Table of Contents
Cover
Introduction
Acknowledgements
About the Companion Website
Part I: Decay and the Discovery and Recovery of Human Remains
1 The Decay of Human Bodies
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Stages of Decomposition
1.3 Factors Affecting the Speed of Decay
1.4 Future Directions
2 The Discovery, Recovery, and Study of Human Bodies
2.1 Discovery of Human Remains
2.2 Recovery of Dead Bodies
2.3 The Post Mortem
2.4 Determining the Age of Skeletonised Remains
2.5 Determining the Provenance of Skeletonised Remains
2.6 Future Directions
Part II: DNA Analysis
3 Molecular Biology
3.1 Introduction
3.2 DNA Sampling
3.3 DNA Analysis
3.4 Molecular Markers
3.5 DNA Databases
3.6 Confounding Factors in DNA Analysis
3.7 Evidence from Molecular Markers
3.8 Future Directions
Part III: Body Tissues and Fluids and Wound Analysis
4 Blood
4.1 Blood Cells and Blood Typing
4.2 Distinguishing Human and Animal Blood
4.3 Bloodstain Pattern Analysis
4.4 Fake Blood
4.5 Post‐Mortem Toxicological Analysis of Blood
4.6 Future Directions
5 Saliva, Semen, Vitreous Humour, Urine, and Faeces
5.1 Saliva
5.2 Semen
5.3 Vitreous Humour
5.4 Faeces
5.5 Urine
5.6 Summary of Forensic Information Obtained from Body Fluids and Waste Products
5.7 Future Directions
6 Human Tissues
6.1 The Outer Body Surface
6.2 The Skeleton
6.3 Teeth
6.4 Summary of Forensic Evidence that can be obtained from Human Tissues
6.5 Future Developments
7 Wounds
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Blunt Force Injuries
7.3 Sharp Force Traumas
7.4 Bone Damage
7.5 Bite Marks
7.6 Asphyxia
7.7 Pathology Associated with Drug Use
7.8 Burns and Scalds
7.9 Gunshot Wounds
7.10 Wounds Caused by Explosions
7.11 Complex Suicides
7.12 Ageing of Wounds
7.13 Post‐Mortem Injuries
7.14 Future Developments
Part IV: Invertebrates
8 Invertebrates 1
8.1 An Introduction to Invertebrate Biology
8.2 Invertebrates as Forensic Indicators in Cases of Murder or Suspicious Death
8.3 Parasitoid Wasps
8.4 Insects on Buried Bodies
8.5 Future Directions
9 Invertebrates 2
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Collecting Invertebrates for Forensic Analysis
9.3 Killing and Preserving Techniques for Invertebrates
9.4 Invertebrate Identification Techniques
9.5 Calculating the PMI/Earliest Oviposition Date
9.6 Complicating Factors Affecting Earliest Oviposition Date Calculations
9.7 Other Evidence from Invertebrates
9.8 Future Directions
Part V: Vertebrates and Wildlife Crime
10 Vertebrates
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Identification of Vertebrates
10.3 Vertebrate Scavenging of Human Corpses
10.4 Vertebrates Causing Death and Injury
10.5 Neglect and Abuse of Vertebrates
10.6 Vertebrates and Drugs
10.7 Future Directions
11 Wildlife Forensics
11.1 Introduction
11.2 When it is Legal to Kill or Exploit Wildlife
11.3 The Extent of the Trade in Wildlife
11.4 CITES
11.5 Factors that Contribute to the Illegal Trade in Wildlife
11.6 Poaching
11.7 Bushmeat
11.8 Ivory
11.9 Antlers
11.10 Horns
11.11 Bear Bile
11.12 Musk Oil
11.13 The Illegal Trade in Invertebrates
11.14 Future Directions
Part VI: Plants, Protists, Fungi, and Microbes
12 Protists, Fungi, and Plants
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Protists
12.3 Fungi
12.4 Plants
12.5 Plant Secondary Metabolites as Sources of Drugs and Poisons
12.6 Illegal Trade in Protected Plant Species
12.7 Summary of the Forensic Potential of Protists, Fungi, and Higher Plants
12.8 Future Directions
13 Microbes and Viruses
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Microbiomes
13.3 Microbes and Viruses as Indicators of Geographical Origin
13.4 Microbes and the Cause of Death
13.5 Identification of Microbes Responsible for Food Poisoning
13.6 Linking a Victim and a Suspect through the Transfer of Microbial and Viral Infections
13.7 Pathogens and Human Behaviour
13.8 Interactions between Microbes, Viruses and Drugs
13.9 The Use of Microorganisms in Bioterrorism
13.10 Future Directions
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
f04
Table I.1 Questions arising when a body is found in suspicious circumstances.
