REAL-LIFE NAVIGATION SCENARIOS
Scenario 2—Heading to the Summit
Scenario 3—Retracing Your Steps to Camp
Now that you’re ready to hit the trail, this chapter will cover the basics of how to get around in the wilderness, from route-finding to river crossings. Let’s start with the tools you need to navigate.
A map is a two-dimensional representation of the three-dimensional world using special symbols and colors to represent the earth’s surface. Map reading is about learning to understand this two-dimensional “language.” The most useful map for the backcountry is a topographic map, which uses markings called contour lines to simulate the three-dimensional topography of the land. For backpacking, these are much more helpful than nontopographic maps. In the United States, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) makes topographic maps that cover areas in great detail, and the Canada Map Office produces topographic maps of Canada. Topographic maps are indispensable if you are traveling in a remote area because they contain lots of detail. However, government topographic maps are not always accurate in displaying local marked trails. In some cases, lesser-known trails are not even shown on a topographic map. Local trail maps often have more detailed information on local trails than topographic maps. I often take both types of maps on a trip—topographic maps for the most accurate geographic information and for map and compass navigation, and a local trail map to show trails, campsites, and other features.
All maps indicate their scales in a legend, generally found in a margin. Scales are represented with two numbers in a ratio. The first number is the map distance and the second is the ground distance. The map distance is always one. A scale of 1:24,000 (be it inches, feet, or meters) means that 1 unit on the map is the equivalent of 24,000 of those same units in the real world. Since most of us don’t think in hundreds of thousands of inches, the second number is typically converted into a more usable number like miles or kilometers. In this case, 1 inch on the map would equal about 2,000 feet (609 meters), and 1 centimeter on the map (0.39 inches) would equal 240 meters (787 feet).
There are large-scale maps and small-scale maps. Just remember Large scale shows Small detail and Small scale shows Large detail. The larger the second number is in the ratio, the smaller the scale of the map. A larger scale 1:24,000 map will show smaller things on the map like individual buildings and covers a smaller area. A smaller scale 1:250,000 map shows only larger things on the map like cities and covers a larger area.
When you are looking for a map, decide what scale is best for your planning in terms of the amount of detail versus the amount of area covered. The typical USGS maps used for hiking are 1:24,000 scale (also known as 7½-minute maps). Each of these maps shows an area 7½ minutes of latitude by 7½ minutes of longitude (roughly 6½ miles by 8½ miles or 10.4 kilometers by 13.6 kilometers). These maps are adequate for most backpacking trips, but if you were going on a month-long canoeing trip in northern Canada covering 500 miles you might want to use a smaller scale map that would cover greater distances and fewer details.
USGS topographic maps use colors to designate different features.
• Black—man-made features such as roads, buildings, boundaries, etc.
• Blue—water, lakes, rivers, streams
• Brown—contour lines indicating elevation
• Green—areas with substantial vegetation (forest, scrub, etc.)
• Purple—features added to the map since the original survey: These are based on aerial photographs but have not been checked on land
• Red—major highways and boundaries of public land areas
• White—areas with little or no vegetation; white with blue lines is used to depict permanent snowfields and glaciers
In addition to colors, there are a variety of symbols and shadings that designate features on the map. The complete catalog of symbols is available at erg.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/symbols.
Each map contains specific information about the area that map covers. The major features of the map legend are shown below:
• Map name
• Year of production and year of any revisions
• General location in the state
• Adjacent quadrangle maps
• Map scale
• Distance scale
• Contour interval
• Magnetic declination
• Latitude and longitude
• UTM coordinates
Contour lines depict the three-dimensional character of terrain on a two-dimensional surface. Just as isobars on weather maps depict lines of equal atmospheric pressure in the atmosphere, contour lines drawn on the map represent equal points of height above sea level.
On multicolored maps, contour lines are represented in brown. The map legend indicates the contour interval—the distance in feet (or meters) between each contour line. There will be heavier contour lines every fourth or fifth line, labeled with the height above sea level. The figure illustrates how a variety of surface features can be identified from contour lines.
Big Sur, California, Three-Dimensional View Showing Contour Lines
• Steep slopes—contours are closely spaced
• Gentle slopes—contours are widely spaced
• Valleys—contours form a V shape pointing up the hill; these Vs are always an indication of a drainage path that could also be a stream or river
• Ridges—contours form a V-shape pointing down the hill
• Summits—contours form circles
• Depressions—contours are circular with lines radiating to the center
There are a number of ways to measure distance accurately on a map. One is to use a piece of string to trace the intended route. Lay the string along the route and then pull the string straight and measure it against the scale line in the map legend. Another method is to use a mathematic compass and set it at a narrow distance on the map scale, such as ½ mile, and then “walk off” your route. Depending on how accurately you measure and the scale of your map, be conservative and add 5 to 10 percent of the total distance to account for features like switchbacks, which may not appear on the map. It’s better to anticipate a longer route than a shorter one. There are also map measurers with a little wheel that you roll along your route that calculates your total mileage. For winding trails the compass method is not very accurate; use a string or a map measurer.
Big Sur, California, Map View Showing Contour Lines and Features
Any location on the earth can be plotted using one of several coordinate systems. The most commonly used coordinate systems are latitude and longitude and the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) system. In order to identify any location you have to start with some reference points. These systems use two standardized reference lines—one for north–south (the Y-axis) and another for east–west (the X-axis). You can then identify an exact location as some value to the north or south of the Y-axis reference line and some value east or west of the X-axis reference line.
Latitude lines run east and west around the earth. The Equator is considered to be 0 degrees latitude and bisects the globe into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Points north of the Equator are referred to as some degrees north latitude and points south of the equator are referred to as some degrees south latitude. Latitude values reflect movement up or down the Y-axis.
Longitude lines, also called meridians, run north and south, meeting at the geographic poles. Longitude lines measure the distance in degrees either east or west from the Prime Meridian (0 degrees longitude), which runs through Greenwich, England. Points east of the Prime Meridian go from zero up to 180 degrees and are referred to as east longitude. Points west of the Prime Meridian are referred to as west longitude and also go from 0 up to 180 degrees. The 180 degree east longitude line and the 180 west longitude line are the same line on the opposite side of the globe from the Prime Meridian. Longitude values reflect movement left or right on the X-axis.
The grid created by latitude and longitude lines allows us to calculate an exact point as X-axis and Y-axis coordinates. In the drawing below you can see that the point P is where the 30 degrees north latitude line and the 20 degrees west longitude line intersect.
Both latitude and longitude are measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds of arc, as follows:
1 degree = 1/360 of a circle
1 minute of arc = 1/60 of a degree
1 second of arc = 1/60 of a minute of arc
Therefore, 7½ minutes of arc (the typical area shown in a topo map) shows an area ⅛ of a degree.
Let’s look at an example of latitude and longitude positioning. The latitude value is always displayed first. The location of Mt. Princeton in the Colorado Rockies is:
N 38°44′58″ W 106°14′31″
The “N” specifies north latitude and the “W” specifies west longitude. This is read as 38 degrees 44 minutes and 58 seconds north (of the Equator) latitude and 106 degrees 14 minutes and 31 seconds west (of the Prime Meridian) longitude. Calculating location using latitude and longitude can be cumbersome because there are so many units to work with (degrees, minutes, and seconds).
Once you understand it, the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) system is easier to use than the latitude-longitude system since it does not require parsing units down into degrees, minutes, and seconds. The UTM system is based on the metric system and uses meters as the unit of distance (1 meter = 3.28 feet). In the UTM grid, the world is divided into sixty zones that run north–south from pole to pole, each covering a strip 6 degrees wide in longitude at the widest point, the equator. These zones are numbered consecutively going east starting with Zone 1 (on the International Date Line out in the middle of the Pacific Ocean), which covers between 180° and 174° west longitude to Zone 60, which covers from 174° to 180° east longitude (so Zone 1 and 60 meet at 180° east/west longitude). The lower forty-eight States in the United States and Canada are covered by Zone 7 on the West Coast through Zone 22 in eastern Canada.
Each zone is oblong in shape, narrower at the top and bottom than in the middle owing to the spherical nature of the earth and what happens when you project a sphere onto a flat map. Each zone covers both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Each zone is divided into horizontal bands spanning 8 degrees of latitude. The letters C–M specify latitudes south of the Equator, and the letters N–X specify latitudes north of the Equator. So using just the zone number and the band letter, you can get a general region of the earth’s surface. Within each zone coordinates are measured north and east of fixed reference lines in meters.
UTM Coordinate System
Eastings provide information on how far east you are within a particular zone. The larger the Easting number, the farther east you are in that zone. (This gets confusing for people in North America because we are used to the longitude number getting smaller as you move to the east—toward 0 degrees longitude at Greenwich, England.) In order for the Easting number to have any meaning, each zone has a centerline known as the central meridian that runs north and south through the zone like a longitude line. The central meridian in each zone is arbitrarily assigned an Easting value of 500,000 meters east. You can think of this line as if each zone has its own Prime Meridian. Eastings are values in meters east or west of the central meridian in that zone only. A location that is east of the central meridian will be a number greater than 500,000 and a location west of the central meridian will be a number less than 500,000. For example, an Easting of 523000mE is 23,000 meters east of the central meridian (523,000 ‒ 500,000 = 23,000) while an Easting of 477000mE is 23,000 meters west of the central meridian (500,000 ‒ 477,000 = 23,000). (Always subtract whichever is the smaller number from the larger number.)
Northing is the method of determining your north–south location within the zone. UTM Northing coordinates are measured relative to the Equator. The Equator is assigned an arbitrary value of 0 meters north, as a reference for all locations north of the Equator. For locations south of the Equator, the Equator is assigned an arbitrary value of 10,000,000 meters north. This prevents locations in the Southern Hemisphere from having negative Northing values. It is possible to have duplicate Northing values within the same zone—one above the Equator and one below the Equator. To identify the correct location you typically include the letter for the latitude band after the zone number. The latitude band letter is often dropped when you know what hemisphere you are in.
A complete UTM coordinate starts with the zone, followed (sometimes) by the band letter, then the full Easting value and finally the full Northing value. Always remember the order zone then east then north. One mnemonic to remember the correct order is Z-E-N, zone-Easting-Northing. Let’s look at the summit of Mt. Princeton in UTM coordinates.
