| 1.1 The organisation of production in the Roman world (after Peacock 1982). |
| 1.2 The centralisation of settlement and industry in late Iron Age Europe. |
| 1.3 Potential materials and processes that can be investigated scientifically. |
| 1.4 Models of production. |
| 2.1 An atomic absorption spectrometry system. |
| 2.2 Relative grain size versus percentage of grains in a fine and coarse ceramic. |
| 2.3 Diagrammatic representation of an X-ray fluorescence system. |
| 2.4 A diagrammatic representation of a wavelength-dispersive (WD) spectrometer. |
| 2.5 A Jeol JSM 845 scanning electron microscope with an energy-dispersive spectrometer. |
| 2.6 A secondary electron micrograph of the surface of a Bronze Age glass bead. |
| 2.7 A back-scattered electron micrograph. |
| 2.8 An example of the X-ray spectrum of the Corning B glass standard. |
| 3.1 Cooling curve for glass, showing the reduction in volume as the temperature falls. |
| 3.2 Two-dimensional representations of (1) a hypothetical crystalline compound A203; (2) the glassy form of the same compound as in (1) |
| 3.3 Soda-rich desert plants such as this provided the principal source of alkali. |
| 3.4 Weight % lead oxide versus weight % zinc oxide in twelfth to fourteenth-century Islamic glass. |
| 3.5 Cuprous oxide dendrites responsible for colour in bright sealing-wax red glass and enamels. |
| 3.6 Bands of cuprous oxide crystals in a sample of the dull reddish brown opaque colour found in Roman glass tesserae. |
| 3.7 Two Eighteenth Dynasty Egyptian core¬formed unguent vessels. |
| 3.8 Back-scattered scanning electron micrograph of calcium antimonate crystals. |
| 3.9 Back-scattered electron micrograph of tin oxide crystals. |
| 3.10 A back-scattered scanning electron micrograph of a section through the base of an early Christian (sixth-tenth century AD) crucible. |
| 3.11 A back-scattered scanning electron micrograph of cubic calcium fluoride crystals. |
| 3.12 Two samples of heterogeneous over¬heated frit. |
| 3.13 A fritting oven. Note the tray containing lumps of frit close to the stoke hole. |
| 3.14 The ‘southern three-chambered furnace consisting of the firing chamber at the bottom, the melting chamber in the middle with pots’ containing glass and the annealing chamber at the top. |
| 3.15 Plan of the site at Eigelstein near Cologne showing plans of Roman circular furnaces and rectangular structures. |
| 3.16 Plan and schematic section of a tank furnace used for glass production. |
| 3.17 A reconstruction of the glass workshop at Germagnana, northern Italy. |
| 3.18 The plan of a late sixteenth-early seventeenth-century glass furnace. |
| 3.19 Glass blowing in a contemporary glass workshop in Damascus, Syria. |
| 3.20 A ribbed glass mould, Matlock, Derbyshire. |
| 3.21 A mould-blown glass vessel. |
| 3.22 Transfer of the glass vessel from the blowing iron. |
| 3.23 Working the hotrim of the glass vessel attached to the pontil rod. |
| 3.24 The working properties of a lead-rich glass. |
| 3.25 A back-scattered electron micrograph of a sample of faience from Cova d’es Carritx, Menorca. |
| 3.26 Location of Bronze Age sites. |
| 3.27 Examples of Bronze Age glass vessel fragments. |
| 3.28 Weight % potassium oxide versus weight % magnesia in Bronze Age glass. |
| 3.29 The Portland vase. |
| 3.30 Weight % lead oxide versus weight % soda in opaque white cameo glasses including the Portland vase and the Auldjo jug. |
| 3.31 The Lycurgus cup. |
| 3.32 Minute particles of silver-gold alloy in the Lycurgus cup. |
| 3.33 Location map for Jalame. |
| 3.34 The Jalame glass furnace: cross-section (bottom) and reconstruction (top). |
