle vaccines are readily available and sometimes used off-label for other species; discuss their use with your vet.
Polioencephalomalacia
Polioencephalomalacia (also called PEM, cerebrocortical necrosis, or goat polio) isn’t related to the viral disease called polio (poliomyelitis) in humans. Polioencephalomalacia is a neurological disease caused by a thiamine (B1) deficiency that culminates in brain swelling and the death of brain tissue. Goats, cattle, sheep, and llamas can be affected.
Symptoms. Disorientation; depression; stargazing, staggering, weaving, circling, tremors; diarrhea; apparent blindness; convulsions; death.
Treatment. If treatment of thiamine injections begins early enough, affected animals begin improving in as little as a few hours.
Prevention. Thiamine deficiencies can be triggered by eating moldy hay or grain; overdosing with amprollium (Corid) when treating for coccidiosis (and never use it to treat goats); ingesting certain toxic plants; reacting to dewormers; and sudden changes in diet, including weaning. Overuse of antibiotics contributes to thiamin deficiencies, too.
Pregnancy Toxemia
Pregnancy toxemia is a fairly common, serious metabolic condition that afflicts cows (particularly beef cattle), does, ewes, and, more rarely, llamas during their final few weeks of pregnancy and the first week or two after giving birth. It’s mainly a condition of obese or thin females and those carrying multiple offspring.
Symptoms. Affected animals become depressed, stop eating, and often separate themselves from the main flock or herd; they are reluctant to walk and spend considerable time lying down. Some will have the odor of acetone (comparable to aromatic solvents such as pain thinner) on their breath. As the condition worsens, the animal develops weakness in the hindquarters and muscle tremors and may collapse.
Treatment. This is an emergency; call your vet. Affected animals that refuse food must be treated aggressively, as a decrease in energy intake causes the disease to progress rapidly. Tempt the animal with favorite foods; dose with glucose given orally or IV; or administer propylene glycol as an oral drench. Cows should be lifted by a hip hoist two or three times a day for 15 to 20 minutes; smaller animals should be encouraged to rise and, if unable to, turned several times per day.
Prevention. Prevention involves maintaining pregnant females in moderate flesh, neither fat nor thin; identifying females with twins and triplets and feeding accordingly; and according to the Merck Veterinary Manual (see Resources), including niacin in the diet of goats and sheep at the rate of 1 gram per day during late gestation.
Rain Rot
Rain rot, also referred to as rain scald or streptothricosis, is caused by a funguslike actinomycetes (an organism that behaves like both bacteria and fungus) called Dermatophilus congolensis. Some authorities claim it’s present in soil; others say it isn’t. Whichever is true, several conditions must be present for it to take hold and proliferate: the organism has to be present on the animal’s skin; the skin must be kept moist; and the skin must be damaged in some way (a cut, scrape, or fly bite) in order for the organism to invade the epidermis layer of the skin. Cattle, sheep, equines, and goats are commonly infected; pigs and llamas less frequently.
Symptoms. In most cases rain rot manifests as small, crusty scabs or slightly raised, matted tufts of hair. The crusts and tufts are easily (though painfully) lifted to reveal pus and raw, pink skin. Lesions generally appear in clumps across the infected animal’s neck, back, rump, and legs; the underbellies and udders of dairy goats and cattle are often affected, too.
Treatment. Bathe the animal using antifungal or antibacterial shampoo. Soak crusty areas and remove crusts and tufts of hair. Allow the areas to dry, then apply Betadine or Nolvasan and continue applying it once a day.
Prevention. Provide adequate shelter for animals to take cover when raining or snowing. Using rain-resistant blankets or sheeting will also help protect against rain rot.
Ringworm
Contrary to popular belief, ringworm (also known as dermatophytosis) is not a worm but a fungal infection. Called “club fungus” by those who show livestock, it is commonly picked up at public venues such as shows, fairs, and sale barns.