13 S 0392028E 4289705N also written as 13 S 0392028mE 4289705mN
Reading from left to right, the first value, 13, represents the zone you are in. The letter (S) refers to the latitude band, so you can quickly identify a very general location on the earth with just the zone and band (hemisphere). The next set of numbers, 0392028, is the Easting value showing your east–west position in the zone. The final set of numbers, 4289705, is the Northing value showing your north–south position in the zone.
The central meridian of the zone is always at 500,000 meters. The 0392028 means that this point is at 392,028 meters; therefore, it is west of the central meridian by 500,000 ‒ 392,028 = 107,972 meters west. Since the location of the central meridian is known in each zone, you can calculate the line that this point is on by going 107,972 meters west of the central meridian. The 4289705 means that this point is 4,289,705 meters north of the Equator. Combine these two points and you establish your coordinate location.
One of the nice parts about the UTM system is that you can use fewer numbers for a less exact location and more numbers for a more exact location. When working with UTM on a map, you typically work with the two superscript print numbers (in this case 92 and 89), which represent the key Easting and Northing values that define the grids on the map. If you use only the first two numbers of the Easting and Northing coordinate, then you define an area that is 1,000 meters by 1,000 meters (3,280 feet × 3,280 feet). As you add digits you increase the accuracy of the positioning. Think of it like a Zip code. The more digits you add, the closer in you get to the exact location. This isn’t possible with the latitude-longitude coordinate system.
| UTM Coordinates | Digit Resolution |
| 92 89 | 4 digit—a square 1000 m by 1000m |
| 920 897 | 6 digit—a square 100 m by 100m |
| 9202 8970 | 8 digit—a square 10 m by 10m |
| 92028 89705 | 10 digit—a square 1 m by 1m |
When you start working with UTM coordinates on a map, the notation changes a little based on the map scale. The 1:24000 map below has major UTM grid lines every 1,000 meters marked on the edges of the map. The vertical grid lines are the Easting lines and determine east–west position, and the horizontal grid lines are the Northing lines and determine north–south position. The major Northing and Easting lines are shown in regular type and the other numbers shown as superscripts (the opposite of how the UTM coordinate is written out). Label C, 392000mE, means “three hundred ninety-two thousand meters east.” Since the central meridian is 500,000 meters, and this number is lower than that, we know that this line is west of the central meridian by 108,000 meters (500,000 ‒ 392,000 = 108,000). The D label next to it, 393, is an abbreviation for, 0393000mE. The two gridlines are 1,000 meters apart. Northing gridlines are measured the same way on the horizontal axis. The full Northing value of 4275000mN at label B means that this Northing line is 4,275,000 meters north of the Equator. The 4274 shorthand at label A is 1,000 meters south.
Finding a Location Using UTM Coordinates
We want to locate Point X where the old prospector sites are on the south side of Mt. Shavano in Colorado. Make sure your map has UTM coordinates marked on it.
We know from the map legend that this is Zone 13. Since UTM starts with the Easting coordinate, find out which vertical Easting lines Point X is between. It’s between Easting line 92 and line 93. If you just gave someone the coordinates 13 03 92E and 42 74N, it defines a 1,000-meter-square grid on a particular map, and she would know that you are talking about some point within that grid. To get a more accurate location, divide the distance between line 92 and line 93 into tenths (since UTM is based on the metric system we divide things up by 10), and estimate how many tenths east of line 92 it is. It looks about two-tenths of the 1,000 meters or 200 meters. We take that 2 and write it after the 92 for an Easting coordinate of 922.
Now do the same with the Northing coordinate. Find the line below and the line above Point X. The line below is 74 and the line above is 75. Estimate the distance north above the 74 Northing line. It looks like three-tenths of the 1,000 meters or 300 meters. Now we put the zone number and the full Easting and Northing values together for the full UTM coordinate 13 03922 42743. You can give someone else with the same map those coordinates, and they can locate that Point X on the map by finding the 92 Easting line and moving east 200 meters, then finding the 74 Northing line and moving north 300 meters.
You can make this process easier by using a UTM grid overlay. This is a piece of transparent plastic with grid markings on it, creating a series of boxes. The one shown here is from MapTools (www.maptools.com). Like a map, a UTM grid overlay is based on a particular map scale, so you must use the same grid scale as your map scale (e.g., 1:24,000). Place the grid overlay on the map and line up the left grid edge with the easting gridline on your map west of Point X and the bottom grid edge along the northing gridline south of Point X. Locate which “grid box” your Point X is in. Count over along the Easting grid to find the box number Point X is in (in this case 2). In our example, each box is 100 meters, so that box is 200 meters east of the 92 Easting line (92200). Do the same with the Northing and you get a value of 3 box (300 meters) north of the 74 (740,000) meter line. Combine the two numbers to get your Northing value of 743, so the full location is 922 743. This gives a six-digit coordinate that is accurate to within 100 meters (330 feet). To get a more accurate reading, divide the box where the X is into 10 values for Easting and Northing and add the new number to your UTM coordinate string.
Using a Grid Overlay to Find UTM Coordinates
A compass consists of a magnetized metal needle that floats on a pivot point and orients to the magnetic field lines of the earth. The basic orienteering compass is composed of the following parts:
• Base plate
• Straight edge and ruler
• Direction of travel arrow
• Compass housing with 360-degree markings
• North label
• Index line
• Orienting arrow (typically red)
• Magnetic needle (north end is red)
Compass
No, this is not a silly question. There are several types of north:
True North/Map North Also known as geographic north, this is marked as 
on a topographic map. It is the geographic North Pole, where all longitude lines meet. All maps are laid out with True North directly at the top of the map, so it is also known as Map North. Unfortunately for the wilderness traveler, True North is not at the same point on the earth as the magnetic North Pole, which is where a compass points.
Magnetic North Think of the earth as a giant magnet (it is, actually). The shape of the earth’s magnetic field is roughly the same shape as the field of a bar magnet. The earth’s magnetic pole doesn’t correspond to the geographic North Pole because the earth’s core is molten, and the magnetic field is always shifting slightly. The red end of your compass needle is magnetized. Wherever you are, the earth’s magnetic field causes the needle to rotate until it lies parallel to the lines of magnetic force in your particular location with the red end of the needle pointing to magnetic north. This is magnetic north (marked as “MN” on a topographic map). The following map shows an approximation of the lines of magnetic force for the United States.
Lines of Magnetic Force in the U.S.
As you can see in the illustration above, your location makes a great deal of difference in where the compass points. The angular difference between true north and magnetic north is known as the declination and is marked in degrees on a map. Depending on where you are, the angle between true north and magnetic north is different. In the continental United States and Canada, the angle of declination varies from about 20 degrees west in Maine to about 21 degrees east in Washington state. My trick for North America is to remember the location of the zero declination line (called the agonic line) roughly as the Mississippi River.
If you are on the line where the declination is 0 degrees, then you don’t have to worry about declination at all, since magnetic north and map north are equivalent. (Wouldn’t it be nice if all your trips were on the 0 degree of declination line?) If you are to the right of the agonic line—say, in Maine—your compass “declines” or points toward the agonic line (to the left), and hence the declination is to the west. If you are to the left of the line—say, in California—your compass “declines” or points toward the agonic line (to the right), and hence the declination is to the east.
The magnetic field lines of the earth are constantly changing, moving slowly westward (1 to 1½ degrees every five years), which is why it is important to have a recent map. Older maps will list a declination that is no longer accurate, and all your calculations using that angle will be incorrect.
TRICKS OF THE TRAILCaring for your compass Compasses are, of course, affected by magnetic fields. When using your compass, keep it away from metallic objects. Even a metal belt buckle can distort your magnetic reading. Also, other magnetic fields such as those found in electric motors can temporarily disorient or even permanently demagnetize the compass needle. Most compasses are made of translucent plastic. Certain chemicals and solvents like those found in products like DEET insect repellant can “eat” the paint markings off or cause the clear plastic to become cloudy.
Now that you understand the differences between True/Map North and Magnetic North, you can start to use your map and compass together.
The compass is used primarily to take bearings. A bearing is a horizontal angle measured clockwise from north (either Magnetic North or True North) to some point (either a point in the real world or a point on a map). Bearings are used to locate your position or to reach a particular destination. If you are working from your map, it is called a map bearing, and the angle you are measuring is the angle measured clockwise from True North on your map to another point on the map. If you are taking a bearing from a real point on the landscape with a compass, you are using your compass to measure the angle clockwise from Magnetic North to this point on the landscape. This is called a magnetic bearing. Remember that the bearing is always measured clockwise.
Your map is an artist’s rendition of the world. It displays True North, but it doesn’t include magnetic fields as the real world does, so you need to make accommodations when going from your map to the real world. At the same time, the real world doesn’t have a true north—it’s merely a construct of the map, so you have to make accommodations when going from the north in the real world as defined by your compass to your map.
The basic principle is this: to compensate for declination, you want the map bearing and the magnetic bearing to be equivalent. There are three cases:
1. If you are lucky enough to be on the agonic line where the declination is 0 degrees, map bearings and magnetic bearings are already equivalent. This rarely happens.
2. The easiest way to compensate for declination is to orient your map with your compass (see Adjusting Your Compass for the Local Declination) before you take a bearing because then you have made the two norths equivalent. If you do this you can ignore #3 below and all the headaches that go with it.
3. If the map bearing and magnetic bearing aren’t equivalent, you will need to make a bearing correction by either adding or subtracting the declination amount as you go either from map to compass or from compass to map.
I use the phrase “True East is Least and True West is Best” to remember when to add and subtract. If you forget what it means, you can “build it” as you go. I remember that true north (map north) is always the same, and it is magnetic north that shifts with declination. So any bearing I take from the map is based on a constant—true north. When you are going from a bearing that you have calculated on your map to a magnetic bearing and your declination is east, you subtract the declination from the map bearing (least is like less, which means subtract), so “east declination is least.” If your declination is west, you add the declination to the map bearing (best is like better, which means add), so “west declination is best.”
If your declination is east, then magnetic north is greater than true north and the map bearing is greater than the magnetic bearing. To make the two bearings equivalent, add or subtract the declination, as illustrated below:
• Map Bearing to Magnetic Bearing If you are taking a bearing from one point on your map to another point on the map with respect to true north, then you are working with a map bearing. To determine the magnetic bearing, subtract the declination from your map bearing to create the proper magnetic bearing.
Map Bearing ‒ Declination = Magnetic Bearing.
• Magnetic Bearing to Map Bearing If you use your compass to take a bearing from your current position to a point on the landscape, then you are working with a magnetic bearing. To determine your position on the map, add the declination from your magnetic bearing to create the proper map bearing.