| 3.35 Weight % soda versus weight % potassium oxide in Roman glasses. |
| 3.36 Location map of the principal early medieval glass sites mentioned in the text. |
| 3.37 An optic-blown cone beaker from Gennep, the Netherlands. |
| 3.38 Weight % antimony trioxide versus weight % lead oxide in translucent brown, purple, colourless, green and cobalt blue glass from Ribe, Jutland. |
| 3.39 Weight % lead oxide versus weight % stannous oxide in a range of opaque (white, yellow and red) and translucent glass colours from Ribe, Jutland. |
| 3.40 Weight % magnesia oxide versus weight % potassium oxide. |
| 3.41 The location of al-Raqqa in Syria. |
| 3.42 Plan of glass workshop discovered at al-Raqqa, Syria. |
| 3.43 Cross-section of furnace 2 (of the ‘southern type), al-Raqqa, Syria. |
| 3.44 Glass blocks in situ on the remains of the tray on which they were cast. |
| 3.45 Weight % magnesia versus weight % aluminia in Islamic ('Abbasid and Ayyubid) glass and frit from al-Raqqa, Syria according to artefact type. |
| 3.46 Weight % magnesia versus weight % aluminia in al-Raqqa type 3 glass compared with late roman (fourth-century) glass from Jalame and Rakit, Palestine. |
| 3.47 Weight % magnesia versus weight % potassium oxide in Islamic Egyptian glass weights. |
| 3.48 Back-scattered electron micrograph of a fragment of over-heated frit. |
| 3.49 Location of sites excavated in Lincoln which produced post-medieval glass. |
| 3.50 Examples of post-medieval goblets. |
| 3.51 An example of a mould-blown late sixteenth- century-early seventeenth-century beaker. |
| 3.52 Weight % magnesia versus weight % aluminia in late sixteenth- and seventeenth- century Lincoln glass. |
| 3.53 Weight % aluminia versus weight % magnesia in late sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Lincoln glass, showing the relationships between colour, likely origin and gross composition; note that the group numbers shown relate only to this diagram. |
| 4.1 Some of the structural units found in clays. |
| 4.2a Wedging clay. |
| 4.2b Kneading clay. |
| 4.3 Foot-treading clay at the Heracla brick works, northern Syria. |
| 4.4 Part of an cAbbasid mould for a pot, which itself is stamp-decorated, al-Raqqa, Syria. |
| 4.5 Roman moulds for making appliqué bulls’ heads and dancers. |
| 4.6 Roman lamp mould and the lamp made from it. |
| 4.7 Thumb-pinching the clay. |
| 4.8 Coning the clay. |
| 4.9 Finishing the rim of the pot. |
| 4.10 Islamic (11th century) carved pot with appliqué from al-Raqqa, Syria. |
| 4.11 A range of pottery firing installations. |
| 4.12 A medieval updraft kiln with two flues. |
| 4.13 Tripod attached to the base of a glazed pot. |
| 4.14 A plan of the remains of a downdraft kiln, Five Dynasties (907-60 AD), Yaozhou, China. |
| 4.15 A Chinese dragon kiln constructed on the side of a hill. |
| 4.16 Wasters from an Abbasid kiln, al-Raqqa, northern Syria. |
| 4.17 The locations of the principal Iron Age sites. |
| 4.18 A wheel-made later Iron Age ovoid jar with a bead rim. |
| 4.19 An imported corrugated urn of first century BC. |
| 4.20 Distribution map of later Iron Age Droitwich salt containers. |
| 4.21 The distribution of Droitwich salt containers and stony VCP (very coarse pottery). |
| 4.22 The distribution of later Iron Age Cheshire VCP (very coarse pottery). |
| 4.23a Regression diagram for the distribution of middle-late Iron Age pottery characterised by the presence of Malvernian rock from their source in the Malvern hills, Hereford and Worcester as a percentage of the pottery assemblage on each site (represented by a lozenge) on which they occur in the Severn valley (r = -0.735) (after Morris 1994). |