Symptoms. Ringworm lesions form round, dime- to quarter-size crusty patches that, when removed, leave scaly red skin and hair that lifts out in clumps. An infected animal may have two or three small patches or be covered with lesions from nose to tail. Ringworm is highly contagious, and it easily spreads from one species to another, humans included. It’s transmitted through both direct (animal to animal) and indirect (for example, wall surface to animal) contact.
Treatment. Although self-limiting (ringworm usually resolves itself in six weeks to three months), it must be treated quickly and aggressively lest it spread. The best way is by bathing the infected animal with an iodine-based shampoo formulated specifically for fungus problems. Wear disposable gloves. Also, disinfect anything an infected animal touches.
Prevention. Don’t take your animals to, or buy animals from, any place where ringworm is endemic.
Stomach Ulcers
Stomach ulcers are surprisingly common in livestock, especially horses and llamas. And they can be fatal, so it’s important to recognize and prevent this disease. Most ulcers are triggered by stress. Newly weaned foals, crias, females whose young have recently been weaned, and animals transported into new surroundings away from familiar faces are particularly prone to stress-induced ulcers. Diets high in concentrates can contribute to ulcer formation, too.
Symptoms. Teeth-grinding (an indication of pain), pained facial expression, depression, lying down in abnormal positions, horses “cat stretching” with legs camped out in front and behind them, kicking at belly, excessive rolling, not eating, black stools indicating internal bleeding.
Treatment. Remove the offending stress and consult your vet for treatment options.
Strangles*
Strangles is one of the oldest known equine diseases. It’s a highly contagious and serious infection of equines caused by the bacterium Streptococcus equi. Strangles is most common in animals less than five years of age and is especially common in groups of weanling foals or yearlings. Foals under five months of age are usually protected by colostrum-derived passive immunity from their mothers. Recovered animals shed S. equi from their noses and in their saliva for up to six weeks following infection.
Symptoms. High fever, poor appetite, a soft cough, and depression. Thin, watery nasal discharge becomes thick and yellow and the upper respiratory lymph nodes, particularly the ones between the jawbones, become enlarged. Abscesses form on the lymph nodes; these usually rupture and drain copious amounts of nasty, yellow pus. About 15 percent of sufferers develop complications, often of a serious nature; the rest recover with only supportive care.
Treatment. Isolate the animal in comfortable quarters and provide good-quality feed. Your vet may prescribe phenylbutazone (bute) to reduce fever, pain, and swelling. Encourage swollen lymph nodes to rupture and drain externally by applying hot packs to the swollen areas.
Prevention. Quarantine all incoming equines. A vaccination against strangles is readily available. It doesn’t fully protect against the disease; however, it lessens its incidence and severity; ask your vet for details.
Tetanus*
Tetanus occurs when wounds become infected by the bacterium Clostridium tetani. These bacteria thrive in anaerobic (airless) conditions, such as those found in deep puncture wounds, fresh umbilical cords, and wounds caused by recent castration. Unless treated very early and aggressively, tetanus is nearly always fatal.
Symptoms. Early on: stiff gaits, mild bloat, anxiety. Later: a rigid rocking-horse stance, drooling, inability to open the mouth (hence tetanus’s common name: “lockjaw”), head drawn hard to one side, tail and ear rigidity, and seizures.
Treatment. If you suspect tetanus, call your vet.
Prevention. Vaccinate.
Tuberculosis
Bovine tuberculosis (TB) is a serious, reportable disease that can be transmitted from livestock to humans and other animals. It’s caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium bovis. Host animals typically show no symptoms of infection until slaughter, at which time lesions may be found on any of their organs, intestines, and lymph nodes. No other TB organism has as great a host range as bovine TB: it can infect all warm-blooded vertebrates. Currently 49 states and territories are tuberculosis free (meaning there have been no confirmed cases for five years). Nevertheless, testing of cattle, sheep, and goats is required for shipping between some states. Consult your vet for further information.
