NOTES

To cut down on the number of notes, I have not cited basic reference tools every time I have used them for factual details. These include articles on individuals and historical events in the various editions of the Encyclopaedia Iranica, Encyclopaedia of Islam, Encyclopaedia Judaica, and the Turkish version of the Encyclopaedia of Islam, the İslam Ansiklopedisi, and its continuation as Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslam Ansiklopedisi. I have relied on Caroline Finkel, Osman’s Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923 (London: John Murray, 2005) and Erik J. Zürcher, Turkey: A Modern History, 4th revised ed. (London: I.B. Tauris, 2017) for the basic outline and chronology of Ottoman history.

INTRODUCTION: THE WHITE CASTLE

1. Amos Oz, A Tale of Love and Darkness, trans. Nicholas de Lange (London: Chatto & Windus, 2004), 47.

2. Orhan Pamuk, The White Castle: A Novel, trans. Victoria Holbrook (New York: Vintage, 1998). The novel was originally published in Turkish as Beyaz Kale (Istanbul: Can, 1985). The quote in this paragraph is found on page 58.

3. Pamuk, The White Castle, 62, 65, 67, 69–70, 82.

4. Pamuk, The White Castle, 143, 151.

5. Pamuk, The White Castle, 155.

6. Those interested in this topic can read Noel Malcolm, Useful Enemies: Islam and the Ottoman Empire in Western Political Thought, 1450–1750 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019).

7. Franco Cardini, Europe and Islam, trans. Caroline Beamish (New York: Blackwell, 2001), 122, 136. Originally published in Italian in 1999 with the subtitle History of a Misunderstanding, the book was simultaneously published in translation in English, French, German, and Spanish two years later.

8. The Ottomans: Europe’s Muslim Emperors, directed by Gillian Bancroft, narrated by Rageh Omar (London: BBC Two, 2013); Albert Hourani, ‘How Should We Write the History of the Middle East?’ International Journal of Middle East Studies 23 (1991): 130.

9. Paolo Giovio, writing about Suleiman I in his Commentario addressed to Charles V in 1532, quoted in Malcolm, Useful Enemies, 28.

10. My understanding of the tropes of Byzantine historiography come from Averil Cameron, Byzantine Matters (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014).

11. Cemal Kafadar, ‘A Rome of One’s Own: Reflections on Cultural Geography and Identity in the Lands of Rum’, Muqarnas 24 (2007): 7–25, here 9.

12. Benjamin J. Kaplan, Divided by Faith: Religious Conflict and the Practice of Toleration in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2007), 4.

13. Kaplan, Divided by Faith, 10.

14. Francis Osborne, Political Reflections upon the Government of the Turks, 1656, cited in Malcolm, Useful Enemies, 302.

15. Marc Baer and Ussama Makdisi, ‘Tolerance and Conversion in the Ottoman Empire: A Conversation with Marc Baer and Ussama Makdisi’, Comparative Studies in Society & History 51, no. 4 (October 2009): 927–940.

16. Kaplan, Divided by Faith, 8.

17. ‘Tolerance and Conversion in the Ottoman Empire’, 930.

18. Sir Paul Rycaut, The History of the Present State of the Ottoman Empire, 4th ed. (London: Printed for John Starkey and Henry Brome, 1675), 147–148.

19. Kaplan, Divided by Faith, 9.

19 

CHAPTER 1: THE BEGINNING: GAZI OSMAN AND ORHAN

1. David Morgan, Medieval Persia, 1040–1797 (Harlow, UK: Longman, 1988), 64–65.

2. Marshall G. S. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam, vol. 2, The Expansion of Islam in the Middle Periods (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977), 415.

3. ‘Part 2’, Islam: Empire of Faith, directed by Robert Gardner (Arlington, VA: PBS, 2001); Hodgson, The Venture of Islam, 2:405.

4. The Travels of Ibn Battuta: A.D., 1325–1354, trans. and ed. C. Defremery, B. R. Sanguinetti, and H. A. R. Gibb, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962), 446.

5. Aşıkpaşazade, Tevārīh-i Āl-i Osmān, Aşıkpaşazade Tarihi (Istanbul: Matba’a-i Āmire, 1332AH/1913–1914), 3–4.

6. Rudi Paul Lindner, Explorations in Ottoman Prehistory (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2007), 15–34.

7. Aşıkpaşazade, Tevārīh-i Āl-i Osmān, 4.

8. Rudi Paul Lindner, Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1983), 4.

9. Rudi Paul Lindner, ‘How Mongol Were the Early Ottomans?’, in The Mongol Empire and Its Legacy, ed. Reuven Amitai-Preiss and David Morgan (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2000), 282–289.

10. Aşıkpaşazade, Tevārīh-i Āl-i Osmān, 9. For an analysis of this story, see Baki Tezcan, ‘The Memory of the Mongols in Early Ottoman Historiography’, in Writing History at the Ottoman Court: Editing the Past, Fashioning the Future, ed. H. Erdem Çıpa and Emine Fetvacı (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2013), 23–38.

11. Lindner, Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia, 1–38.

12. A tenth-century Arab traveller gave a firsthand account of how the Oğuz Turkic women were so carefree they did not even worry about being nude in the presence of strangers. Ibn Fadlān, Ibn Fadlān and the Land of Darkness: Arab Travellers in the Far North, trans. Paul Lunde and Caroline Stone (London: Penguin, 2012), 12.

13. The Adventures of Ibn Battuta: A Muslim Traveler of the 14th Century, ed. Ross E. Dunn (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), 168.

14. Colin Imber, The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), 252–253.

15. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam, 2:207, 211–214.

16. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam, 2:239.

17. This paragraph is based on Claude Addas, Quest for the Red Sulphur: The Life of Ibn ‘Arabī, trans. Peter Kingsley (New York: Islamic Texts Society, 1993), 65–66, 98; Alexander D. Knysh, Ibn ‘Arabi in the Later Islamic Tradition: The Making of a Polemical Image in Medieval Islam (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999), 13, 110; Hodgson, The Venture of Islam, 2:227–230, 239–241; and Michael Chodkiewicz, Seal of the Saints: Prophethood and Sainthood in the Doctrine of Ibn ‘Arabi, trans. Liadain Sherrard (Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society, 1993).

18. Ahmet Yaşar Ocak, ‘Kutb ve isyan: Osmanlı Mehdici (Mesiyanik) hareketlerinin ideolojik arkaplanı üzerine bazi düşünceler’, Toplum ve Bilim 83, Osmanlı: Muktedirler ve Mâdunlar (Kış 1999–2000): 48–56.