| 4.23b Regression diagram for the distribution of middle-late Iron Age pottery characterised by the presence of Paleozoic limestone from their source near the Woolhope Hills in Hereford and Worcester as a percentage of the pottery assemblage on each site (represented by a lozenge) (r = -0.723) (after Morris 1994). |
| 4.23c Regression diagram for the distribution of middle-late Iron Age pottery characterised by the presence of dolerite from their source at the Clee Hills, Shropshire as a percentage of the pottery assemblage on each site (represented by a lozenge) (after Morris 1994). |
| 4.24 The distribution of Gault clay. |
| 4.25 Photomicrograph of a thin-section of early Anglo-Saxon ware. |
| 4.26 Location of middle Saxon sites in the London area of the Thames valley. |
| 4.27 Photomicrograph of a thin-section of middle Saxon Shelly ware. |
| 4.28 Photomicrograph of a thin-section of London early medieval chalky ware. |
| 4.29 Map of Chinese provinces, and principal sites mentioned in the text. |
| 4.30 Kiln Y43 a Five Dynasties kiln at Yaozhou. |
| 4.31 Workshop Zl-1 a northern Song Dynasty kiln site at Yaozhou. |
| 4.32 Workshop Zl-2 a northern Song Dynasty kiln site at Yaozhou. |
| 4.33 Kiln Y5 a northern Song Dynasty kiln site at Yaozhou. |
| 4.34 Kiln Y44 a northern Song Dynasty kiln site at Yaozhou. |
| 4.35 The relative molecular % of aluminium oxide versus silica in celadon glazes. |
| 4.36 The percentage reflectance of Tang Yaozhou celadon glazes. |
| 4.37 The percentage reflectance of Five Dynasties Yaozhou celadon glazes. |
| 4.38 Relative molecular % of fluxes versus silica in Yaozhou ware. |
| 4.39 Location map of Iznik and other sites in Ottoman Turkey and beyond. |
| 4.40 Plan of the kilns found at Iznik. |
| 4.41 Typical example of potters’ style ware. |
| 4.42 Typical example of ‘Damascus’ ware. |
| 4.43 A photomicrograph of a mounted section of typical Iznik pottery body and glaze. |
| 4.44 A back-scattered scanning electron micrograph of a typical Iznik body. |
| 4.45 A back-scattered scanning electron micrograph of the glassy (‘white’) phase. |
| 4.46 A back-scattered scanning electron micrograph of a section through bol red pigment. |
| 4.47 An explanatory diagram of 4.46. |
| 4.48 Typical example of Miletus ware. |
| 4.49 A back-scattered electron micrograph of a section through Miletus ware. |
| 4.50 A back-scattered electron micrograph of a section through Chinese porcelain. |
| 4.51 A back-scattered electron micrograph of masses of tin oxide and lead oxide crystals which appear white. |
| 4.52 A back-scattered electron micrograph of the body of a ‘Masters of Tabriz’ tile. |
| 5.1 A face centred cube, one of the possible structural units of metals. |
| 5.2 A photomicrograph of the dendritic structure which can occur in metal. |
| 5.3 Section through a copper ore, showing the distribution of primary ores. |
| 5.4 Three-dimensional reconstruction of a small part of the copper mines at Great Orme’s Head, Anglesey. |
| 5.5 A form of ventilation system using a linen cloth in a mine. |
| 5.6 An elevation and plan of the water wheels used to drain (raise the water). |
| 5.7 The ‘copper man’ found in 1900 in the copper mine of Chuquicamata, Chile. |
| 5.8 Photomicrograph of annealed copper. |
| 5.9 Photomicrograph of a repeatedly hammered and annealed metal. |
| 5.10 A model of two Viking-age iron- smelting shaft furnaces. |
| 5.11a The excavated remains (in plan) of one of the medieval iron-smelting furnaces found at Stanley Grange, Derbyshire, England. |