Urinary Calculi
Also called urolithiasis or UC, urinary calculi are mineral salt crystals (“stones”) that form in the urinary tract and block the urethras of male animals (both sexes can develop urinary calculi, but stones pass easily through relatively larger, straighter, and shorter female urethra), particularly cattle, goats, and sheep. The condition is an emergency that requires immediate medical attention; it won’t correct itself, and if left untreated the afflicted animal’s bladder will burst and the animal will die.
Symptoms. Anxiety, restlessness, pawing the ground, teeth-grinding, crying out in pain; straining to urinate; rocking-horse or hunched-over stance; impaired flow of urine (dribbling).
Treatment. Call your vet.
Prevention. Feed male animals, intact or castrated, a balanced 2:1 calcium: phosphorus ration. To accomplish this, feed high-quality grass hay instead of alfalfa and offer very little (if any) grain. Adding minute quantities of ammonium chloride to the diet may prevent some types of calculi from occurring, and always provide a copious supply of clean, palatable drinking water.
White Muscle Disease
White muscle disease, also called nutritional muscular dystrophy, is caused by a serious deficiency of the trace mineral selenium. Most of the land east of the Mississippi and much of the Pacific Northwest is selenium deficient; these are the areas where white muscle disease is most likely to occur. It affects all livestock species.
Symptoms. Neonates and young stock: weakness, inability to stand or suckle, tremors, stiff joints, neurological problems. Adults: infertility, abortion, difficult births, retained placentas; stiffness, weakness, lethargy.
Treatment. Injections of Bo-Se or Mu-Se (prescription selenium and vitamin E supplements) often dramatically reverse symptoms, especially in neonates.
Prevention. All livestock raised in selenium-deficient areas should be fed selenium-fortified feeds, have free access to selenium-added minerals, or be given selenium–vitamin E shots under a vet’s direction. To prevent birthing problems and protect unborn young, females should be injected with selenium–vitamin E three to six weeks prior to their expected birthing date.
Dealing with Internal Parasites
No chapter about livestock health care would be complete without a discussion of internal parasites, also known as nematodes and better known as “worms.” Because of space constraints, we’ll cover deworming in general instead of discussing each of the many species and varieties that might afflict your flock or herd. For up-to-date information about deworming issues in your species and locale, always consult your veterinarian or county extension agent.
Parasitism causes a host of problems ranging from weight loss, dull coat, poor appetite, mild colic, and an itchy backside to more serious ills such as persistent diarrhea, anemia, susceptibility to infections, nonhealing sores, coughing, and significant or recurrent colic. Internal parasites can ultimately cause pneumonia, emaciation, debilitating diarrhea and colic, and gut emergencies such as torsion, telescoping bowel, and gut perforations. Some of these emergencies result in death. Internal parasites are not to be ignored.
Test Your Herd for Parasites
Your vet is your number one source of information about internal parasites. She can work with you to create a deworming regimen ideal for your farm. To discover how many parasites your animals are carrying and which are involved, she’ll run EPG (eggs per gram) fecal tests on some or all of your animals. To do this, she’ll need fresh fecal material from each animal you want tested. The key word is fresh. Stand by with a labeled plastic sandwich bag turned inside out on your hand and when the animal delivers, pick up a sample, preferably from the top of the heap so it didn’t touch the ground, turn the bag right side out around the material, and seal it up.
Parasites are rarely visible in droppings (most are too small to see), so after processing the manure, your vet will view it under a microscope to identify what types of parasite eggs are present. Then she’ll count the number of eggs of each parasite species found in one gram of prepared sample. By identifying species and counting the numbers of eggs, she can recommend the perfect deworming agents for your needs.
Fecal exams are also a cost-effective follow-up to deworming to determine whether the dewormer worked, so have your vet run another fecal egg count about two weeks after deworming.