19. Andrew Peacock, ‘Sufis and the Seljuk Court in Mongol Anatolia: Politics and Patronage in the Works of Jalal al-Din Rumi and Sultan Walad’, in The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East, ed. A. C. S. Peacock and Sara Nur Yıldız (London: I.B. Tauris, 2012), 206–226.

20. Franklin D. Lewis, Rumi: Past and Present, East and West—The Life, Teachings, and Poetry of Jalâl al-Din Rûmi (London: Oneworld, 2000), 168.

21. Quoted in Lewis, Rumi, 406.

22. My understanding of the deviant dervishes in this period is largely based on Ahmet T. Karamustafa, God’s Unruly Friends: Dervish Groups in the Islamic Middle Period, 1200–1550 (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1994).

23. Lewis, Rumi, 149–151.

24. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam, 2:498.

25. Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE, s.v. ‘Baba Ilyas-i Horasani’, by Ahmet Yaşar Ocak, first published online 2015, http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_24265.

26. Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE, s.v. ‘Bektaş, Hacı’, by Thierry Zarcone, first published online 2012, http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_24009.

27. Velâyetnâme, ed. H. Duran, Ankara, 2007, 282–290 (fols. 58a–60a), cited in Zeynep Yürekli, Architecture and Hagiography in the Ottoman Empire: The Politics of Bektashi Shrines in the Classical Age (London: Routledge, 2012), 32.

28. Yürekli, Architecture and Hagiography in the Ottoman Empire, 107.

29. Vilâyet-nâme: Manâkıb-ı Hünkâr Hacı Bektâş-ı Velî, ed. Abdülbaki Gölpınarlı (Istanbul, 1958), 71–75, cited in Cemal Kafadar, Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 30.

30. Aşıkpaşazade, Tevārīh-i Āl-i Osmān, 6.

31. The Book of Dede Korkut, trans. Geoffrey Lewis (New York: Penguin, 1972), 40–41.

32. Lindner, Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia, 37–38.

33. Kemal Silay, ‘Introduction’, in Tac’d-Din Ibrahim Bin Hizir Ahmedi, History of the Kings of the Ottoman Lineage and Their Holy Raids [Ghaza] Against the Infidels, trans. Kemal Silay, ed. Şinasi Tekin and Gönül Alpay Tekin (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), vii–xix.

34. Ahmedi, History of the Kings of the Ottoman Lineage, 1; Quoted in Pál Fodor, ‘Ahmedī’s Dāsitān as a Source of Early Ottoman History’, Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hung. XXXVIII, no. 1–2 (1984): 41–54, here 47.

35. Ahmedi, History of the Kings of the Ottoman Lineage, 3–4.

36. Ahmedi, History of the Kings of the Ottoman Lineage, 4.

37. Kafadar, Between Two Worlds, 76–78.

38. Mehmed Neşri, Kitab-i cihan-nüma, Neşri tarihi, ed. Faik Reşat Unat and Mehmed Köymen (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1949), 78–79 and 92–95.

39. Aşıkpaşazade, Tevārīh-i Āl-i Osmān, 11, 12, 23–25.

40. Kafadar, Between Two Worlds, 85.

41. Halil Inalcik, ‘Timariotes chrétiens en Albanie au XV siècle d’après un registre de timars Ottoman’, Mitteilungen des Österreichischen Staatsarchivs 4 (1952): 118–138; Halil Inalcik, ‘Stefan Duşan’dan Osmanlı İmparatorluğuna: XV. asırda Rumeli’de hıristiyan sipahiler ve menşeleri’, in Mélanges Fuad Köprülü (Ankara: Dil ve Tarih Coğrafya Fakültesi, 1953): 67–108; Halil Inalcik, ‘Ottoman Methods of Conquest’, Studia Islamica II (1954): 104–129; Ahmet Yaşar Ocak, ‘Social, Cultural and Intellectual Life, 1071–1453’, in The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 1, Byzantium to Turkey, 1071–1453, ed. Kate Fleet (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 353–422, here 364.

42. William Shakespeare, Henry V, act 4, scene 3.

43. Aşıkpaşazade, Tevārīh-i Āl-i Osmān, 13.

44. Aşıkpaşazade, Tevārīh-i Āl-i Osmān, 4–5.

45. Aşıkpaşazade, Tevārīh-i Āl-i Osmān, 15–17; Leslie Peirce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 34–35.

46. Imber, The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650, 254–255.

47. Caroline Finkel, Osman’s Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire (London: John Murray, 2005), 7.

48. Tezcan, ‘The Memory of the Mongols’, 28.

49. Ahmedi, History of the Kings of the Ottoman Lineage, 6.

50. The quotes in this paragraph are from The Adventures of Ibn Battuta, 151–152.

51. G. Georgiades Arnakis, ‘Gregory Palamas Among the Turks and Documents of His Captivity as Historical Sources’, Speculum: A Journal of Mediaeval Studies 26, no. 1 (January 1951): 104–118, here 106.

52. Arnakis, ‘Gregory Palamas Among the Turks’, 108.

53. Aşıkpaşazade, Tevārīh-i Āl-i Osmān, 36.

54. Lindner, Explorations in Ottoman Prehistory, 35–56.

55. Aşıkpaşazade, Tevārīh-i Āl-i Osmān, 36.

55 

CHAPTER 2: THE SULTAN AND HIS CONVERTED SLAVES: MURAD I

1. Kafadar, Between Two Worlds, 126.

2. Uli Schamiloglu, ‘The Rise of the Ottoman Empire: The Black Death in Medieval Anatolia and Its Impact on Turkish Civilization’, in Views from the Edge: Essays in Honor of Richard W. Bulliet, ed. Neguin Yavari, Lawrence G. Potter, and Jean-Marc Oppenheim (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004), 271.

3. Kafadar, Between Two Worlds, 131.

4. Rudi Paul Lindner, ‘Seljuk Mints and Silver Mines’, Turcica 41 (2009): 363–371.

5. Lindner, Explorations in Ottoman Prehistory, 102–116.

6. Kafadar, Between Two Worlds, 131.

7. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam, 2:416.

8. Kafadar, Between Two Worlds, 136–137.

9. Aşıkpaşazade, Tevārīh-i Āl-i Osmān, 36–37. We do not know what happened to Osman’s other sons.

10. Gagan Sood, ‘Knowledge of the Art of Governance: The Mughal and Ottoman Empires in the Early Seventeenth Century’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 30, no. 2 (2020): 253–282.