Magnetic Bearing + Declination = Map Bearing.
If your declination is west, then magnetic north is less than true north and the map bearing is less than the magnetic bearing. As with east declination, you can make the two bearings equivalent by adding or subtracting the declination, as is illustrated below:
• Map Bearing to Magnetic Bearing If you are taking a bearing from one point on your map to another point on the map with respect to true north, then you are working with a map bearing. To determine the magnetic bearing, add the declination to your map bearing to create the proper magnetic bearing.
Map Bearing + Declination = Magnetic Bearing.
• Magnetic Bearing to Map Bearing If you use your compass to take a bearing from your current position to a point on the landscape, then you are working with a magnetic bearing. To determine your position on the map, subtract the declination from your magnetic compass bearing to create the proper map bearing.
Magnetic Bearing ‒ Declination = Map Bearing.
Some compasses have an outer degree ring that can be unlocked with either a set screw or a latch, allowing you to reset the compass to account for declination. Normally the orienting arrow will be pointed to the N on the compass ring. You can adjust the orienting arrow so that it points to magnetic north for the declination of that particular area. Once the compass has been corrected to the local declination you won’t have to add or subtract for declination because your compass is aligned to true north. This means that when the compass needle is inside the orienting arrow, the compass bearing that you read off your compass will be in relation to true north instead of magnetic north. If you have a fixed-ring compass, you can mark the declination angle on the compass baseplate with a piece of tape.
TRICKS OF THE TRAILBuy Your Compass for the Right Area In addition to the magnetic deviation east or west, compasses also show a vertical “dip” up or down. This dip varies in different parts of the world, and compasses are typically calibrated for that dip. Thus, a compass made for the Northern Hemisphere won’t give accurate readings in the Southern Hemisphere. Buy your compass when you get to the country you are hiking in. Suunto makes a “global” compass that works with dip up to 20 degrees and is therefore useful in most locations around the world.
Navigation in the wilderness means knowing your starting point, your destination, and traveling your route to get there.
Keep your map and compass handy, and refer to them every hour or so to locate your position (more often in low visibility). Keep track of your starting time, rest breaks, lunch stops, and general hiking pace. This will also give you an idea of how far you have traveled and whether you’ve planned your time accurately. This is just one part of situational awareness. (See Chapter 8, “Safety and Emergency Procedures.”)
You can eliminate the need to correct for declination if you use your compass to orient the map to magnetic north each time (or if you have calibrated your compass for declination). As long as the map is oriented with respect to magnetic north, any bearings you take from map to compass or compass to map will be the same. It also helps to compare the map to the surrounding landscape if the map is oriented. You can do this by eye, using basic land features, or with your compass.
Lay the map on the ground or hold it horizontally. Rotate the map until recognized features on the ground roughly align with those on the map. This method is fine for general scouting of the area but not accurate enough for real navigation.
1. Place your compass on the map so that the side edge of the baseplate lies parallel to the east or west edge of the map, with the direction of travel arrow pointing toward the north edge of the map. The compass housing must be rotated so that the compass’s orienting arrow is pointing to the top of the map (N on the compass ring is at “Read bearing here” marker).
2. Holding the compass on the map with the side edge still parallel, rotate the map and the compass together until the north end of the magnetic needle points to the N on the compass housing (i.e., the red north end of the magnetic needle and the orienting arrow align). This is often referred to as “boxing the needle” since the magnetic needle is inside the “box” formed by the orienting arrow. Some people also say “red in the shed” when the red end of the magnetic needle is inside the orienteering arrow on the compass, which is typically painted red. The map is now oriented with respect to magnetic north. This means that you’ve rotated the map so that true north on the map now points to magnetic north. Any compass bearings you take from the map can immediately be applied to the field and vice versa. This works the same way if you have a compass already adjusted for local declination.
With the map oriented, look around for prominent landscape features such as mountains, valleys, lakes, and rivers. Make a mental note of the geographical features you will be traveling along and seeing during the day. If you keep the terrain in your mind, you will have a general sense of your location just by looking around.
Below are some common backcountry navigation scenarios. Let’s see how you can use your map and compass to follow your route.
After hiking along the trail, you bushwhack off to a nearby alpine lake to camp. When you wake up the next morning, you are fogged in. You know where you are on the map, but you don’t know how to find your way out in the fog. Take a bearing on your map from your known campsite back to a known point on the trail that you can identify on the map, then follow your bearing through the fog. (You might also decide to wait out the fog if there is difficult terrain to traverse.) Should you decide to find your way out, here are the procedures:
1. Lay the long edge of the compass base plate on the map, making a line from your starting point to your destination (from Point X to Point Y in the drawing). Since the base plate is parallel to the direction of travel arrow, the base plate can be used to set the direction to your destination.
2. Holding the base plate steady, rotate the compass housing until the compass orienting lines and orienting arrow are pointing to true north. You see the orienting lines and arrow are parallel to the line from A to B as well as the map gridlines. Ignore the compass needle since the bearing you are working with is based on map north.
3. Read the bearing (in degrees) from the degree dial at the index line on the compass base plate (marked “Read bearing here”). In this case the map bearing is 346 degrees.
4. Now you have to correct for declination. If you are in an area with east declination, then subtract the declination angle from your map bearing to get a magnetic bearing to follow. If you are in an area with west declination, add the declination to your map bearing.
Taking a Bearing from the Map
1. Orient the map with the compass.
2. Lay the long edge of the compass base plate on the map, making a line from your starting point to your destination (from Point X to Point Y in the drawing). Since the base plate is parallel to the direction of travel arrow, the base plate can be used to set the direction to your destination.
3. Holding the base plate steady, rotate the compass housing until the orienting arrow coincides with the north end of the magnetic needle (“boxing the arrow/red in the shed”).
4. Read the bearing (in degrees) from the degree dial at the index line on the compass base plate (marked “Read bearing here”). In this case the magnetic bearing is 338 degrees. The difference in degrees between this bearing and the previous bearing should be the declination for this area.
Taking a Bearing from the Compass
After hiking along the trail, you find a good campsite that is marked on the map. You see a summit ridge above the tree line that looks like a great place for photographs, but there’s a valley thick with Douglas fir trees between you and the summit. Take a bearing from your current position to the summit and use that to travel through the forest. Here’s your procedure:
1. Point the direction of travel arrow of the compass toward your destination on the land.
2. Rotate the compass housing until the north-orienting arrow of the compass housing lines up with the red magnetic needle (“boxing the needle/red in the shed”). The north-orienting arrow must be pointing in the same direction as the red (north) magnetic needle.
3. Read the bearing (in degrees) from the degree dial at the index line on the compass base plate (marked “Read bearing here”).
1. After taking the bearing, hold the compass level and in front of you, so that the direction of travel arrow points to your destination.
2. Rotate your body until the magnetic needle lies directly over the orienting arrow (“boxing the needle/red in the shed”). Make sure the north end of the magnetic needle points to N on the compass housing. The direction of travel arrow on the compass now points to your destination.
3. Keeping the needle “boxed/in the shed,” walk to your destination.
Sometimes you can’t see your final destination. One method for walking a bearing is to use line of sight. Walk to a visible landmark—a tree or boulder that is directly along the bearing. Then take another bearing from that landmark to the next visible landmark along the bearing and walk to that. Keep it up until you reach your destination. By going to intermediate landmarks, you minimize the chances of veering off your bearing.
You made it to the summit and took some great photos. Now it’s time to get back to your campsite. To do this you want to calculate a back bearing.
Back bearings can be used either to retrace your steps or to check your position while hiking a bearing. Before you start to walk on your bearing, take a bearing 180 degrees off of the bearing you are going to walk. For example, if you are going to walk a bearing of 45 degrees, shoot a bearing directly opposite your course at 225 degrees. Locate a landmark along this opposite bearing. Walk a short distance along your bearing, then turn around and shoot a bearing back to the landmark along the opposite bearing. If you are on course, the bearing to the landmark behind you will still read 180 degrees off your bearing (in this case 225 degrees). If it doesn’t, you are off course. Sailors and sea kayakers use back bearings all the time to check for lateral drift from wind or currents. Back bearings are also useful if you are heading out to a destination and then returning along the same line of travel. There are two basic formulas for calculating a back bearing:
• When the direction of travel bearing is less than 180 degrees
Back Bearing (BB) = 180° + Direction of Travel Bearing (DTB)
BB = 180° + DTB
225° = 180° + 45°
Calculating a Back Bearing When the Bearing Is Less Than 180 Degrees
• When the direction of travel bearing is greater than 180 degrees If the direction of travel bearing is more than 180 degrees, you use a different formula (otherwise you will have a back bearing greater than 360 degrees). If we reverse the example above, let’s say your bearing is 225 degrees (which is greater than 180 degrees), then your back bearing works out to 45 degrees.
Back Bearing (BB) = Direction of Travel Bearing (DTB) ‒ 180°
BB = DTB ‒ 180°
45° = 225° ‒ 180°
Calculating a Back Bearing When the Bearing Is More Than 180 Degrees
It’s often hard to follow an exact back bearing. You veer off course somewhat. This is known as lateral drift (see Other Navigation Tools). Being off by just a few degrees can make a major difference after several miles (see table below). Rather than head straight for your target, it’s best to calculate the direct back bearing and then deliberately set your compass bearing to aim off to the left or right side of your target. Then you’ll know whether to turn right or left to get to the target.
| Degrees off Course | Distance off target after 10 miles (16 kilometers) |
| 1 degree | 920 feet (280 meters) |
| 5 degrees | 4,600 feet (1,402 meters) |
| 10 degrees | 9,170 feet (2,795 meters) |
Baselines are helpful because they provide a large target to aim for. A baseline is a reference line that lies across your course. It can be a trail, cliff face, road, stream, or other feature. You can combine a baseline with aiming off to help navigate. Find a baseline near your destination, then aim off of it. When you hit the baseline, you’ll know which direction to turn to walk along the baseline to your destination.
Lateral Drift
Aiming Off and Using a Baseline
You’re in the midst of an incredible bushwhack and you’ve been diligently following a compass course, sighting from tree to tree. Up ahead there is a clearing. When you enter it, you discover a swamp. There’s no way you can go straight through on your compass course. The best method for maintaining your course is to hike a rectangle around the swamp by making a series of 90 degree turns from and back to your original course. Here’s your procedure:
1. Set a new bearing 90 degrees from your original heading and walk along that until you have cleared the obstacle along that axis. Remember, whenever you turn 90 degrees to the right, add 90 degrees to your course. Whenever you turn to the left, subtract 90 degrees from your course. While walking, maintain a count of paces or track the distance you travel until your next turn.