Develop the Best Deworming Program
In the past, experts told livestock producers to deworm all of their stock at the same time and to rotate dewormers to reduce drug resistance. Since few weighed their stock before deworming, many under-dosed their animals. In this manner, parasites were exposed to all of the available anthelmintics (chemical dewormers), often in doses too light to be fully effective. Weak parasites died but the strong survived. Now dewormer-resistant “super worms” have evolved to the point that most anthelmintics aren’t effective, and the drug companies aren’t developing new products. Therefore it’s important to deworm correctly. To get the most from your deworming program, heed these tips:
Read dewormer packaging and follow the instructions.
Don’t rotate dewormers every time you deworm your stock. If an anthel-mintic is working, use it for at least a year or until it loses its effectiveness.
Use fecal testing to find out which deworming chemicals the internal parasites on your farm are resistant to, and choose products from another class.
Weigh each animal and dose accordingly. Never under-dose. If you don’t have a scale, use a weight tape appropriate to your species to calculate your animals’ ballpark weights.
Deworm all females immediately after they give birth, when changing estrogen levels cause arrested larvae to molt and proliferate.
Run fecal counts on all new animals and deworm them while they’re in quarantine; have fecals run again two weeks later and deworm again based on those results.
Deworm livestock 48 hours before moving them to clean pasture.
Keep accurate records.
Don’t deworm unless your animals need it. Rely on fecal testing to identify individuals with heavy parasite loads or learn the FAMACHA system for evaluating parasitism in small ruminants (see Southern Consortium for Small Ruminant Parasite Control in Resources).
Prevent Parasitism as Best You Can
These practices can help cut back on the numbers of internal parasites on your farm:
Feed hay and grain from feeders instead of directly off the ground.
Provide a clean water supply free of manure contamination.
Remove manure from stalls, field shelters, pens, paddocks, and pastures on a weekly basis; don’t let it pile up. Spread it on cropland or other ungrazed areas, compost it, or sell it as fresh garden enhancer, but don’t stack it where your animals can reach it.
Mow and chain-harrow pastures to break up manure deposits and expose parasite eggs and larvae to the elements.
Rotate pastures with one species following another (for example, sheep and goats following cattle following equines) to interrupt the life cycles of species-specific parasites.
Avoid overstocking to prevent overgrazing and reduce fecal contamination.
Set up a deworming schedule and stick to it.
Factors such as local climate, the season, soil conditions, and the number, age, and type of animals using a facility all need to be considered when formulating a parasite control program. Consult your vet or county extension agent for management tips particular to your region.
Dealing with External Parasites
External parasites such as flies, ticks, lice, and mites feed on body tissue such as blood, skin, and hair, and they sometimes transmit diseases from sick to healthy animals. External parasites spoil hair coats and reduce weight gains and milk production while making life unpleasant for their hosts.
Flies
Several classes of bothersome flies can make summertime on the farm a trying time for you and your livestock alike. Among the worst offenders are blackflies, heel flies and cattle grubs, horn flies, horse- and deerflies, midges, and stable flies.
Blackflies
Blackflies, also called buffalo gnats, are smaller cousins of the horsefly. More than 1,000 species are found worldwide, in boreal to tropical climates.
Both sexes feed on nectar, but the female also drinks blood. Her bite is painfully out of proportion to her size. Like horseflies, she slashes and sucks pooled blood, injecting an anticoagulant that triggers mild to severe allergic reactions. The swelling and itch that follow can last two weeks or more. Hordes of blackflies pose a serious threat. Mega-bitten hosts sometimes die from acute toxemia or anaphylactic shock.
Most blackflies are daytime feeders, and they rarely venture indoors. Biting varieties target animals’ ears. Not much repels them; even DEET-based repellents are only minimally effective.
Heel Flies and Cattle Grubs
The heel fly (Hypoderma sp.) is a large fly that resembles a bee in size and coloration. Heel flies deposit eggs on the hairs of cattle, usually on their hind legs or bellies. The larvae hatch and bore through their host’s skin, usually at a hair follicle. These grubs spend about eight months migrating through the tissues of the animal and end up in the loin area of the back where they form warbles (cysts with breathing holes). Warbles were once common on American bison and have been found on sheep, goats, and horses. Some cattle grubs have even been removed from humans.