11. Heath W. Lowry, ‘Impropriety and Impiety Among the Early Ottoman Sultans (135–1451)’, The Turkish Studies Association Journal 26, no. 2 (2002): 29–38, here 31.

12. Rudi Paul Lindner, ‘Bapheus and Pelekanon’, International Journal of Turkish Studies 13, no. 1–2 (2007): 7–26.

13. Doukas, Decline and Fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks: An Annotated Translation of “Historia Turco-Byzantina”, trans. Harry J. Magoulias (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1975), 73.

14. Judith Herrin, Unrivalled Influence: Women and Empire in Byzantium (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013), 314.

15. Speros Vyronis Jr., The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Anatolia and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh to the Fifteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), 288–402, especially 348–350 and 402.

16. F. W. Hasluck, Christianity and Islam Under the Sultans, ed. Margaret Hasluck, 2 vols. (New York: Octagon Books, 1973); V. L. Ménage, ‘The Islamization of Anatolia’, in Conversion to Islam, ed. Nehemia Levtzion (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1979), 52–67; David Shankland, ed., Archaeology, Anthropology and Heritage in the Balkans and Anatolia: The Life and Times of F.W. Hasluck, 2 vols. (Istanbul: Isis, 2013).

17. The deed was first cited in İsmail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı, ‘Gazi Orhan Bey vakfıyesi, 724 Rebiülevvel-1324 Mart’, Belleten V (1941): 277–288. For more recent discussions of its significance, see Kafadar, Between Two Worlds, 61; and Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 10.

18. Nikephorus Gregoras, Byzantina Historia, vol. 3, 202.12–203.4, cited in Rustam Shukurov, ‘Byzantine Appropriation of the Orient: Notes on its Principles and Patterns’, in Islam and Christianity in Medieval Anatolia, ed. A. C. S. Peacock, Bruno de Nicola, and Sara Yıldız (London: Routledge, 2015), 180.

19. Tom Papademetriou, Render unto the Sultan: Power, Authority, and the Greek Orthodox Church in the Early Ottoman Centuries (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015).

20. Schamiloglu, ‘The Rise of the Ottoman Empire’, 272.

21. Doukas, Decline and Fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks, 135.

22. Celia Kerslake, ‘A Critical Edition and Translation of the Introductory Sections and the First Thirteen Chapters of the “Selīmnāme” of Celālzāde Mustafā Çelebi’ (PhD diss., University of Oxford, 1975), 46b.

23. Imber, The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650, 135.

24. ‘Kavanin-i Yeniçeriyan-i Dergah-ı Ali’ (The Laws of the Janissaries), in Osmanlı Kanunnameleri 9 (Istanbul, 1996), ed. Ahmed Akgündüz, quoted in Imber, The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650, 136.

25. Inalcik, ‘Timariotes chrétiens en Albanie au XV siècle’; Inalcik, ‘Stefan Duşan’dan Osmanlı İmparatorluğuna’; and Inalcik, ‘Ottoman Methods of Conquest’.

26. Metin Kunt, ‘Transformation of Zimmi into Askeri’, in Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire: The Functioning of a Plural Society, ed. Benjamin Braude and Bernard Lewis (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1982), 1:59.

27. Alexander Lopasic, ‘Islamisation of the Balkans with Special Reference to Bosnia’, Journal of Islamic Studies 5, no. 2 (1994): 163–186.

28. Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE, s.v. ‘Booty’, by Rudolph Peters, first published online 2015, http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_25367.

29. Muhammed b. Mahmûd-i Sirvânî, Tuhfe-i Murâdî, ed. Mustafa Argunsah (Ankara, 1999), 73, quoted in Kafadar, ‘A Rome of One’s Own’, 13–14.

30. Konstantin Mihailović, Memoirs of a Janissary, trans. Benjamin Stolz, historical commentary and notes by Svat Soucek (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1975).

31. Sadeddin, Tacü’t-Tevarih (Istanbul, 1279/1862–1863), 1:41.

32. Halil Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age, 1300–1600 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1973), 78.

33. Speros Vryonis, ‘Isidore Glabas and the Turkish Devshirme’, Speculum 31, no. 3 (July 1956): 433–443.

34. The text is available on the website of the United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner: UN General Assembly, Resolution 260 A, Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, December 9, 1948, www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crimeofgenocide.aspx.

35. Ahmet Akgündüz, Osmanlı kanunnâmeleri ve hukukî tahlilleri, vol. 1, Osmanlı hukukuna giriş ve Fatih devri kanunnameleri (Istanbul: Fey, 1990), 341.

36. Cemal Kafadar, ‘The Question of Ottoman Decline’, Harvard Middle Eastern and Islamic Review 4, no. 1–2 (1997–1998): 30–75, here 39.

37. Kemalpaşazade, Tevârîh-i Âl-i Osmân, cited in Ahmet Uğur, The Reign of Sultan Selīm I in the Light of the Selīm-nāme Literature, Islamkundliche Untersuchungen, Bd. 109 (Berlin: Klaus Schwarz, 1985), 354–356.

38. Nicolas Vatin and Gilles Veinstein, Le Sérail ébranlé: Essai sur les morts, dépositions et avènements des sultans ottomans XIVe-XIXe siècle (Paris: Fayard, 2003), 170.

39. Aşıkpaşazade, Tevārīh-i Āl-i Osmān, 63–64.

40. Doukas, Decline and Fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks, 83.

41. Imber, The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650, 255.

42. Doukas, Decline and Fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks, 84.

42 

CHAPTER 3: RESURRECTING THE DYNASTY: BAYEZID I, MEHMED I, AND MURAD II

1. Lowry, ‘Impropriety and Impiety’, 30.

2. Lowry, ‘Impropriety and Impiety’, 31.

3. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam, 2:433–434.

4. Johann Schiltberger, The Bondage and Travels of Johann Schiltburger, a Native of Bavaria, in Europe, Asia and Africa, 1396–1427, reprint of Hakluyt edition of 1879 (Frankfurt, 1995), cited in Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 29.

5. The histories include anonymous Chronicles of the Ottoman Dynasty and those written by Aşıkpaşazade, Oruç b. Adil, Mehmed Neşri, Şehnameci Lokman, and Şukrullah. Mehmet Fuad Koprülü, ‘Yıldırım Beyazıd’ın esareti ve intiharı hakkında’, Belleten 1, no. 2 (1937): 591–603. Several years later, Bayezid I’s remains were transferred for burial in his mosque-dervish lodge complex in Bursa.