2. You have passed the length of the obstacle, so go back onto your original bearing, parallel to your original course, until you clear the obstacle along that axis.
3. Now that you’ve passed the width of the obstacle, it’s time to hike back to your original line of travel. Set a bearing 90 degrees back to your original bearing and walk the same number of paces as you did in step 1.
4. Once you have walked off the correct distance, you are ready for your last 90 degree turn. Now turn back to your original bearing. You will be roughly along your original line of travel.
Navigating Around an Obstacle
You’re hiking off-trail through the broad alpine valleys, having a deep philosophical conversation about our connection with nature—so deep that you have lost some of your own connection with nature. Suddenly, you look around and realize you don’t know where you are; this alpine valley looks a lot like the last one you came through. Okay, so you’re lost.
Triangulation is used to locate your position from compass bearings. Even if you are not sure where you are, you can find your approximate position, as long as you can identify at least two prominent landmarks (mountain, end of a lake, bridge), both on the land and on your map. Here’s your procedure:
1. Orient the map with your compass.
2. Look around and locate prominent landmarks (preferably at least 90 degrees apart).
3. Find the landmarks on the map.
4. Take a compass bearing between you and the first landmark.
5. Place the compass on the map so that one corner of the base plate rests on the landmark.
6. Keeping the corner of the base plate on the landmark, turn the entire compass on the map until the orienting arrow and the compass needle point to north on the map.
7. Draw a line on the map along the edge of the base plate from the landmark. You can use the compass base plate to extend the line on either side of the landmark, intersecting the prominent landmark symbol. You’ve drawn a line from B through A. Your position is somewhere along this line.
8. Repeat this procedure for the other prominent landmark. The second landmark should be as close to 90 degrees from the first as possible. Draw a line from C to the other line. Your approximate position is where the two lines intersect at Point A. This is a rough approximation of your position.
9. To make it even more accurate, you can repeat this process a third time to show an area bounded by three lines. If your bearings were accurate, you should be located within this triangle.
10. If you are located on a prominent feature marked on the map, such as a ridge, stream, or road, that feature can serve as a baseline, and only one calculation from a prominent landmark should be necessary. Your position will be approximately where the drawn line intersects this linear feature or baseline.
Triangulation
Wearing a watch in the backcountry is a matter of personal wilderness ethics. Many people like to let nature set the pace of the day rather than wear a watch. I may not wear my watch, but I always bring one along. There are too many times when I have needed one: to get an accurate check on how fast I am hiking; to see if my Time Control Plan is correct; and especially in first-aid and emergency situations, where timing vital signs and knowing the exact time may be essential in proper diagnosis and treatment. Watches can also be used to determine basic direction.
An altimeter can be a useful navigation tool along with your map and compass. It is a specialized version of a barometer that measures the local atmospheric pressure of the air. This is the “weight” of the air above you. The higher you climb above sea level, the less the weight of air and the lower the pressure. Barometric pressure is measured in either inches or millibars. As you climb and descend, an altimeter monitors the changes in barometric pressure.
While you are hiking the atmospheric pressure is also constantly changing due to weather. To give you an accurate altitude reading, the altimeter must be calibrated to a known starting place. When you start your hike, find a known altitude location on your map based on contour lines, and when you are at that point you can set your altimeter to read that same elevation; it’s now calibrated. As you hike, the altimeter shows the current altitude and any increase or decrease in elevation. If the overall barometric pressure in your area doesn’t change due to weather, then the altimeter reading will stay accurate. However, since pressure may change, you should recalibrate your altimeter several times each day. Recalibrate, or at least look at, your altimeter reading before you go to bed. If the altimeter reads lower the next morning, then the atmospheric pressure has gone up during the night, typically indicating stable or improving weather. If the altimeter reads higher, then the atmospheric pressure has fallen, indicating potentially stormy weather. Some altimeters, once set to a known altitude, will automatically compensate for changes in barometric pressure due to weather.
You can use your altimeter as another source of information to help you locate your position or find a destination. If you are hiking up a trail and it crosses a particular altitude (contour line) at only one point, then you know where you are on that trail (based on two points of reference). Here’s another situation: you know from your calibrated altimeter that you are somewhere along a contour line that lies at that elevation. You may be able to identify other clues from the landscape that you can find on the map to help you pin down exactly where you are along that contour line. Suppose you are traveling off-trail (using good Leave No Trace techniques). As you head up a ridgeline you know that there is a flat spot to camp at a certain elevation. Once you hit that elevation you can traverse along that elevation, using your altimeter to help you stay on the same contour line until you reach the flat spot.
Altimeters and altimeter watches are available for $50 to $200 dollars. Some models are prone to inaccuracies owing to temperature. Let your altimeter adjust to the ambient air temperature before taking a reading. More expensive units automatically correct for temperature changes, and some offer features like total vertical ascent and descent, altitude alarms, a separate barometer, weather trend graphs, and current temperature. You can get some of these same altitude and weather features in certain GPS receivers.
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a network of satellites in orbit above the earth. A GPS receiver is basically a radio receiver, available as a handheld unit that’s easily transportable in the backcountry. The satellites transmit to the GPS receiver, which interpolates the signals into coordinate data (either latitude and longitude or UTM) that are displayed on the unit.
The GPS works just like our map and compass triangulation. Like triangulation, your GPS receiver needs to be able to “see” at least three satellites. Each satellite identifies itself, and the GPS receiver calculates how long it took to get the signal. This establishes your distance from each of the three satellites. A fourth satellite is needed to calculate your altitude. There are limitations to the accuracy of the GPS position reading. Depending on the type of receiver, GPS units are accurate from 50 feet (∼15 meters) to within less than 9 feet (∼3 meters). There are two enhancements that make the positioning even more accurate—differential GPS (DGPS) and Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS). These systems include a correction signal that corrects for some of the inherent time lags in sending a radio signal from a satellite hundreds or thousands of miles away. Your GPS applies these corrections to the original satellite information. A DGPS receiver gives a position accurate from 9 to 16 feet (3 to 5 meters). A WAAS-enabled GPS receiver can read the signal and apply the correction, giving you an accuracy of less than 9 feet (3 meters). Although they can be used to determine your location very accurately and establish compass courses, don’t rely on a GPS unit in place of knowledge of map and compass. Battery failure, damage to the GPS unit, or even leaving it behind at a rest stop could get you lost if you don’t also have good map and compass skills. GPS units are particularly useful in locations where there no established trails or few landmarks.
There are limitations to GPS receivers. You need a clear view of the sky to get signals from multiple satellites. Bad weather, heavy tree cover, or being in a canyon all can prevent you from receiving GPS signals from multiple satellites, rendering your receiver useless. That’s why you never go into the outdoors without a map and compass as well.
Mapping software programs give you access to digital versions of topographic maps and allow you to overlay routes and waypoints (see “Global Positioning System,”) on the map image. The software can calculate your mileage and elevation change, giving you the information you need to more accurately determine your hiking time. You can do all of your route planning right from your computer, then download your waypoints onto your GPS receiver. There are some GPS receivers or PDAs that let you download maps so you can take your electronic map with you. Here are some of the major software titles for U.S.-based mapping:
• Delorme—Topo USA (www.delorme.com)
• Garmin—Mapsource United States TOPO (www.garmin.com)
• MapTech—Terrain Navigator (www.maptech.com)
• National Geographic—Topo! (maps.nationalgeographic.com)
Any map needs a reference to base all its locations on. Surveyors and map makers identify certain key reference points and base their measurements for all other points off of these. This is referred to as the map datum, and it is printed in the bottom left hand corner of topographic maps. It’s important to understand and use the correct map datum, especially when working with maps and a GPS. When you turn on your GPS, it is set to use a default datum, and the satellites will report your position based on that datum. If your GPS reading is not based on the same reference datum as the map, then the point on the map with those coordinates is not the same point as your GPS location. So you should always set your GPS to use the datum of your map. Here are some of the major map data.
• NAD-1927—North American Datum 1927
• NAD-1983—North American Datum 1983
• WGS-84—World Geodetic System 1984
There are a multitude of GPS receivers on the market. Different models have different control pads, display screens, and user interfaces so it isn’t possible to give you detailed instructions on how to use your particular GPS. Read the instruction manual carefully. Instead I’ll talk about some basic features and techniques for using a GPS.
A waypoint is just that—a point along your way. Say you find a great campsite or scenic spot you want to remember. You can set it as a waypoint, and your GPS will store the exact location in memory in whatever coordinate format you choose (UTM or latitude-longitude). In the future you can use the GPS to navigate back to that spot. First, you establish your current position (A) and then the GPS can indicate direction and distance from that location back to your scenic spot. Here’s where you also need a map and your brain. The GPS is going to show you a direct line between your position (A) and your waypoint (B), but there could be all sorts of obstacles along that direct path, so you may still have more navigating to do.
A GPS route is a series of waypoints that you connect together to create a travel route. Once the waypoints are entered into the GPS, you can link them together, and as you hike the GPS will show you the direction from one point to the next. Obviously over a full day or multiday hike there would be an almost infinite number of individual waypoints along the route. By selecting your waypoints strategically your GPS can guide you from one waypoint to the next along your route using the “Go To” function.
When you are planning a route at home from a map, you can identify waypoints along the route that you want to go to each day, trails to take, your campsites, etc. Then you can enter these waypoints into your GPS either manually or from computer mapping software. Here’s where mapping software can really help. While GPS is a great technology, the typical user interface to work with a GPS receiver is clumsy compared to a computer. Manually entering a large number of waypoints into a GPS is extremely tedious. With mapping software you identify the waypoints directly on the map on the computer screen, mark them, and then download them directly into the GPS. You can also save various routes on your computer all ready to download to your GPS.
As you hike, most GPS units keep track of the route you hiked in what is often referred to as a “breadcrumb trail” with a track-back function. When you activate the track-back, it will help you completely retrace your route back to your starting point.
Some GPS units have an electronic compass that allows you to visually shoot a bearing to a location and then keeps you on course as you travel to that location. Other units include an altimeter that monitors your elevation changes and displays weather-related barometric pressure changes.