The carcasses of warble-bearing cattle are worth less money because the flesh where the grubs were located is greenish yellow, jellylike, and unfit for consumption. Warble holes reduce hide values, too.
Sprays, dips, feed additives, and pour-ons provide adequate cattle grub control. Toxic reactions to deworming agents are common.
Horn Flies
Horn flies are roughly one-half to three-quarters the size of the common housefly. They are more slender, with a brownish gray to black body with a slight yellowish cast, a set of parallel stripes just behind the head, brownish red antennae, and two wings with a smoky tinge. They also have painfully effective piercing-sucking mouthparts.
Although primarily attracted to cattle, horn flies also harass sheep, goats, and equines, but they don’t bite human beings. Adults spend most of their life on a specific host, congregating on the back and shoulders or on the underside on hot days. Persistent feeding causes irritation and bleeding sores.
Both sexes bite. They feed up to 40 times per day, and when not feeding they tend to rest around the horn region of their host. Females require blood meals for egg production and can lay several hundred eggs during their life span. The entire life cycle from egg to adult is completed in two to four weeks, and three to four generations may hatch in a single summer.
Pesticide dips, sprays, dusts, pour-ons, and ear tags are all effective against horn flies.
Horse- and Deerflies
Horseflies (Tabanus spp.) are stout-bodied flies up to 1½ inches in length. Deerflies (Chrysops spp.) are smaller; most are the size of common houseflies. Only female horse- and deerflies feed on blood. Females harvest their meals the way most biting flies do, by slashing a host’s skin with their sharp mouthpieces, then lapping pooled blood. Most varieties prefer to feed on equines, cattle, and deer. Of the two, deerflies are more likely to bite humans.
Deer- and horseflies are day feeders. They’re bothersome on warm, sunny days and are attracted to moving objects, warmth, and carbon dioxide emissions. They are voracious but flighty feeders, often skipping from host to host to complete a meal; thus they’re often implicated in the spread of disease. Under sustained attack from these flies, animals cease grazing and huddle together for protection, sometimes resulting in considerable weight loss.
Permethrin-based insecticides offer short-term relief for livestock, but other chemical repellents seldom work.
Midges
Biting midges, also called sand flies, sand gnats, punkies, and no-see-ums, are among the world’s tiniest biting flies. Most are dark gray or black with spotted wings. Only females suck blood. Bites are largely painless, but tissues swell and itch intensely within 8 to 12 hours.
Most midges feed at dawn and twilight, from early spring through midsummer. A few species are daytime biters, especially on damp, cloudy days. Biters frequent salt marshes, sandy barrens, riverbanks, and lakes. Chemicals won’t repel them.
Midges are highly attracted to dogs and livestock, particularly to their ears and lower legs. Keep animals indoors during prime feeding time.
Stable Flies
At first glance stable flies look like houseflies, but a distinguishing feature, visible to the naked eye, is the stiletto-like proboscis of the stable fly extending beyond its head, which is used to pierce the skin and draw blood. The look-alike housefly cannot bite because it has sponging mouthparts.
Both male and female stable flies feed on blood and are persistent feeders that cause significant irritation to their host.
Stable flies feed on the blood of practically any warm-blooded animal, including humans. Peaks of feeding activity occur during the early morning and again in the late afternoon. Stable flies prefer to feed outdoors and rarely come indoors. They also prefer to feed on the lower parts of their hosts, such as their legs. Females deposit their eggs in a variety of decaying animal and plant wastes, but they are rarely found in fresh manure. Their entire life cycle from egg to adult is generally completed in three to six weeks.
Keep livestock indoors during the day and on pasture at night when stable flies are bothersome. Many types of residual and knock-down (spray and immediate kill) insecticides are effective against stable flies.
Stable fly
Ticks
Ticks transmit more disease worldwide than any other insect pest. In the United States alone, ticks are responsible for the spread of nine serious human diseases. Livestock diseases spread by ticks include Lyme disease, East Coast fever, ehrlichiosis, and tick paralysis.