Table I.2 Characteristics of an ideal forensic test.
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Factors affecting the rate at which a body cools after death.
Table 1.2 Summary of the stages of decomposition and their characteristic featur...
Table 1.3 The sequence in which insects arrive and colonise a corpse during the ...
Table 1.4 Summary of factors promoting or delaying the rate at which a body deca...
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Summary of the advantages and disadvantages of the main methods of det...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Potential sources of human DNA for forensic analysis.
Table 3.2 Summary of reactions involved in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
Table 3.3 Advantages and disadvantages of the most commonly used methods of fore...
Table 3.4 STR loci used in the SGM+, DNA‐17, CODIS, and expanded CODIS loci.
Table 3.5 Table of alleles illustrating the hypothetical DNA profile of a semen ...
Table 3.6 Case study of paternity determination from aborted chorionic villi: ST...
Table 3.7 Information stored on individuals on the NDNAD.
Table 3.8 The application of DNA sequencing to forensic investigations.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Summary of ABO blood group interactions.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Summary of forensic information obtained from body fluids and waste pr...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Typical emergence dates of different types of teeth in normal healthy ...
Table 6.2 Summary of forensic evidence obtainable from human tissues.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Summary of wound types and their causes.
Table 7.2 Categories of asphyxia.
Table 7.3 Factors that determine the consequences of a bullet hitting its target...
Table 7.4 Distinguishing features of wounds associated with suicide and homicide...
Table 7.5 Summary of some of the instances in which an accurate estimation of wh...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Groups of invertebrates attracted to decaying remains.
Table 8.2 Taxonomy of the order Diptera.
Table 8.3 Coleoptera families of forensic importance.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Summary of killing and preservation methods for soft‐ and hard‐bodied ...
Table 9.2 Comparison of traditional morphology‐based taxonomy and molecular (DNA...
Table 9.3 Summary of morphological age indicators in cyclorrhaphan flies at diff...
Table 9.4 An example of the headings and completed spreadsheet to calculate the ...
Table 9.5 Summary of factors that can complicate the minimum time since death ca...
Table 9.6 Summary of insect evidence that suggests that a body was moved after d...
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Summary of vertebrate animals and their forensic relevance.
Table 10.2 The three basic types of bird feather.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Factors driving poaching and the illegal trade in wildlife.
Table 11.2 Why rapid field tests are useful in wildlife forensics.
Table 11.3 The market for Lepidoptera.
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 The advantages and limitations of pollen as a forensic indicator.
Table 12.2 Summary of forensic information gained from protists, fungi, and high...
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 The benefits and limitations of microbiomes as forensic indicators.
Table 13.2 Some human pathogens investigated as biowarfare agents in the past or...
Table 13.3 Clues that would provide an early indication of the malicious spreadi...
Table 13.4 Some domestic animal pathogens investigated as biowarfare agents in t...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Clauss Henßge's nomogram for the determination of time since death f...
Figure 1.2 Characteristic pattern of hypostasis and pressure pallor resulting f...
Figure 1.3 Late bloat stage of decomposition. The body is about seven days old ...
Figure 1.4 The formation of adipocere has preserved the body of this child, des...