Hiking with a large group can be fun, but also cumbersome and slow. It seems like every five minutes someone has to stop and adjust something. Here are some considerations to help you determine ideal group size:
• Traveling as One Large Group Pro: Can be a positive group-building experience. Keeps equipment and human resources close at hand at all times. Minimizes chance of individuals getting lost. Good for groups with less experience. Con: Greater visual and noise impact on area and other hikers. Requires adjustment to a common pace (which could also be positive). Can compromise Leave No Trace travel, particularly if the area is pristine, and can have a greater negative impact on other hikers.
• Splitting Into Smaller Groups Pro: Reduces impact. Each subgroup still has its own equipment and human resources. Allows subgroups to form by common pace. Con: May need more equipment, such as first-aid kits, maps, and compasses. Each subgroup needs to have a higher skill level. Need to establish rendezvous points and definitive backup plans in case subgroups get separated or there is an emergency situation. This is one situation where walkie-talkie radios or cell phones can be helpful.
• Traveling Alone Pro: Unique wilderness experience. Reduces impact. Con: Limited resources immediately available if an emergency arises. May need more equipment, such as map and compass for each person. Each person must have solid backcountry skills. Group may get too spread out. Need to establish rendezvous points and times for the group to get back together. Need to have good emergency plan if someone gets lost or injured. Note: This is a great way to experience the wilderness, but I can’t overemphasize the need for people to have solid skills and be paying attention. It is easy to let your mind wander and miss a critical trail junction. Before traveling solo, review the day’s route and identify any special hazards like a river crossing that shouldn’t be done solo.
Over a long day of hiking, it’s important to pace yourself and conserve energy. Fatigue can significantly increase accident potential and drain you of energy reserves that can be crucial in an emergency. Here are a few things to keep in mind:
• Each day you should examine your route to identify difficult stretches, schedule rest stops, and estimate travel time to spots along the route. (See Chapter 1, “Trip Planning.”) On a multiday trip, look at your estimates for previous days—how did your estimates compare with your actual travel time? If there is a significant difference, you may want to rethink your route.
• During the day, be aware of whether or not the group is moving according to schedule, and be prepared to alter the schedule if necessary.
• If possible, try to set your route to avoid difficult ascents or descents at the very end of the day, when everyone is tired.
• Be especially cognizant of the least experienced or least physically fit hikers, and adjust the hike accordingly.
• Make sure that you leave enough energy (and time) to set up a good Leave No Trace camp at the end of the day.
A basic test for the right hiking pace is if you can hike comfortably all day with 5-minute rest periods every hour. If you find that you need to stop or slow down more often, then you are probably hiking too fast for the trail conditions, your pack weight, or the weather. When you are hiking as a group, you need to find a pace that everyone can handle.
Finding the right pace for a group of varying abilities can be a big challenge. Body metabolism, physical condition, age, experience, size, weight, and pack weight will all have an effect on the speed at which each individual can hike. Try to set a pace at an aerobic level that everyone can maintain over a long period.
What often happens is that faster (or more hurried) people in a group gravitate to the front and the slower (or less hurried) people end up at the rear. This can be demoralizing to slower persons and difficult because when they catch up to the group, which has stopped to rest, the group takes off again, “dragging” the slower persons along so that they get little or no rest (aka the “slinky effect”). If the group gets too spread out, people in the rear may miss trail junctions or turns and get lost, or people in front may take a wrong turn.
It is generally better to have slower people in the front or in the middle of the group so that the group adjusts its pace to those individuals. You want to have everyone in the group hiking at a comfortable level of exertion. Faster people should be sensitive to the pace of slower people and adjust themselves accordingly. Taking weight from a slower person and giving it to a faster person helps to even out the pace.
All groups need to take regular rest breaks in order to hike effectively throughout the day. A good schedule is about 5 minutes of rest for every hour of hiking, which will minimize lactic acid buildup in the body. Lactic acid is the by-product created when your muscles burn glucose while you exercise; it’s what causes your muscles to feel sore. When you stop, lactic acid continues to be produced and remains in the system. If you stop for less than 5 minutes, this buildup is not a problem. If you stop for more than 5 minutes, you may begin to feel muscle soreness and tightening. In that case it is best to extend the stop to 20 to 30 minutes to allow the excess lactic acid to be cleared out of your system.
You should encourage everyone to rehydrate at every break. Make sure that every break doesn’t turn into a long one, or you will need to replan your route for the day. Make regular rest breaks part of your initial trip plan.
Just as you need to balance the load in your pack to carry it properly, so you need to balance the load on your cardiovascular system to hike efficiently and without strain. Keeping an even breathing rate and pattern is one of the best ways to monitor and control your energy output while hiking. You should move at a pace that allows you to breathe comfortably and be able to speak. If you are constantly gasping for breath or if you can’t keep up a conversation, then you are hiking too fast for your conditioning level.
The best way to control your pace is to synchronize the rhythm of your walking with the rhythm of your breathing. As the cardiovascular load increases from steep terrain, altitude, humid weather, or a heavier pack, your breathing rate will increase. Slow your pace to regain that controlled breathing rate. When the load is reduced, you can pick up your pace again. This is the same principle that all endurance athletes use to maintain high exercise output over a long period of time. Also see “The Rest Step”.
The rest step is designed to rest the leg muscles, which are doing most of the work in hiking. As you shift your weight onto each leg, briefly lock the knee. While the knee is locked, your body weight is supported by your skeletal system rather than your leg muscles.
On very steep sections you can rest on the locked leg for several seconds or longer for greater rest. Keep in mind that the rest step should be used in conjunction with rhythmic breathing. Use the rest step to keep your breathing rate easy. If you go up steep sections too fast, your body won’t get enough oxygen, and you will switch from aerobic respiration to anaerobic respiration. High-altitude mountaineers take one rest step and hold it for 30 seconds or more in order to keep their breathing rate down. It is usually better to use the rest step and continue to push slowly up a short, steep incline than to stop in the middle and then have to get started again.
When going up a steep incline, stand up straight. This puts you in the best position to recover, should you lose your balance. Try to keep your steps small (aim for a maximum elevation gain of 6 inches/15 centimeters per step). The energy expended on two small steps is less than that for one long one. If possible, avoid going up and down over rocks or logs in stair-step fashion. If an obstacle is large, go around it if possible (but don’t step off the trail to avoid obstacles). Remember to use the rest step.
Walking downhill is easier aerobically, but it can be the most strenuous part of the journey on your body. Leaning backward with a heavy pack puts the hiker off-balance and places a lot of strain especially on legs, knees, and ankles. If your foot slides forward in your boot, there is increased friction, which can lead to blisters. To help prevent foot movement in the boot, lace your boots up tightly, particularly around the ankle, before a long downhill stretch. On steep downhills, improperly fitted boots can cause “toe jams” or “boot bang” where your toes smash repeatedly into the front of the boot, which can cause blood blisters under the toenail and even toenail loss. Take small, controlled steps. Try to avoid jamming your feet into the ground as you walk—lead with your heel rather than the ball of your foot and keep your knees slightly bent to absorb the shock. (See “Hiking on Snow and Ice”.)
Hiking is just like any other sport. It is essential to warm up and to stretch muscles before using them to avoid stress and possible injury. Most of us forget to stretch. We are so busy breaking camp and trying to get going that we don’t take 5 minutes to warm up. If it’s early in the trip, you are probably using muscles that haven’t been used for a while, and stretching makes them warm and loose. Stretching at the end of the day will keep your muscles from tightening up. Keep the following in mind whenever you stretch:
• Before stretching in the morning, get your heart rate up by doing several minutes of aerobic activity—jog around camp, jump in place, swing your arms, do push-ups. It is important to have increased blood flow to the muscles before you start to stretch.
• Stretch slowly and smoothly; do not bounce or force stretches.
• Breathe in a controlled, slow rhythm. With each exhalation, let yourself move deeper into the stretch.
• Count during each stretch for concentration.
Everyone has his or her own repertoire of stretches. Go with your favorites and learn some from the other people on your trip. I like doing stretch circles in the morning with a group. Go around the circle and let each person share a favorite stretch. Here are a few good stretches for backpacking, from Robert Anderson’s excellent book Stretching:
• Squat (lower back, shins, Achilles tendon) Squat with your heels 8 to 12 inches apart and toes slightly pointed out. Your knees should be over your toes and arms hanging down in the middle. Hold for 30 seconds. This may be done best on a downhill slant, with something supporting the mid-back, or by holding on to a tree.
• Quadriceps Stretch Stand on one foot. Grasp the ankle of the other leg with your opposite hand and pull the foot up to your butt. You should push forward with your knee so that the thigh stays vertical. Do both legs.
• Hamstrings Sitting with one leg straight out, toes pointing up, and the other leg bent, slowly bend from the hip without curling back. Hold where you feel the stretch in the hamstrings. Do both legs.
• Calf and Achilles Stretch Keep your toes pointing forward with the heel on the ground and the knee straight. Keeping your back straight, lean forward onto a tree and stretch your calf muscles and Achilles tendon. This also feels good with a bent knee. Do both legs.
• Groin Stretch Lie on your back with your knees bent and the soles of your feet together. Let the pull of gravity do the stretching.
Off-trail hiking can be one of the most spectacular wilderness experiences, but it must be done thoughtfully and responsibly, maintaining the highest Leave No Trace standards.
When hiking off-trail, determine the best Leave No Trace approach for the area—should you spread the group out or hike together? Also, determine if the off-trail area is an open vista where navigational landmarks will be easily seen or if it is dense forest or scrub where constant compass navigation may be necessary.
Consult the map carefully for landmarks to minimize your chances of getting lost. Since the route may zigzag to avoid thicker vegetation, you may need to take repeated compass bearings. Be aware that hiking off-trail can be slow and exhausting. If you are truly bushwhacking through dense forest or scrub, hiking may take more than twice as long as usual. Keep this in mind when estimating your travel time.
• Choose routes that offer the least resistance by constantly looking for openings ahead.
• Move slowly and deliberately, at well-spaced intervals.
• Remember that following one another too closely can result in people being slapped in the face by whiplashed branches.
• Part foliage gently with your arms and shoulders instead of plowing through with your body and pack. This helps minimize damage to branches and foliage.
• Minimize loose gear hanging on the outside of your pack, which can get snagged on branches.
• Avoid breaking off tree limbs. Some off-trail hikes are used more than once, and you rob others of the feeling of wilderness if they know people have been there before. Also, broken branches may establish a new trail.