There are two kinds of ticks: hard ticks (Ixodidae family) and soft ticks (Argasidae family). Ticks neither jump nor fly, and their bites cause little, if any, initial discomfort, although many become itchy a day or so later. Both sexes attach and suck blood, but only the female engorges to many times her unfed size.
Hard Ticks
Hard ticks have hard plates on their backs, and their mouthpieces are visible from above. When they bite, they secrete cementlike saliva that glues the feeding tick in place. They can go several months without feeding.
Hard ticks are attracted to heat, vibration, shadow, and carbon dioxide emissions. They locate a host through a process called “questing” whereby they perch on vegetation, waiting until something happens by. When the tick senses any of the things it is attracted to, it extends its front legs and snags the passing host as it brushes past.
In its six- to eight-day life as an adult, engorged female hard ticks are capable of expanding from 2 to 600 times their unfed weight.
Adult Rocky Mountain wood ticks (Dermacentor andersoni) feed on large mammals, especially deer, humans, dogs, and livestock. This tick is well known as a vector of the Rocky Mountain spotted fever, the Colorado tick fever virus, and the bacteria that causes tularemia. It is also responsible for tick paralysis in humans, livestock, and wild mammals.
The blacklegged tick (Ixodes scapularis), also known as the deer tick or bear tick, is a major vector for Lyme disease — a serious disease affecting humans, dogs, and horses, and it’s suspected that other livestock species can get it as well.
Soft Ticks
Soft ticks have soft, leathery bodies. Their mouthpieces aren’t visible from above. A few species seek hosts by questing, but most are nest dwellers preferring established burrows and nests (including dog beds). Females engorge 5 to 10 times in a few hours, and they look like inflated balloons.
The spinous ear tick (Otobius megnini) is a common pest of livestock and horses throughout the western United States. Heavy infestations result in intense irritation, rubbing, and hair loss in livestock.
Tick Removal
If you find a tick attached to one of your animals, take it off. The longer a tick is attached, the more likely it will transmit any disease it’s carrying.
To remove a tick, use your gloved fingers, needle-nose tweezers, a hemostat, or a commercial tick remover to grasp the tick’s mouthpiece as close to the host as possible, and then pull slowly and steadily straight back. Be careful; squeezing the tick will cause it to inject additional toxins. If all or part of its mouthpiece is left imbedded in the animal’s skin, it will eventually wither and fall out on its own, but watch closely over the next few days to make certain the bite doesn’t become infected.
Dispatch the tick by dropping it into a container of alcohol (soapy water will do in a pinch). If the tick is engorged, place it on a hard surface and step on it.
Many tick species mate while the female is feeding. After removing an engorged female, look closely for tinier males attached in the same location.
Controlling Ticks
The best way to control ticks is by altering their habitat, so mow your pastures and keep barn and outbuilding areas weed and litter free. Also consider adopting a flock of free-roaming guinea fowl. Folks who keep guineas swear by their tick-gobbling efficiency. Free-range chickens are tick-eaters, too.
Lice
There are more than 500 species of lice worldwide, including two that infest humans. Other species infest cattle, swine, horses, sheep, goats, dogs, and rabbits, but not cats or fowl. They are generally species-specific, but the same species infests sheep and goats.
Lice spend their entire lives on their host. Both immature and adult stages suck blood and feed on skin. Louse-infested animals have dull, matted coats and display excessive scratching and grooming behavior resulting in raw patches on the skin or loss of hair. Weight loss may occur when infested animals don’t eat. Milk production is reduced by about 25 percent. A louse-infested animal is generally listless, and in severe cases the loss of blood to sucking lice can lead to serious anemia.
There are two types of lice: sucking lice that pierce their host’s skin and suck blood and biting lice that have chewing mouthparts and feed on particles of hair and scabs. Lice are wingless; adults are usually 
to 
inch long (a few, for example the hog louse, are nearly ¼ inch long) and range from pale yellowish to blue-black or brown. Lice are generally spread through direct contact, often when infested animals join an existing herd.