Figure 1.5 (a) The body of this man was discovered 5.5 months after he committe...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Diagrammatic representation of the PCR thermal cycling process. Each...
Figure 3.2 Diagrammatic representation of the amplification step of the PCR pro...
Figure 3.3 Diagrammatic representation of the multiplex PCR process. (a) The ar...
Figure 3.4 Electropherograms of autosomal STR profiles. (a) An SGM Plus profile...
Figure 3.5 Diagrammatic representation of the TaqMan assay.
Figure 3.6 Diagrammatic representation of (a) heteroplasmy and (b) homoplasmy a...
Figure 3.7 Diagrammatic representation of a single nucleotide polymorphism.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Blue luminescence following treatment with luminol indicates the (pr...
Figure 4.2 Factors affecting the spatter pattern of passively falling droplets ...
Figure 4.3 The flow of blood vertically down the chest and abdomen from a neck ...
Figure 4.4 Transfer bloodstain from a bloody finger on a tap. Transfer stains l...
Figure 4.5 This man was shot in the head. Because his body is on an incline, th...
Figure 4.6 Blood spatter from gunshot wounds: (a) backspatter stains on the rig...
Figure 4.7 This stain was caused when the victim slit their wrist. It exhibits ...
Figure 4.8 Smeared bloodstain pattern formed by dragging a bloody body across t...
Figure 4.9 (a)–(c) The influence of angle of impact on the shape of bloodstain....
Figure 4.10 Diagrammatic representation of how the length of an elliptical bloo...
Figure 4.11 (a) and (b) Diagrammatic representation of how the point of converg...
Figure 4.12 Bloodstain pattern analysis using ‘stringing’.
Figure 4.13 Determination of the area of haemorrhage (origin) by the graphics m...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Tattoos that have a limited appeal help in the identification proces...
Figure 6.2 Different types of fingerprints: (a) plastic fingerprint left in pla...
Figure 6.3 Fingerprint characteristics showing the distinction between arches, ...
Figure 6.4 Vacuum Metal Deposition is extremely good at revealing latent prints...
Figure 6.5 Scanning electron micrograph of human hair: (a) scalp hair; and (b) ...
Figure 6.6 Retinal surface of left and right eyes, illustrating the complex net...
Figure 6.7 It is easy to mistake manmade and natural objects for bones or bone ...
Figure 6.8 Pelvis of adult male (a) and female (b).
Figure 6.9 The skulls of adult humans can usually be ascribed to one of three r...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Diagrammatic representation of different types of wound to the skin....
Figure 7.2 Bruising. (a) Bruising and scratch marks resulting from manual stran...
Figure 7.3 Elderly people bruise easily and repetitive and/or forceful movement...
Figure 7.4 Crush abrasions caused by beating with a leather riding‐crop. Note h...
Figure 7.5 Suicidal hanging. This man hung himself using a wire rope wound twic...
Figure 7.6 Incised wounds that are longer than they are deep and inflicted with...
Figure 7.7 This individual was found naked in a field. He was still alive but d...
Figure 7.8 This individual slashed and stabbed at his leg in a suicide attempt....
Figure 7.9 Diagrammatic representation of the larynx showing the commonest frac...
Figure 7.10 The formation of a ‘foam cone’ – the accumulation of froth at the m...
Figure 7.11 This man was shot in the forehead from close range with a small cal...
Figure 7.12 Suicide bomber killed by a shot from an assault rifle before he cou...
Figure 7.13 Remains of a suicide bomber after detonating his explosives. The bo...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Blowflies ovipositing within and around the nasal cavity of a sheep....
Figure 8.2 Blowfly eggs laid upon vegetation underneath a body. Although the eg...
Figure 8.3 Anterior of the third instar larva of the blowfly
Calliphora vomitor
...
Figure 8.4 (a) Adult fleshfly
Sarcophaga carnaria
(Sarcophagidae). Note the lar...
Figure 8.5 Posterior spiracles of
Musca domestica
larvae: (a) third instar larv...