6. Jerry Brotton, This Orient Isle: Elizabethan England and the Islamic World (London: Allen Lane, 2016), 162–163.

7. For the most recent production of the Royal Shakespeare Company, see ‘Synopsis’, Tamburlaine, Royal Shakespeare Company, www.rsc.org.uk/tamburlaine/the-plot.

8. Marlowe’s work was but one of many commemorations in woodcut, painting, tapestry, and opera illustrating Bayezid I’s humiliating treatment, and that of his wife, allegedly forced to serve Timur and his guests at a banquet in the nude. These works include Jean Magnon, Le Gran Tamerlan et Bejezet (1648); the paintings at Eggenberg Palace near Graz, Austria (1670s); Nicholas Rowe, Tamerlane (1702); George Frideric Handel, Tamerlano (1725); and Antonio Vivaldi, Bajazet (1735).

9. Halîl bin İsmâil bin Şeyh Bedrüddîn Mahmûd, Simavna Kadısıoğlu Şeyh Bedreddin manâkıbı, ed. Abdülbâki Gölpınarlı and İsmet Sungurbey (Istanbul: Eti, 1967).

10. The complete text of Abdülvasi Çelebi, Halilname (1414), is translated in Dimitris J. Kastritsis, The Sons of Bayezid: Empire Building and Representation in the Ottoman Civil War of 1402–13 (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2007), 221–232.

11. Doukas, Decline and Fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks, 119–120.

12. Doukas, Decline and Fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks, 121.

13. Doukas, Decline and Fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks, 121.

14. Doukas, Decline and Fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks, 121.

15. Shukrullah ibn Shahabeddin, Bahjat al-tavârîkh (1456–1468), quoted in Mehmed Şerefeddin Yaltkaya, Simavne Kadısı oğlu Bedreddin (Istanbul: Evkafı İslâmiye, 1924), 85–86.

16. Nâzım Hikmet, ‘Simavne Kadısı Oğlu Şeyh Bedreddin Destanı’ (1936), in Nâzım Hikmet, Bütün Şiirleri (Istanbul: Yapı Kredi, 2017), 503.

17. Gülru Necipoğlu-Kafadar, ‘The Süleymaniye Complex in Istanbul: An Interpretation’, Muqarnas 3 (1985): 92–117, here 110.

18. Aşıkpaşazade, Tevārīh-i Āl-i Osmān, 93.

19. Hikmet, ‘Simavne Kadısı Oğlu Şeyh Bedreddin Destanı’, 516.

20. Hikmet, ‘Simavne Kadısı Oğlu Şeyh Bedreddin Destanı’, 510.

21. Neşri, Kitab-i cihan-nüma.

22. Aşıkpaşazade, Tevārīh-i Āl-i Osmān, 92.

23. Aşıkpaşazade, Tevārīh-i Āl-i Osmān, 93.

24. Oruç b. Adil, Tevarih-i Al-i Osman, ed. Franz Babinger (Hannover, 1925), 43–45, here 44.

25. Idris Bitlisi, Heşt behişt (Eight Paradises, 1502), British Library Persian Mss Add 7746 and 7747, 229b–230a.

26. Hikmet, ‘Simavne Kadısı Oğlu Şeyh Bedreddin Destanı’, 498.

27. Michel Balivet, Islam mystique et révolution armée dans les Balkans ottomans: Vie du Cheikh Bedreddîm, ‘le Hallâj des Turcs’ (1358/59–1416) (Istanbul: Isis, 1995); Ahmet Yaşar Ocak, Osmanlı toplumunda zındıklar ve mülhidler (15.–17. yüzyıllar) (Istanbul: Tarih Vakfı, 1998), 136–202.

28. Morgan, Medieval Persia, 1040–1797, 92; William H. McNeill, ‘The Age of Gunpowder Empires, 1450–1800’, in Islamic & European Expansion: The Forging of a Global Order, ed. Michael Adas (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993), 103–139; William H. McNeill, The Pursuit of Power: Technology, Armed Force, and Society Since A.D. 1000 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983).

29. Aşıkpaşazade, Tevārīh-i Āl-i Osmān, 95, and Mehmed Neşri, Kitâb-ı cihân-nümâ, ed. F. R. Unat and M. A. Köymen (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1987), 2:552–554.

30. Aşıkpaşazade, Tevārīh-i Āl-i Osmān, 96.

31. Anonymous, Gazavât-i Sultân Murâd b. Mehemmed Hân. Izladi ve Varna Savaşları Üzerinde Anonim Gazavâtnâme, ed. Halil Inalcik and Mevlud Oğuz (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1989), translated in Colin Imber, The Crusade of Varna, 1443–45, Crusade Texts in Translation 14 (Farnham, UK: Ashgate 2006), 50.

32. Anonymous, Gazavât-i Sultân Murâd b. Mehemmed Hân, 60.

33. Anonymous, Gazavât-i Sultân Murâd b. Mehemmed Hân, 70.

34. Anonymous, Gazavât-i Sultân Murâd b. Mehemmed Hân, 71.

35. Anonymous, Gazavât-i Sultân Murâd b. Mehemmed Hân, 73.

36. Anonymous, Gazavât-i Sultân Murâd b. Mehemmed Hân, 74.

37. Vatin and Veinstein, Le Sérail ébranlé, 309.

38. Lowry, ‘Impropriety and Impiety’, 36–37.

39. Anonymous, Gazavât-i Sultân Murâd b. Mehemmed Hân, 77–78.

40. Anonymous, Gazavât-i Sultân Murâd b. Mehemmed Hân, 79.

41. Anonymous, Gazavât-i Sultân Murâd b. Mehemmed Hân, 79–80.

42. Gasparo Zancaruolo, Cronaca Zancaruola, unpublished, excerpt in Franz Babinger, ‘Von Amurath zu Amurath: Vor- und Nachspiel der Schlacht bei Warna (1444)’, Oriens 3 (1950): 595–596, translated in Imber, The Crusade of Varna, 186.