Populations vary seasonally. Lice proliferate during autumn and reach peak numbers in late winter or early spring. Summer infestations are rare. Wintertime infestations are usually the most severe. Treatment, generally with an over-the-counter residual pesticide designed for livestock, is needed whenever an animal scratches and rubs to excess. It is difficult to control lice because pesticides kill lice but not their eggs. Since eggs of most species hatch 8 to 12 days after pesticide application, you must treat again 2 or 3 weeks following the first application.
Mites
Mange mites can be a problem in cattle, sheep, goats, equines, and pigs; five types afflict cattle alone, three of which are serious enough to be reportable diseases.
Mange mites feed on the skin surface or burrow into it, making minute, winding tunnels from 
to 1 inch long. Fluid discharged at the mouth of each tunnel dries and forms scabs. Mites also secrete a toxin that causes intense itching. Infested animals rub and scratch themselves raw. Infestations are highly contagious; if one individual has mites, contact your vet for advice and treat the entire flock or herd.
DONKEYS MINIATURE
Miniature donkeys are placed in one of two classes. Class A donkeys are 36 inches and under; class B donkeys are 36.1–38 inches tall.
HORSES MINIATURE
American Miniature Horse (max. height 34 inches for AMHA; 38 inches for AMHR), Falabella (average height 28–34 inches), British Shetland Pony (max. height 46 inches), American Shetland Pony (average height 42 inches)
American Shetland Pony, British Shetland Pony, American Miniature Horse, British Shetland Pony
MORE MINIATURE HORSES
American Miniature Horse (max. height 34 inches for AMHA, 38 inches for AMHR)
Falabella (average height 28–34 inches)
American Miniature Horse
MULES MINIATURE
Miniature mules are placed in one of two classes. Class A mules (shown here) are less than 38 inches tall. Class B mules are 38–48 inches tall.
GOATS MINIATURE
All are crossbreeds with Nigerian Dwarf heritage
MORE MINIATURE GOATS
Crossbreed with Nigerian Dwarf heritage
Crossbreed with Pygmy heritage
Both are crossbreds with Nigerian Dwarf heritage
Crossbreed with Pygmy heritage
Both are crossbreeds with Nigerian Dwarf heritage
PIGS MINIATURE
Vietnamese Potbelly pig (at 3 years, average height is 16 inches; average weight is 100–125 pounds)
Kunekune (average height 24–30 inches, weight 120–240 pounds)
Kunekune, Ossabaw Island Hog (average weight 100–250 pounds), Vietnamese Potbelly pig.
COWS MINIATURE
Dexter cow (average height of cows is 38–42 inches; bulls are proportionally larger)
Dexter bull, Miniature Zebu (max. height 42 inches; cows average 300–500 pounds, bulls average 400–600 pounds)
Lowline cow (cows average 38–46 inches, bulls 40–48 inches; cows average 700–1,100 pounds, bulls 900–1,500 pounds), Dexter cow
Pineywoods guinea cow (average weight 300–500 pounds) Dexter cow, Florida Cracker full-size cow (cows average 600–800 pounds, bulls average 800–1,200 pounds)
SHEEP MINIATURE
Classic Cheviot (average height 18–24 inches), Classic Cheviot, Classic Cheviot, Shetland (ewes average 75–100 pounds; rams 90–125 pounds)
Soay (average height 22 inches, weight 45–90 pounds), Classic Cheviot (average height 18–24 inches), Shetland, Babydoll Southdowns (max. height 24 inches)
LLAMAS MINIATURE
Miniature llamas are 3 feet tall at the withers, on average, and 120–200 pounds.
Check each of your animals every day (twice is better). Are any sick, injured, or off-color? Take care of problems right away; don’t wait to see if they get better by themselves. If you don’t know what’s wrong with an animal or you’re not positive you know how to treat what ails her, get help.