| 5.11b Interpretative plans of excavated remains of two medieval iron-smelting furnaces at Stanley Grange. |
| 5.12 (a) The computer simulated three- dimensional feature in Figure 5.11b (top); (b), (c) and (d) are three possible computer simulated reconstructions of the excavated remains of the features shown in Figures 5.11a and 5.11b (top) at Stanley Grange, Derbyshire, England. |
| 5.13 A diagrammatic cross-section through a furnace for smelting zinc. |
| 5.14 Scraping calamine from the walls of a furnace at Rammelsberg, Germany. |
| 5.15 Illustration of a cupel with the tubular tuyère attached. |
| 5.16 An illustration of a gold-refining furnace. |
| 5.17 Location map of metallurgical sites. |
| 5.18 Map showing smelting and mining locations in the Feinan area. |
| 5.19 The distribution of industrial debris at Shiqmin, Palestine. |
| 5.20 Crucible fragments from early Bronze Age Wadi Fidan, Jordan. |
| 5.21 The site of several phases of re-building of early Bronze Age open copper-smelting furnaces. |
| 5.22 A range of British Copper and Bronze Age axe forms. |
| 5.23 The isotopic spread of Willerby assemblage and Mile Cross assemblage metalwork. |
| 5.24 Isotopic mixing of dominant metals. |
| 5.25 Weight % nickel content versus lead isotope ratio for Rohl and Needham’s impurity groups LI 7, LI 12, LI 13, LI 13? and ungrouped samples © The British Museum. |
| 5.26 The distribution of metal resources in the region of Thailand together with the principal sites mentioned in the text. |
| 5.27 The locations of the zones of cultural traditions. |
| 5.28 Three artefacts from Ban Chiang: (1) a socketed spearhead; (2) a socketed axehead; (c) a crucible. |
| 5.29 Three moulds from Non Pa Wai: (1) bivalve mould for the manufacture of socketed axes; (2) ingot mould; (3) ingot mould. |
| 5.30 The location of Bryn y Castell hillfort near Ffestiniog in north Wales. |
| 5.31 The Bryn y Castell hillfort and archaeological context F208. |
| 5.32 Platform A at Crawcellt, north Wales. |
| 5.33 Three kinds of Iron Age iron currency bars. |
| 5.34 The relative levels in parts per million of indium and silver (log scale) found in coins struck in Potosí or Lima, Peru (1556-1784) and Spain (1512-1686) (after Barrandon et al. 1995) © The British Museum. |
| 5.35 The relative levels in parts per million of palladium and gold (log scale) by issue date for coins struck in Portugal and Brazil between 1460 and 1802 (after Barrandon et al. 1995) © The British Museum. |
| 6.1 The nineteenth-century map of chert mines at Wadi el Sheikh, Egypt. |
| 6.2 The relative proportion of different kinds of flint (from the South Downs, Wessex, East Anglia, other areas and unclassified sources) used for making flint axes which have been found in these same areas as flint sources © The British Museum. |
| 6.3 The distribution of chert and flint in the Paris basin and surrounding area. |
| 6.4 A principal components analysis of chert from Etiolles, Villejuif and Donnemarie. |
| 6.5 The percentage of obsidian (logarithmic scale) in the chipped stone industry versus distance from source for early Neolithic sites in the Near East. |
| 6.6 Parts per million barium versus parts per million zirconium detected in obsidian samples. |
| 6.7 The distribution of chemically characterised obsidian in and near Italy and southern France. |
| 6.8 The result of a survey of Neolithic sites in Calabria, Italy. |
| 6.9 The distribution of obsidian for the El Chayal source, Guatemala. |
| 6.10 The distribution of obsidian for the El Chayal source, Guatemala based on major element analysis. |