43. Anonymous, Gazavât-i Sultân Murâd b. Mehemmed Hân, 83.

44. Anonymous, Gazavât-i Sultân Murâd b. Mehemmed Hân, 84.

45. Anonymous, Gazavât-i Sultân Murâd b. Mehemmed Hân, 85.

46. Anonymous, Gazavât-i Sultân Murâd b. Mehemmed Hân, 86.

47. Anonymous, Gazavât-i Sultân Murâd b. Mehemmed Hân, 89.

48. Michel Beheim, ‘Türkenschlacht bei Warna’, in Hans Gille and Ingeborg Spriewald, Die Gedichte des Michel Beheim (Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1968), vol. 1, no. 104, 328–356, translated in Imber, The Crusade of Varna, 176.

49. Anonymous, Gazavât-i Sultân Murâd b. Mehemmed Hân, 60.

50. Anonymous, Gazavât-i Sultân Murâd b. Mehemmed Hân, 92.

51. Beheim, ‘Türkenschlacht bei Warna’, 177.

52. Anonymous, Gazavât-i Sultân Murâd b. Mehemmed Hân, 96–98.

53. Anonymous, Gazavât-i Sultân Murâd b. Mehemmed Hân, 100.

54. Peter Schreiner, Die byzantinischen Kleinchroniken (Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1975), I, chronicle 54, 13, 389, translated in Imber, The Crusade of Varna, 187.

55. Anonymous, Gazavât-i Sultân Murâd b. Mehemmed Hân, 100.

56. Aşıkpaşazade, Tevârîh-i Âl-i Osmân, ed. Nihal Atsız (Istanbul: Türkiye, 1949), 183–185, translated in Imber, The Crusade of Varna, 185.

57. Anonymous, Gazavât-i Sultân Murâd b. Mehemmed Hân, 100.

58. Anonymous, Gazavât-i Sultân Murâd b. Mehemmed Hân, 102.

59. Anonymous, Gazavât-i Sultân Murâd b. Mehemmed Hân, 102.

60. Beheim, ‘Türkenschlacht bei Warna’, 179.

61. Al-Sakhāwī, Al-Tibr al-Mabsûk fī Dhayl al-Sulûk (Cairo, n.d.), 98–99, translated in Imber, The Crusade of Varna, 187.

62. Al-Sakhāwī, Al-Tibr al-Mabsûk fī Dhayl al-Sulûk, 188.

63. Aşıkpaşazade, Tevārīh-i Āl-i Osmān, 264.

64. Aşıkpaşazade, Tevārīh-i Āl-i Osmān, 139–140.

65. Kemalpaşazade, Tevârîh-i âl-i Osmân, ed. Ş. Turan (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1954), 7:9–10.

65 

CHAPTER 4: CONQUERING THE SECOND ROME: MEHMED II

1. Gülru Necipoğlu, Architecture, Ceremonial, and Power: The Topkapı Palace in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991), 249.

2. Halil Inalcik, ‘The Policy of Mehmed II Toward the Greek Population of Istanbul and the Byzantine Buildings of the City’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers 23/24 (1969/1970): 231–249; Encyclopaedia of Islam 2, s.v., ‘Istanbul’, by Halil Inalcik.

3. Doukas, Decline and Fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks, 194.

4. Doukas, Decline and Fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks, 196.

5. Doukas, Decline and Fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks, 200–201.

6. Kritovoulos, History of Mehmed the Conqueror, trans. Charles T. Riggs (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1954), 56.

7. Kritovoulos, History of Mehmed the Conqueror, 58–59.

8. Doukas, Decline and Fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks, 200–201.

9. Doukas, Decline and Fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks, 201.

10. Kritovoulos, History of Mehmed the Conqueror, 73.

11. Kritovoulos, History of Mehmed the Conqueror, 74.

12. I modified the passage quoted in Bernard Lewis, Istanbul and the Civilization of the Ottoman Empire (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963), 8, by comparing it with the text of Friedrich Giese, ed., Die altosmanische Chronik des ‘Āşıkpaşazāde (Leipzig, Germany: Otto Harrassowitz, 1929), 132.

13. Tursun Bey, Târîh-i Ebü’l-Feth, ed. Mertol Tulun (Istanbul: Baha, 1977), 62.

14. Doukas, Decline and Fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks, 225–226.

15. Doukas, Decline and Fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks, 227.

16. Kritovoulos, History of Mehmed the Conqueror, 77.

17. Tursun Bey, Târîh-i Ebü’l-Feth, 63.

18. Quoted in Lewis, Istanbul and the Civilization of the Ottoman Empire, 7–8.

19. Walter G. Andrews and Mehmet Kalpaklı, The Age of Beloveds: Love and the Beloved in Early-Modern Ottoman and European Culture and Society (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005), 1–8.

20. Doukas, Decline and Fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks, 235.

21. Kritovoulos, History of Mehmed the Conqueror, 82.

22. Kritovoulos, History of Mehmed the Conqueror, 85–86.

23. Lowry, ‘Impropriety and Impiety’, 33–34.

24. Doukas, Decline and Fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks, 233–235.

25. Amiroutzes writing to Mehmed II in 1466, quoted in Inalcik, ‘The Policy of Mehmed II Toward the Greek Population of Istanbul’, 233.

26. Kritovoulos, History of Mehmed the Conqueror, 3.

27. Kritovoulos, History of Mehmed the Conqueror, 14.

28. Kritovoulos, History of Mehmed the Conqueror, 4.

29. Kritovoulos, History of Mehmed the Conqueror, 14.

30. Giacomo de’ Languschi, quoted in Franz Babinger, Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time, trans. Ralph Manheim, ed. William C. Hickman, Bollingen Series XCVI (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1978), 112.

31. Mehmed Neşri, Kitâb-ı cihân-nümâ, ed. F. R. Unat and M. A. Köymen (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1987), 2:711, 713.

32. Tursun Bey, Târîh-i Ebü’l-Feth, 75.

33. Tursun Bey, Târîh-i Ebü’l-Feth, 65–76.

34. Tursun Bey, Târîh-i Ebü’l-Feth, 67–68.

35. Molly Greene, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 1453 to 1768: The Ottoman Empire (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2015), 4, 25.

36. Kritovoulos, History of Mehmed the Conqueror, 93.

37. Encyclopaedia of Islam 2, s.v. ‘Istanbul’, by Halil Inalcik.

38. Halil Inalcik, ‘Ottoman Galata, 1453–1553’, in Essays in Ottoman History (Istanbul: Eren, 1998), 275–376.

39. Mark Epstein, ‘The Leadership of the Ottoman Jews’, in Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire, 1:101–115.

40. Kevork Bardakjian, ‘The Rise of the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople’, in Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire, 1:89–100.

41. Benjamin Braude, ‘Foundation Myths of the Millet System’, in Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire, 1:69–88.