Figure 8.6 (a)
Calliphora vicina
third instar blowfly larva. The full crop indi...
Figure 8.7 (a) Adult phorid flies (note the humped profile) and an empty pupari...
Figure 8.8 Larva (top image) and pupa (bottom image) of the hoverfly
Eristalis
...
Figure 8.9 Final instar stratiomyid larva. Stratiomyid larvae are common soil i...
Figure 8.10 (a) Trichocerid larva. Note the well‐developed head capsule. (b) Sc...
Figure 8.11 (a) Adult
Dermestes maculatus
feeding and laying eggs on a fresh de...
Figure 8.12 Damage caused to a museum specimen of a dry stuffed rat by the larv...
Figure 8.13 Hypopus stage of the mite
Myianoetus muscarum
. The mites lack feedi...
Figure 8.14 This sheep was eviscerated after death, probably by foxes or badger...
Figure 8.15 Predatory beetle larvae. (a) Larva of a staphylinid beetle. (b) Lar...
Figure 8.16 Silphid burying beetles: (a)
Nicrophorus vespilloides
; (b)
Thanatop
...
Figure 8.17 Post‐mortem wounds caused by
Nicrophilus vespilloides
and
Nicrophil
...
Figure 8.18 Scanning electron micrograph image of adult parasitoid wasp
Nasonia
...
Figure 8.19 Common human lice: (a) Human head louse
Pediculus humanus humanus
. ...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Blowflies can be reared inside plastic plant cloches that are stored...
Figure 9.2 These maggots were originally the same size: one was killed in near‐...
Figure 9.3 (a) Pupariae of the blowfly
Calliphora vicina
. Note how the cuticle ...
Figure 9.4 Characteristic features of recently emerged blowflies. (a) The body ...
Figure 9.5 Isomegalen‐diagram for the blowfly
Lucilia sericata
. Time (
x
‐axis) i...
Figure 9.6 Calculation of the base temperature.
Figure 9.7 A localised rise in temperature is not restricted to the mass feedin...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Dead badger (
Meles meles
) found by the side of the road. In the UK,...
Figure 10.2 Confiscated orang‐utan (
Pongo pygmaeus
) skull. Orang‐utans are CITE...
Figure 10.3 Illegally killed and crudely stuffed sparrowhawk (
Accipiter nisus
)....
Figure 10.4 Guard hair microstructure. (a) Cow hair, whole mount, (b) dog hair,...
Figure 10.5 Red blood cell microstructure. (a) Mammalian red blood cells (human...
Figure 10.6 Barbules of (a) chicken (
Gallus gallus domesticus
), (b) moorhen (
Ga
...
Figure 10.7 (a) Carrion crow (
Corvus corone
); (b) eyes pecked out of a recently...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Tunnel trap used to capture stoats and weasels on a grouse moorland...
Figure 11.2 (a) Carved elephant ivory. The shape and a size of the tusk identif...
Figure 11.3 Deer farm in the Ukraine. These deer are kept primarily for their a...
Figure 11.4 African white rhinoceros
Ceratotherium simum
: (a) the horn is rough...
Figure 11.5 Gift package of bear bile for use as Chinese Traditional Medicine.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 (a) and (b) Light microscope photograph of freshwater diatoms. Note...
Figure 12.2 Algal growth on a dry sheep skull. Growth is most pronounced on the...
Figure 12.3 Fungal mycelia growing on a corpse. The mycelia interfere with taki...
Figure 12.4 Fly agaric mushroom,
Amanita muscaria
. This distinctive mushroom is...
Figure 12.5 Although wood from different trees often looks similar, its microsc...
Figure 12.6 Pollen morphology: (a)
Poa pratensis
(smooth meadow grass) pollen (...
Figure 12.7 Rhododendron pollen is the source of ‘mad honey’– note the distinct...
Figure 12.8 Goosegrass (
Galium aparine
). Note the hooks on the fruit.
Guide
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