• Minimize Rockfall Exposure If there is a significant amount of loose rock on a slope, it is best to spread the group out. A rock kicked loose from above can be a dangerous missile heading toward hikers below. Try to avoid having one person hike directly above another. If the trail goes straight up or switchbacks up the slope, you may not be able to prevent this. With switchbacks you can gather the group at each turn before proceeding.
• Yell “Rock” If you kick loose a rock or object of any size, yell “Rock,” loudly. Even a small rock can injure hikers below.
• Duck If you hear someone directly above you yelling “Rock,” try to turn and face downslope so that your pack is between you and the rock. Don’t look straight up into the oncoming missile.
• Take Your Time If you are ascending or descending a rocky or boulder-filled slope, make sure that the rock you are stepping on is solid before you shift your full body weight onto it. This applies to using trekking poles as well.
• Vary Your Stride There is a natural tendency to leap from rock to rock. Usually we take a short “feeler” step with the foot on our dominant side, and then take a longer step with the other leg. Vary the leg you use for takeoff and landing to prevent repetitive stress injuries.
• Trust Your Boots When descending steep rock bands you want maximum friction, which you achieve by having the greatest surface contact between your boot soles and the rock. Try to keep your feet flat on the rock and bend heavily at the knees. Keep your center of gravity directly over your feet, with your back reasonably straight. When ascending steep rock bands, the same principle applies. Keep your feet as flat as you can. When the slope angle gets very steep, you won’t be able to bend your ankles far enough forward to keep your feet flat. Using a diagonal traverse across the rock face instead of hiking straight up may decrease the angle, or you may have to climb more on the toes of your boots. Still, make sure that your center of gravity is over your feet. If you lean too far forward or too far back, you may fall over.
Scree is loose rock debris that accumulates on slopes beneath cliffs and ridges. Think gravel to baseball-size rocks. “Scree-am” is also one of the things you may do when trying to climb up a scree slope. For every step you take up, you often slide at least a half step back down in the loose rubble. This can be really exhausting as well as hazardous since it is easy to kick lose rocks down on those below you. Going up diagonally may be easier than trying to go straight up, and having people behind you in a diagonal line means less chance for rocks to come down from someone directly above you. The best way to deal with scree slopes is the rest step and lots of patience.
Coming down scree slopes can also be difficult. The best technique is to lean back a bit and dig the heels of your boots in and keep your toe fairly level. This is the same technique as the plunge step in soft snow. (See “Hiking on Snow and Ice”.) You need to be careful not to lock your knee as you descend or you’ll put a lot of strain on the joint. Also, suddenly locking your knee can cause you to pitch-pole forwards. Like plunge-stepping in snow, keep your speed controlled. If you start going too fast, stop and regain control before you end up falling head over heels. Be careful of suddenly hitting solid ground. If your body is “expecting” some of its impact to be absorbed by the loose scree and you hit solid rock, it’s going to transfer a lot a stress to your joints and can throw you off balance.
Talus slopes are similar to scree slopes, only the size of the rocks is much larger. We are talking small boulders. With talus slopes you are going to have to do lots of rock hopping. The big danger is shifting your weight onto an unstable rock that then moves underneath you. Falls can be more hazardous on talus slopes than on scree slopes. Take your time and stay balanced.
In many mountain areas there are seasonal or permanent snowfields and glaciers. If you are traveling to these areas, make sure you have the proper equipment and training to deal with hazards like avalanches, crevasses, and ice fall. A full explanation of hiking on snow and ice is beyond the scope of this book. Read a book like Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills by The Mountaineers and get training in snow and ice techniques. Here are a few basic guidelines:
• North-facing slopes get less sun and stay harder longer during the day. They also tend to have snow later in the season. South-facing slopes melt out sooner. (Reverse these trends in the Southern Hemisphere.) Based on where you are going, the terrain, the extent of snow cover, and the time of day, one slope may be better than another to hike on.
• It’s often best to climb in the early hours of the day before the sun has warmed the slopes too much, or you may find yourself up to your waist in soft, wet snow. Also, as the slopes get warmer, the snow softens and the risk of rockfall and icefall increases.
• Avalanches aren’t just a winter phenomenon. Warm conditions can often cause wet snow slides that can be extremely dangerous. Check with local land managers about avalanche hazard before you go. When you are on the trail, look for signs of slide activity. It’s best to stay off slopes from 30 to 45 degrees when avalanche danger is high.
• The steeper the climb or harder the snow or ice, the greater your chance for a fall. An ice axe and skill in self-arrest are essential for steeper areas or where the consequences of a fall are considerable (such as above crevasses).
• On steep slopes, it may be too slippery to walk up flat-footed. If the snow is soft enough, you can kick steps into the snow. Kicking steps can be tiring, so make it as efficient as you can. Bend your lower leg at the knee and lift your heel to near 90 degrees. Let your foot drop, and the weight of gravity will do some of the work of driving the toe of your boot into the snow. Test the step with some pressure before committing all your weight to it. This also compresses the step into a better platform. You will need to kick steps that are usable by everyone in the group, so take short steps. Periodically rotate the lead. The lead person stops, kicks steps to the side, and moves out of the way. The second person takes the lead, and the previous leader falls in at the end of the group for a well-earned rest. If the snow is hard you may have to cut steps with your ice axe or use crampons. This is an environment where heavier boots may be necessary.
• On steep snow descents, when the snow is relatively soft, you can use the plunge step. Land heel first on an extended leg (but don’t lock your knee), and let your body weight drive the heel down into the soft snow. With your foot at the correct angle you create a platform just like when you kick steps going up. When you get into a rhythm, you can descend very quickly. Always keep your speed controlled. Another descent method is glissading, basically “skiing” downhill on your boots. This takes balance and practice, so always evaluate the runout below you for hazards before you try it. In both cases, you should have an ice axe and be prepared to self-arrest if you lose control.
River and stream crossings can be one of the most potentially uncontrollable and dangerous situations during your trip. More backpackers are killed in stream crossings than die from snakebites. Great care must be given to planning and executing any swiftwater crossing. The two biggest factors affecting the potential danger of a crossing are the speed of the current and the depth of the river, but there are a number of other potential hazards:
• Cold Water can lead to hypothermia. (See “Immersion Hypothermia”.)
• Foot Entrapment occurs when a foot is caught on the river bottom and the person is pushed over by the force of the current. Often the force of the current keeps the person from being able to stand up and the individual is held under water—a potential drowning situation.
• Strainers are submerged branches that will hold a person swept against them—another potential drowning situation.
• Undercut Banks and Rocks are also places where you can be trapped by fast water—another potential drowning situation.
• Eddies are areas of slower moving water found behind obstacles like boulders or on the inside of a bevel.
• Chutes are places where the river narrows and the water speed increases. Sometimes waves form in a chute.
You must examine the river carefully to determine what potential hazards exist in crossing. Base your decision whether to cross on a careful examination of the river, possible crossing sites, and the strengths and abilities of the people in the group. Don’t let a desire to continue on a particular route push you to make a crossing that is too hazardous. Decide whether to cross, where to cross, and how to cross. Here are questions you should ask about any river crossing:
• How deep is the water?
• How fast is it moving?
• What is the water temperature?
• Are there hazards downstream?
• Will all members of this group be able to safely negotiate this crossing? Are there non-swimmers?
If you see any of these conditions, then the crossing is potentially dangerous and you should seriously consider not crossing at that location (look for another spot or don’t cross at all):
• The river is moving very quickly.
• The river is in flood (often muddy brown).
• You can’t determine the water depth.
• The river level is higher than your knees and moving very swiftly.
• You can hear the sound of boulders rolling in the river.
• The river has large floating logs and obstructions that could hit hikers.
• The water is extremely cold.
• There is a significant hazard downstream, near the crossing site (i.e., strainer, waterfall).
Hike up and down along the river to find the safest place to cross. Pick a shallow stretch of water free from obstructions (boulders, partially submerged logs) and with gradual banks to facilitate easy entry and exit. Try to avoid crossing at a bend in the river because the water is usually deeper and faster on the outside of the bend, and the outside bank may be steep and difficult to climb. Outside bends are also often undercut by the current and are a prime location for strainers. The stretch of water below the crossing point should be long and shallow (a pool to drift into safely in case of mishap).
1. Bad—Riffles indicate faster water and may be difficult to cross. Above a fastwater chute, losing footing could mean getting flushed down the chute.
2. Bad—Above an outside bend. Deepest/fastest water on the outside. Outside bends may have steep banks and could be undercut—potential entrapment hazard.
3. Bad—Shallows make part of crossing easy but you still have deep water at the end of the bend and a steep bank.
4. Good—Below the bend, water is slowing down.
5. Good—Cross and take advantage of the slower water in the eddy behind the boulder.
6. Bad—Above a steep ledge with rapids.
7. Bad—Above an outside bend with a strainer—potential entrapment hazard.
8. Good—River is wider also probably shallower with slower water. Diagonal path across means that hikers tend to be pushed down and over to the opposite bank.
9. Bad—Rapids.
River Features
• Know the route ahead of time and identify possible hazardous crossings. Are there alternate routes or bridges?
• How will weather impact your crossings? Is there a better time of day to cross?
• Keep your boots on (or change into sneakers or sandals, if available). They protect your feet and provide ankle support. You might take your socks off to keep them dry, but if you have multiple crossings to do this may be too time consuming.
• Keep your pack on, but undo the hip belt and sternum strap so that you can jettison the pack quickly if necessary.
• Move only one foot at a time while making sure that the other foot is firmly placed, and shuffle along rather than taking big steps. Keep moving slowly. Don’t cross your legs. Feel the bottom before you commit your weight to the foot (to feel and avoid potholes).
• Use a hiking stick or trekking pole as a “third leg,” especially on the upstream side; walking sticks can be useful to test for dropoffs and rocks.
• Always face upstream while crossing solo. If you face downstream, the force of the water could cause your legs to buckle underneath you.
• If you feel your foot begin to get caught, fall over into the water to pull the foot out to avoid entrapment. Trying to stand may “set” the foot into the entrapment and place you at greater risk.
• If you lose your footing and are swept away, shrug out of your shoulder straps and jettison your pack. Float downstream on your back, feet first with toes on the surface. This position prevents foot entrapment. Use your legs as shock absorbers to fend off river obstacles. Actively swim to the shoreline. Don’t let yourself be swept against logs, as you might be pinned against them. If you can’t avoid being swept onto a river obstacle, try to clamber up onto it so that your head remains above water.