42. Greene, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 183, referring to an eighteenth-century imperial order solicited by the patriarch.

43. Greene, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 29–31.

44. Greene, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 29, 64.

45. Greene, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 64–65.

46. Necipoğlu, Architecture, Ceremonial, and Power, 4.

47. Necipoğlu, Architecture, Ceremonial, and Power, 12, 248.

48. Necipoğlu, Architecture, Ceremonial, and Power, 20, 86, 94.

49. Necipoğlu, Architecture, Ceremonial, and Power, 242, 247–248.

50. Vatin and Veinstein, Le Sérail ébranlé, 272–273.

51. Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire, 61–62.

52. Eleazar Birnbaum, ‘Hekim Yakub, Physician to Sultan Mehemmed the Conqueror’, Harofe Haivri: The Hebrew Medical Journal 1 (1961): 222–250.

53. Imperial decree issued by Bayezid II, quoted in Imber, The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650, 133. Imber provides no page number to his reference.

54. Mustafa Ali, Künh ül-ahbar (Istanbul, 1277AH/1861), 1:14–15.

55. Ali, Künh ül-ahbar, 1:14–15.

56. Ali, Künh ül-ahbar, 1:14–15.

57. Kafadar, Between Two Worlds, 146.

58. Necipoğlu, Architecture, Ceremonial, and Power, 90.

59. Greene, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 28.

60. Karen Barkey, Empire of Difference: The Ottomans in Comparative Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 80.

61. Greene, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 62–63.

62. Halil Inalcik, ‘Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time’, Speculum 35 (1960): 408–427.

63. Kafadar, Between Two Worlds, 147.

64. Greene, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 27.

65. Aşıkpaşazade, Tevārīh-i Āl-i Osmān, 143.

66. Halil Inalcik, ‘Ahmed ‘Âşıkî (‘Âşık Paşa-zâde) on the Conqueror’s Policy to Repopulate Istanbul’, in Halil Inalcik, The Survey of Istanbul 1455: The Text, English Translation, Analysis of the Text, Documents (Istanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2012), 586–587; Tursun Bey, Târîh-i Ebü’l-Feth, 67–69.

67. Aşıkpaşazade, Tevārīh-i Āl-i Osmān, 191–192.

68. Oruç, Tevārīh-i Āl-i Osmān, Die frühosmanischen Jahrbücher des Urudsch, ed. F. Babinger (Hannover: Orient-Buchhandlung Heinz Lafaire, 1925), 131.

69. Kafadar, Between Two Worlds, 146–147.

70. Halil Inalcik, ‘The Socio-Political Effects of the Diffusion of Fire-arms in the Middle East’, in War, Technology and Society in the Middle East, ed. V. J. Parry and Malcolm Yapp (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975), 195–217, here 207.

71. Juvainî, The History of the World Conqueror, in The Islamic World, ed. William H. McNeill and Marilyn Robinson Waldman (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973), 254-255.

72. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam, 2:406.

73. Juvainî, The History of the World Conqueror, 256.

74. Rustam Shukurov, ‘Harem Christianity: The Byzantine Identity of Seljuk Princes’, in The Seljuks of Anatolia, 115–150.

75. Greene, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 36–37.

76. Inalcik, ‘The Policy of Mehmed II Toward the Greek Population of Istanbul’.

76 

CHAPTER 5: A RENAISSANCE PRINCE: MEHMED II

1. For example, Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire, 30.

2. Lindner, Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia, 1.

3. J. Michael Rogers, ‘Mehmed the Conqueror: Between East and West’, in Bellini and the East, ed. Caroline Campbell, Alan Chong, Deborah Howard, and J. Michael Rogers (London: National Gallery, 2005), 80–97, here 82.

4. Rogers, ‘Mehmed the Conqueror: Between East and West’, 83.

5. Greene, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 28.

6. On the Islamisation of Trabzon, see Heath Lowry, The Islamization and Turkification of the City of Trabzon (Trebizond), 1461–1583 (Istanbul: Isis, 2009).

7. Kritovoulos, History of Mehmed the Conqueror, 177.

8. Kritovoulos, History of Mehmed the Conqueror, 209–210.

9. Rogers, ‘Mehmed the Conqueror: Between East and West’, 83.

10. Rogers, ‘Mehmed the Conqueror: Between East and West’, 95, 92.

11. Rogers, ‘Mehmed the Conqueror: Between East and West’, 89.

12. Marshall G. S. Hodgson, ‘Cultural Patterning in Islamdom and the Occident’, in Rethinking World History: Essays on Europe, Islam, and World History, ed. Edmund Burke III (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 164.

13. Edmund Burke III, ‘Introduction: Marshall G. S. Hodgson and World History’, in Hodgson, Rethinking World History, xix.

14. Nancy Bisaha, Creating East and West: Renaissance Humanists and the Ottoman Turks (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006), 94.

15. Bisaha, Creating East and West, 58–60.

16. Bisaha, Creating East and West, 62.

17. Bisaha, Creating East and West, 46.

18. Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini (Pope Pius II), quoted in Bisaha, Creating East and West, 68.

19. Erasmus, Consultatio de bello Turcis inferendo (1530), quoted in Bisaha, Creating East and West, 175.

20. Kritovoulos, History of Mehmed the Conqueror, 181–182.

21. Lucette Valensi, The Birth of the Despot: Venice and the Sublime Porte, trans. Arthur Denner (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993), 23.

22. Dandolo’s report of 1562, quoted in Valensi, The Birth of the Despot, 28.

23. Valensi, The Birth of the Despot, 35.

24. Morosini’s report of 1585, quoted in Valensi, The Birth of the Despot, 73.

25. Malcolm, Useful Enemies, 202.

26. ‘The Conquest of Tunis Series’, Tapices flamencos en España, Carlos de Amberes Foundation and Grupo Enciclo, http://tapestries.flandesenhispania.org/The_Conquest_of_Tunis_series.

27. Malcolm, Useful Enemies, 159.

28. Scipione Ammirato, who wrote for the Medici family in Florence, analysed in Malcolm, Useful Enemies, 182–183.

29. Niccolò Machiavelli, The Prince, trans. Ninian Hill Thomson (Digireads.com, 2015), 10.

30. Quoted in John J. Saunders, ed., The Muslim World on the Eve of Europe’s Expansion (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1966), 25.

31. Brotton, This Orient Isle, 176.

32. William Shakespeare, Richard II, 2.1.40–50.

33. Brotton, This Orient Isle, 1–7, 287.

34. Brotton, This Orient Isle, 287.

35. Daniel Vitkus, Turning Turk: English Theater and the Multicultural Mediterranean, 1570–1630 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), chapter 4.

36. Nabil Matar, ‘Britons and Muslims in the Early Modern Period: From Prejudice to (a Theory of) Toleration’, Patterns of Prejudice 43 (2009): 213–231.

37. Christine Isom-Verhaaren, Allies with the Infidel: The Ottoman and French Alliance in the Sixteenth Century (London: I.B. Tauris, 2011).

38. Brotton, This Orient Isle, 5.

39. Quoted in Susan Skilliter, ‘Three Letters from the Ottoman “Sultana” Safiye to Queen Elizabeth I’, in Documents from Islamic Chanceries, ed. S. M. Stern (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965), 119–157, here 131.

40. Quoted in Skilliter, ‘Three Letters from the Ottoman “Sultana” Safiye to Queen Elizabeth I’, 139, note 57.

41. Brotton, This Orient Isle, 8.

42. Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger, Portrait of an Unknown Woman, c. 1590–1600, oil on canvas, 216.2 x 135.5 cm, Hampton Court Palace, www.rct.uk/collection/406024/portrait-of-an-unknown-woman#/referer/682722/682750.

43. For an exploration of their lives see Nabil Matar, Islam in Britain, 1558–1665 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Nabil Matar, Turks, Moors, and Englishmen in the Age of Discovery (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999).

44. Matar, Turks, Moors, and Englishmen in the Age of Discovery, 33.

45. Linda T. Darling, ‘The Renaissance and the Middle East’ in A Companion to the Worlds of the Renaissance, ed. Guido Ruggiero (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 55–69.

46. Morgan, Medieval Persia, 1040–1797, 77–78. Compare ‘Soltaniyeh’, World Heritage Centre, UNESCO, https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1188; Tom Mueller, ‘Brunelleschi’s Dome’, National Geographic, February 2014, www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2014/02/Il-Duomo.

47. Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 82.

48. Rogers, ‘Mehmed the Conqueror: Between East and West’, 95.

48 

CHAPTER 6: A PIOUS LEADER FACES ENEMIES AT HOME AND ABROAD: BAYEZID II

1. Nicolas Vatin, ‘On Süleyman the Magnificent’s Death and Burials’, in The Battle for Central Europe: The Siege of Szigetvár and the Death of Süleyman the Magnificent and Nicholas Zrínyi (1566), ed. Pál Fodor (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2019), 433, 437.

2. Imber, The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650, 116.

3. Encyclopaedia of Islam 2, s.v. ‘Djem’, by Halil Inalcik.

4. Isom-Verhaaren, Allies with the Infidel, 64–67.

5. Isom-Verhaaren, Allies with the Infidel, 88.

6. Isom-Verhaaren, Allies with the Infidel, 89.

7. Shai Har-el, Struggle for Domination in the Middle East: Ottoman-Mamluk War, 1485–1491 (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1995).

8. Karamustafa, God’s Unruly Friends, 1–2.

9. Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire, 187.

10. Karamustafa, God’s Unruly Friends, 63.

11. Ahmet Yaşar Ocak, ‘Bektaşi menakıbnamelerinde tenasüh inancı’, in II. Milletlerarası Türk Folklor Kongresi Bildirileri (Ankara, 1982), 4:397–408; Karamustafa, God’s Unruly Friends, 47–48.

12. Karamustafa, God’s Unruly Friends, 48.

13. Vladimir Minorsky, ‘The Poetry of Shah Ismail I’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 10 (1942): 1006–1053.

14. Ahmet Yaşar Ocak, ‘Ideologie officielle et reaction populaire’, in Soliman le Magnifique et son temps: Actes du Colloque de Paris, Galeries nationales du Grand Palais, 7–10 mars 1990, ed. Gilles Veinstein (Paris: La documentation française, 1992), 185–192.

15. Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE, s.v., ‘Alevīs’, by Markus Dressler, first published online 2012, http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_0167.

16. Ismail E. Erünsal, ‘II. Bayezid devrine ait bir inamat defteri’, Istanbul Edebiyat Fakültesi, Tarih Enstitu Dergisi 10–11 (1981): 303–341, here 314.

17. Pál Fodor, ‘Ahmedī’s Dāsitān as a Source of Early Ottoman History’, Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 38, no. 1–2 (1984): 41–54, here 45, 48.

18. Geoffrey Lewis, ‘Introduction’, in The Book of Dede Korkut, trans. Geoffrey Lewis (New York: Penguin, 1972), 9–23.

19. The Book of Dede Korkut, 60, 62.

20. The Book of Dede Korkut, 65.

21. The Book of Dede Korkut, 198.

22. The Book of Dede Korkut, 70.

23. Imber, The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650, 123.

24. Halil Inalcik, ‘The Rise of Ottoman Historiography’, in Historians of the Middle East, ed. Bernard Lewis and P. M. Holt (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962), 164–165; Ruhi, Tevarih-i Al-i Osman (1511), quoted in Inalcik, ‘The Rise of Ottoman Historiography’, 165.

25. Idris Bitlisi, Heşt behişt (Eight Paradises, 1502), quoted in Inalcik, ‘The Rise of Ottoman Historiography’, 166.

26. Inalcik, ‘The Rise of Ottoman Historiography’, 165–166.

27. Bitlisi, Heşt behişt, 229b–230a.

28. Kerslake, ‘A Critical Edition and Translation’, 49b.

29. Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE, s.v., ‘Crimea’, by Dariusz Kołodziejczyk, first published online 2012, http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_24419.

30. Kerslake, ‘A Critical Edition and Translation’, 58b.

31. Kerslake, ‘A Critical Edition and Translation’, 24b, 26b, 27a.

32. Kerslake, ‘A Critical Edition and Translation’, 76b, 78a-b.

33. Vatin and Veinstein, Le Sérail ébranlé, 57–60.

34. Quoted in Uğur, The Reign of Sultan Selīm I.

34 

CHAPTER 7: MAGNIFICENCE: FROM SELIM I TO THE FIRST OTTOMAN CALIPH, SULEIMAN I

1. Letter from Selim to Ismail, ca. 1514, in McNeill and Waldman, The Islamic World, 338–342.

2. Letter from Ismail to Selim, 342–344.

3. Minorsky, ‘The Poetry of Shah Ismail I’.

4. Irène Mélikoff, ‘Le problème kizilbas’, Turcica 6 (1975): 49–67; I. Mélikoff, ‘La divinisation de ‘Alî chez les Bektachis-Alevis’, in From History to Theology: Ali in Islamic Beliefs, ed. Ahmet Yaşar Ocak (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 2005), 83–110.