• Be extremely careful when walking on logs or boulder hopping. These places are likely to be slippery, and falls resulting in injuries are common.
• If you have a foam sleeping pad, tie it to the top of your pack. Having the pad tied on at the bottom can create too much buoyancy lifting your feet off the bottom.
• Avoid baggy pants, which offer greater resistance to the water and increase your chances of being pulled over.
• In braided rivers (rivers with multiple channels), look beyond the first crossing and make sure that you have a reasonable idea of how to continue. Sometimes one crossing leads you to one that is impassable and you have to return and try another option.
• In any deep-river crossing, position someone below the crossing point as a safety backup. Remember the principles of basic lifesaving—reach for the person, throw a line or floating object, and go in after her only as a last resort.
One end of a rope is securely anchored near the shoreline 5 to 6 feet (1.5 to 1.8 meters) above the river at a good crossing location. The other end is held by a strong member of the group. The first person to cross holds the end of the rope above the water as she crosses; never tie into a rope. The person crossing and the one on the shore should both try to keep the rope up out of the water to prevent drag. Upon reaching the other side, the crossing person anchors the free end to trees or rocks 5 to 6 feet (1.5 to 1.8 meters) above the river, creating a fixed rope across the river. Group members, standing on the downstream side of the rope, and facing upstream, use the rope as a hand line and shuffle across the river. The last person (also a strong group member) unties that end of the rope and crosses as the first person. It is best to have the first and last person go across without a pack.
TRICKS OF THE TRAILHow Deep Is Too Deep, How Fast Is Too Fast? There is no easy answer to this question, since depth and current speed interact so much. Generally any time moving water is higher than the shortest person’s thighs, there can be considerable risk. You can test the speed of the current by tossing a stick in the water and trying to walk along the bank to keep pace with it. If you can’t keep up, the speed is fast.
Crossing with a Rope
There are a variety of methods for crossing a stream without a rope.
In the illustration below, the current is coming from the left, and people are moving across the river.
Triangle Method (A) With three people, you can create a “triangle of support.” Each person faces inward and links arms at the shoulders, with his or her feet spread apart. The person who is downstream stays stationary while the other two rotate around that person. Then a new person becomes the downstream person, and the triangle rotation continues.
Crossing Without a Rope
Line Astern Method (B) Form a line with three or more people extending downstream. The line should face upstream, standing one behind the other, and give one another support by hanging on to one another’s waists. The upstream person moves sideways first and stops, then number two, and so forth. The first person creates a water break for the others to move into. If the current is extremely strong, the group moves simultaneously. A stick or trekking pole is very useful for the first person to help with balance, since she may have to lean upstream against the current.
Paired Crossing Method (C) Two people face each other and link arms, with the heavier person downstream. The upstream person serves as a “water break,” and the downstream person as support. The upstream person moves sideways first, supported by the downstream person, and then stops. Then the downstream person moves sideways into the “water break,” or eddy created by the upstream person, and the cycle continues across the river.
Line Abreast Method Have the whole group form a line facing the opposite bank, then move across together. There are two great methods I learned in New Zealand from the Mountain Safety Council. The first is the “clothing grab.” Reach behind the back of the person on either side and grab a handful of clothing at the person’s waist, then walk across the river together. You can also grab the person’s pack hip belt or bottom of the shoulder strap. The advantage of these methods is that if one person loses her balance or even lets go, the person next to her can still hold her in place.
When we go to the backcountry, we do so to escape civilization, so we may forget that road crossings (even major interstate highways or railroad crossings) can be part of the trip route. This is especially true of long corridor trails like the Appalachian Trail and the Pacific Crest Trail. Like a river crossing, a road crossing can be hazardous, especially for a large group. Here are some things to think about:
• Know Your Route Know when and where you will be required to cross a road. When will road crossings occur—midday or dusk? Also, have an idea what type of road you will be crossing. Is it a backcountry road, rarely traveled, or a busy interstate?
• Assess the Situation Assess the road for the safest place to cross. You should have clear visibility down the road in both directions. If the crossing spot does not have such visibility, you may want to move to another crossing spot. If this presents a problem, locate a site that has good visibility and post a signal person there. Like a school crossing guard, the signal person lets you know when it is clear to cross. Signalers should be visible to cars, but off the road.
• Know Your Signals All trip members must be clear on what signals are used to indicate safe crossing. Similar to signals used by American Whitewater for paddlers, hikers use both arms overhead to mean continue, and two arms out horizontally and waving to mean “Stop, do not cross.”
Some trail routes require you to hike along a road, perhaps for several miles, before returning to the forest. This should be evident from your trip plan, but the exact nature of the road may not be. Assess the situation for the safest place to walk. Stay well off the road on the shoulder, if there is one. If there is a safer walking area on the other side of the road, you may decide to cross and walk there. If there is no shoulder on either side of the road, it is best to walk single file on the side of the road facing oncoming traffic. Be very careful at curves, where drivers may not be able to see you.
Bears are one of the great symbols of wilderness. They are majestic creatures that deserve our respect and protection. Left alone, bears generally do not pose a threat to people. Most of the problems that arise in bear-human interactions are the result of bears becoming habituated to our presence in their environment and/or becoming dependent on human food.
When traveling in bear country, there are a number of special precautions that need to be taken. The first is to be aware of the type of bear(s) you may encounter, since your behavior in a bear encounter depends on the species of bear. There are three species of bears in the United States and Canada that you might encounter: the black bear, the grizzly or brown bear, and, in northern Canada and Alaska, the polar bear.
Black bears are 5 to 6 feet long (152 to 183 centimeters) and weigh 200 to 500+ pounds (90 to 227+ kilograms). The color varies from black in the East to a cinnamon or black in the West. The face has a straight profile and is always brown. There is usually a small patch of white on the breast. Black bears are most active at dawn and dusk but will move about during the day. They are primarily solitary animals except when the mother is raising her cubs. She can be quite aggressive if the cubs are threatened. The black bear has poor eyesight, a fair sense of hearing, and a keen sense of smell.
Almost all black bears (except those in the Deep South) will hibernate for two to four months each winter. During this period they can be aroused quite easily and may leave the den for a few hours at a time. Bears coming out of hibernation in the spring can be unpredictable. Black bears are both omnivorous and opportunistic. They eat fruit, berries, insects, small mammals, and “people food.” Black bears are quite intelligent, and quickly learn that a backcountry campsite not only means an easy meal but that a bunch of hikers banging pots aren’t really a threat. This is a typical scenario that brings bears into close proximity with backcountry travelers.
Grizzly bears are 6 to 7 feet long (180 to 213 centimeters) and weigh from 325 to 850 pounds (146 to 382 kilograms). Color ranges from yellowish to dark brown or nearly black with whitish color on the tips of hairs especially on the back, giving it a frosted appearance. The face is concave, and there is a pronounced hump at the shoulder.
Grizzlies inhabit only a small region in the continental United States and are prevalent in Alaska and portions of Canada. Their diet and feeding habits are similar to the black bear and also includes salmon. They are far more aggressive than black bears and have been known to attack and, in some rare cases, kill humans. As a result, grizzly bears can be significantly more dangerous than black bears. If you are traveling in grizzly country, talk with area land managers about special precautions and any restricted areas (for more information on bears and bear behavior, see the Bibliography).
• Avoid contact with bears.
• In grizzly country, it is best to travel in groups of three or more.
• Make noise when traveling in bear country to alert a bear that you are coming so it can leave.
• If a bear enters your campsite, you might deter it by banging pots or making loud noises. You may also try assembling the group as a large mass, swaying your arms, and making noise. Since bears have poor eyesight, they often shy away from an apparent foe that is larger than they are. If these measures fail, move well away from the bear. Note: If the bear is habituated to humans, almost nothing you can do will drive it away if it is hungry.
• Keep human food away from bears and other animals. This is part of good LNT practice (see Chapter 5, “Leave No Trace Hiking and Camping,” and “How to Bearproof Your Camp”). Keep a clean camp, and make sure cooking utensils are properly cleaned and packed away. Clean up and hang all excess or spilled food and garbage.
• Set up your cooking area downwind of your sleeping area so as not to attract a hungry bear through your camp.
• Be aware that bears and other animals tend to be more daring in areas people frequent. They become accustomed to finding food scraps left in camps by careless hikers. In particularly lean seasons, bears will seek meals wherever they can find them. Keeping a clean Leave No Trace camp helps prevent bears from becoming habituated to humans.
• In general, bears become a problem when they feel threatened (e.g., when they are cornered) or when they are traveling with their young. If you notice a cub traveling alone or with its mother, be especially cautious. Withdraw immediately.
If a bear charges or approaches you in an aggressive manner, it is most probably because the bear feels that you are a threat. Your actions should be designed to minimize that threat. Bear behavior is extremely complex and cannot be covered completely in this manual; if traveling in bear country, you should read a more detailed book, such as Gary Brown’s Safe Travel in Bear Country. Here are the important points that bear experts Gary Brown and Dr. Stephen Herrero recommend:
Your goal is to convince the bear that you are not a threat.
• Avoid abrupt movements.
• If possible, back away slowly, still facing the bear. Stop if this appears to further agitate the bear.
• Speak to the bear in a quiet, monotone voice.
• Do not look directly into the bear’s eyes. This is seen as a challenge and may provoke the bear.
• Do not run away.
• In most cases charges are actually a bluff and the bear will break off the charge before reaching you.
• Stand your ground. Do not run.
• If you have pepper spray, have it out and ready to use. Only use it when the bear is within 10 to 15 feet (3 to 4.5 meters). Spray directly in the bear’s eyes, nose, and mouth.
• If you are wearing a pack, keep it on. It may protect you.
• Lie on your stomach facing the ground. Clasp your hands behind your neck with your arms tucked close to your head to protect your head and face.
• Remain silent and motionless, even if the bear bites or claws you. If, despite being passive, the bear continues to maul you, fight back as a last resort. You should definitely fight back against a black bear. On those extremely rare occasions where the bear is attacking you to eat you, your only choice is to try and fight back.
• If the bear swats you, roll with the blow and return to your facedown position.
• Keep motionless and silent for at least 20 minutes or longer after the bear has left. Bears may move off and watch a victim for an hour, returning if they see movement.
Bear-Attack Position
TRICKS OF THE TRAILPepper Spray There are a number of products on the market that spray a cayenne pepper derivative. Research indicates that such sprays are effective in deterring bears. In his book Safe Travel in Bear Country, Gary Brown points out that such devices have limited range (15 to 24 feet/5 to 8 meters) and must be sprayed into the sensitive mucous membranes of the bear (nose, mouth, and eyes). Therefore, it can be used only as a last resort when a bear is almost on top of you.
There are two types of pepper spray: oil-based and water-based. The oil-based sprays tend to hang in the air longer, making them more effective. In the event that you have to use it, you will have to steel yourself to wait until the very last minute and get it right in the bear’s face. Shooting it off too early would be ineffective. Since bluff attacks are more common than real attacks, bears may rush at you only to veer off at the last moment. Save the pepper spray for the bear who isn’t stopping.
The goal of bearproofing your camp is to minimize odors that might attract bears and to set up safe storage areas for food and garbage away from your sleeping area and out of reach of bears and other critters. A lot of times people think that this is a big hassle and is unnecessary. You should look at this as part of Leave No Trace and protecting wildlife. There is a saying that “A fed bear is a dead bear.” Bears that learn to associate easy food with humans become more and more habituated to people. Sometimes these bears become so problematic that they must be relocated or, in extreme cases, they may have to be killed.
The best way to bearproof your camp is to start with a camp setup that facilitates these goals. In Safe Travel in Bear Country, Gary Brown describes a basic camp setup where the sleeping area is upwind of the kitchen and food areas, and all three are at least 300 feet (100 meters) apart.
Bear bagging is a general term used for hanging your food. There are lots of other animals (raccoons, opossums, coyotes, chipmunks, and skunks) that will go after human food. In some cases, you may be camped in locations where there are no bears but still need to hang your food at night. Talk with local land managers about what the local critter population is and what precautions you should take. In areas with significant bear problems, there may be permanent food-hanging stands or containers provided by the park.
Hang up all food (except unopened canned food), pots, pans, cups, bowls, utensils, toothpaste, and garbage. On one backpacking trip in Shenandoah National Park, we diligently hung everything up. Around midnight a black bear came into camp and trotted off with someone’s pack—he had left a tube of toothpaste in one of the outer pockets. Be sure your camp is clean of food scraps that may attract a bear. Suspend food and garbage in duffel bags, stuff sacks, or sealed plastic bags at least 16 feet (5 meters) above the ground and at least 8 feet (2.4 meters) from the tree trunk. The bags should hang from a point where the tree can still support them but bears and other critters will have difficulty reaching them.
Be creative and sensible with your techniques for hanging food. A 75-foot (23-meter) rope (at least ¼ inch thick or 6 millimeters), two carabiners, and stuff sacks are helpful. When using stuff sacks, don’t hang the sack directly from the drawstring. Instead, wrap a rope around the neck of the sack and tie it, leaving a loop through which to clip a carabiner, which alleviates the stress on the drawcord by distributing the weight to the entire sack. Otherwise, the stuff sack is likely to rip and spill its contents onto the ground. Below are several useful methods of bear bagging. One caveat: Bears are very smart! They have figured out how to “beat” lots of these techniques.
1. Find a tree with a live branch. The branch should be at least 15 feet (5 meters) from the ground with no object below the branch that could support a bear’s weight. The point at which you will toss the rope over the branch should be at least 10 feet (3 meters) from the tree. The branch should be at least 4 inches in diameter (10 centimeters) at the tree and at least 1 inch in diameter (3 centimeters) at the rope point (see illustration). (Be aware that no system is foolproof—a bear or other animal might still be able to climb out onto the branch and raid your food supply.)
2. Separate your food and other items into two bags of roughly equal weight.
3. Throw the rope over the branch. Attach one end of the rope to one of the bags.
4. Raise the bag as high as you can up to the branch.
5. Attach the other bag to the rope as high up on the rope as you can. Leave a loop of rope at the bag for retrieval.
6. Push the second bag up to the level of the other bag with a long stick.
7. To retrieve the bags, hook the loop of rope with the stick and pull it down. Remove the bag and then lower the first bag.
Counter-Balance Method
This simple pulley system gives you added mechanical advantage to haul heavy loads up above critter level. Still, some bears are smart enough to know that by cutting the diagonal rope tied to the tree, they can bring down the food bag.
1. Find a tree with a live branch with the same dimensions as already described.
2. Throw the rope over the branch. Pull about two-thirds of the rope over the branch. The shorter side of the rope is End A. The longer side of the rope is End B.
3. Tie off rope End A to a tree.
4. Make a trucker’s hitch on End B about 6 feet (2 meters) from the ground and clip Carabiner 1 into the bight of the trucker’s hitch. (If you don’t use a trucker’s hitch, you’ll probably never get the rope loop at Carabiner 1 untied.)
5. Tie a separate piece of strong rope around the top of the food bag to clip a carabiner into.
6. Feed the running end of rope End B through Carabiner 2 and then back through Carabiner 1.
7. Attach the food bag to Carabiner 2 and pull on the free end (B) to haul the bag as high up as possible. Tie off rope End B.
8. To retrieve the bag, untie rope End B and lower the bag to the ground.
2:1 Pulley System
1. Find two trees with live branches with the same dimensions as already described.
2. Rig a horizontal line between the two trees at least 15 feet (5 meters) off the ground. The best way to do this is to have the rope go over a branch right where it joins the tree. The rope then runs down the side of the tree where it is tied off at Point A. Do the same on the other side, tying it off at Point B. An alternative is to tie the ends off to some other trees.
3. Throw a second rope over the horizontal rope. Attach one end of the rope to one of the bags.
4. Hoist the food bag into the air so that it is a least 12 feet (5 meters) off the ground.
5. Tie off the second rope to an adjacent tree at Point C. This can be to one of the horizontal line trees or a third tree.
6. To retrieve the bag, untie the second rope and then lower the bag. Some bears are smart enough to know that cutting the line at Point C will cause the food bag to fall.
If you are going to be traveling in a treeless area where bears are present, you will need to take additional precautions. In some cases, there may be bear boxes or bear poles to hang your food in. If not, you may want to store your food in bearproof plastic canisters on the ground. Bears have an incredible sense of smell, so they will still be able to find the canister but not open it. Don’t put the canister right next to your tent! Have it away from your sleeping area.
There are a number of canisters that have proven effective, including the Bear Vault (www.bearvault.com), the Bear Keg (www.counterassault.com), and the Backpacker’s Cache (www.backpackerscache.com). Some land managers now require bear canisters in certain areas and have certain approved models. The major drawback in using a canister is weight—particularly if one person has to carry the whole container with food. Here are some suggestions for using a bear canister:
• If necessary for space, you can leave your first day’s food out of the canister since you’ll use it up before the end of the first day (this leaves you more room). However, keep in mind that food odors might be on your pack that will make the pack just as interesting for the bear as the canister.
• Repack the food to remove extraneous packaging. Use plastic bags when feasible and force the air out of the bags. Pack carefully. Careful packing will allow you to fit more.
• Remember to leave room in the canister for nonfood items like toothpaste and garbage that will be attractants. Your “garbage in” should be less than your “food out,” so the canister should handle both as the trip progresses.
• Make sure you can find it the next day. Put the canister someplace where it won’t go far if a bear starts to mess with it. Put bright paint or tape on it so you can spot it easily. Don’t put a rope leash on it. That makes it easier for the bear to haul it far away from camp. Even though the bear can’t get in, if it drags it away you will have still lost all your food.
A working knowledge of basic knots is as essential a backcountry skill as reading a map. Here are a few terms used in rope work:
• Working end—the end of the rope that is the free end, commonly called the end.
• Standing end—the fastened part of the rope; may simply be called the line or the rope.
• Bight—a simple turn of rope that does not cross itself.
• Loop—a turn of rope that does cross itself.
• Half-hitch—a loop that runs around a shaft or another piece of rope, so as to lock itself.
Rope and Knot Terminology
This knot is useful for securing a rope back to itself after wrapping it around an object (e.g., a tree).
1. Take the running end around the object and then around itself and back through to create a half-hitch.
2. Repeat the loop to add a second half-hitch. You can pull a loop of rope through and leave the running end out to create a slippery half-hitch (also known as a slip knot). One tug on the running end will pull out the hitch.
Half-Hitch
Two Half-Hitches
Slippery Half-Hitch
This knot is useful for tying one end of a line to something (e.g., one end of a tarp line to a tree).
1. Form a loop of rope some distance from the end of the rope.
2. Feed the running end through the loop, back around the standing part of the rope, and back through the loop.
3. To tighten, pull the running end and the standing part. Follow the old adage: “The rabbit comes out of the hole, around the tree, and back into the hole.”
Bowline
This is a knot that slides and “locks” on a rope. It is excellent for a tarp line because you can adjust the tension of the rope. It can be used from one rope to itself or one rope to another.
1. Wrap the running end of the rope around the standing end with two complete wraps (additional wraps create greater friction).
2. From the lowermost wrap, bring the running end over itself, “bridging” the other wraps, back around the standing end, and then cinch the knot down.
3. When cinched, friction keeps the knot from sliding on the standing end. By loosening the “bridge,” you can slide the knot up or down and reset it.
Tautline Hitch
This knot is used for tying the ends of two ropes together, such as when you need to lengthen a tarpline. It should not be used if the ropes are going to be under great strain (e.g., climbing, rescue work).
1. With two ends of rope, one in each hand, lay the left side over the right side.
2. Wrap the right side over the left side.
3. Lay the right side over the left side and wrap the left side over the right side.
4. Cinch the knot down. It should be two loops of rope, “strangling” each other. If the loops aren’t “strangling each other,” then you have tied a granny knot, which is much harder to release after a load. The basic mnemonic is “right over left, left over right.”
Square Knot
This knot is used to connect two different types (diameters) of rope. It should not be used if the ropes are going to be under great strain.
1. Create a bight in one rope. Feed the running end of the other rope through the center of the bight.
2. Bring the standing end back around behind the bight and back through the center, underneath itself.
3. Cinch the knot down by pulling on both ropes.
Sheet Bend
This is useful for temporarily securing loads. It can be cinched tight and yet released easily.
1. Create a loop of rope.
2. Pull a bight of rope from the running end up through the loop.
3. Wrap the running end around an object and feed it back up through the bight you created.
4. Pull down on the bight. This will give you a 2:1 mechanical advantage to pull the rope tight. Tie off the running end to some object or to itself with two half-hitches.
Note: There will be some stretch to your rope, and as you pull tension the bight will move down. Set the bight far enough away that when you have pulled tension, there is still a gap between the bight and the object.
Trucker’s Hitch