5. McNeill and Waldman, The Islamic World, 337.

6. Çağatay Uluçay, ‘Yavuz Sultan Selim nasıl padişah oldu?’ Tarih Dergisi 6 (1954): 53–90; 7 (1954): 117–142; 8 (1956): 185–200.

7. Elke Eberhard, Osmanische Polemik gegen die Safawiden im 16. Jahrhundert nach arabischen Handschriften (Freiburg, Germany: Klaus Schwarz, 1970).

8. Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslam Ansiklopedisi, s.v. ‘Sarıgörez Nûreddin Efendi’, by Mehmet İpşirli, https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/sarigorez-nureddin-efendi.

9. Celalzade Mustafa, Selim-nâme, ed. Ahmed Uğur and Mustafa Çuhadar (Ankara, 1990), 137–138, cited in Yürekli, Architecture and Hagiography in the Ottoman Empire, 98.

10. M. C. Şehabettin Tekindağ, ‘Yeni kaynak ve vesikaların ışığı altında Yazuv Selim’in Iran Seferi’, Tarih Dergisi 17 (1967), 56.

11. The description of the muskets is from Kerslake, ‘A Critical Edition and Translation’, 82a.

12. Sadeddin Efendi, Selimname, 75r, cited in Peirce, The Imperial Harem, 37.

13. Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslam Ansiklopedisi, s.v. ‘Diyarbakır’, by Nejat Göyünç, https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/diyarbakir. Note that the author does not use the word ‘Kurdish’.

14. Michael Winter, ‘The Ottoman Occupation’, in The Cambridge History of Egypt, ed. Carl Petry, vol. 1, 640–1517 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 495.

15. An account of the army is given in Selim I’s victory proclamation, summarised in Imber, The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650, 277. Imber gives no citation to the original source, however.

16. Winter, ‘The Ottoman Occupation’, 498.

17. Inalcik, ‘The Socio-Political Effects of the Diffusion of Fire-arms in the Middle East’, 202.

18. Encyclopaedia of Islam 2, s.v. ‘Selīm I’, by Halil Inalcik.

19. Winter, ‘The Ottoman Occupation’, 503.

20. Carl Petry, ‘The Military Institution and Innovation in the Late Mamlūk Period’, in The Cambridge History of Egypt, ed. Carl Petry, vol. 1, 640–1517 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 479–480.

21. Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 110.

22. Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire, 34.

23. Ibn Iyas, cited in Michael Winter, Egyptian Society Under Ottoman Rule, 1517–1798 (London: Routledge, 1992), 7–8.

24. Winter, Egyptian Society Under Ottoman Rule, 9.

25. Winter, Egyptian Society Under Ottoman Rule, 10.

26. Both the Ottomans and Habsburgs collected ‘unicorn horns’, which were, in fact, narwhal tusks. One is on display today at the Imperial Treasury at the Hofburg Palace in Vienna.

27. Sanjay Subrahmanyam, ‘Turning the Stones Over: Sixteenth-Century Millenarianism from the Tagus to the Ganges’, Indian Economic and Social History Review 40, no. 2 (2003): 129–161.

28. Cornell H. Fleischer, ‘The Lawgiver as Messiah: The Making of the Imperial Image in the Reign of Süleimân’, in Soliman le Magnifique et son temps, 162–163.

29. Lutfi Pasha, Tevārīh-i Āl-i Osmān (ca. 1550s), cited in Fleischer, ‘The Lawgiver as Messiah’, 163.

30. Fleischer, ‘The Lawgiver as Messiah’, 164.

31. Addas, Quest for the Red Sulphur, 263.

32. Addas, Quest for the Red Sulphur, 277–278; Knysh, Ibn ‘Arabi in the Later Islamic Tradition, 15.

33. Sadeddin, Tacü’t-Tevarih, 2:397.

34. Vatin and Veinstein, Le Sérail ébranlé, 123.

35. ‘Part 3’, Islam: Empire of Faith, directed by Robert Gardner (Arlington, VA: PBS, 2001).

36. Ebru Turan, ‘The Sultan’s Favorite: İbrahim Pasha and the Making of the Ottoman Universal Sovereignty in the Reign of Sultan Süleyman (1516–1526)’ (PhD diss., University of Chicago, 2007), 83.

37. For an account of the siege, see Nicolas Vatin, ‘La conquête de Rhodes’, in Soliman le Magnifique et son temps, 435–454.

38. Vatin, ‘La conquête de Rhodes’, 447–448.

39. Vatin, ‘La conquête de Rhodes’, 437–438.

40. Turan, ‘The Sultan’s Favorite’, 96–97.

41. Vatin, ‘La conquête de Rhodes’, 438–439.

42. Vatin, ‘La conquête de Rhodes’, 439, 445; Encyclopaedia of Islam THREE, s.v. ‘Rodos’, by S. Soucek, first published online 2012, http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_6309.

43. Snjezana Buzov, ‘The Lawgiver and His Lawmakers: The Role of Legal Discourse in the Change of Ottoman Imperial Culture’ (PhD diss., University of Chicago, 2005), 35. Buzov translates the preamble on pp. 196–232. For example: ‘While he is not a prophet, to that distinguished creature / The Creator gave all moral qualities of the prophets / All saints recognised his saintly power / If that shah [emperor] is called ‘holy’, that suits the notion of holiness’. Preamble to the Law Code of Egypt (1525), translated in Buzov, ‘The Lawgiver and His Lawmakers’, 211.

44. Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 121–122.

45. Turan, ‘The Sultan’s Favorite’, 240.

46. Turan, ‘The Sultan’s Favorite’, 243.

47. Turan, ‘The Sultan’s Favorite’, 244.

48. V. J. Parry, ‘The Reign of Sulaimān the Magnificent, 1520–66’, in A History of the Ottoman Empire to 1730: Chapters from ‘The Cambridge History of Islam’ and ‘The New Cambridge Modern History’, by V. J. Parry, H. Inalcik, A. N. Kurat, and J. S. Bromley, ed. M. A. Cook (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 79–102, here 83–84.

49. McNeill and Waldman, The Islamic World, 311.

50. Mevlana Isa, Cāmiü’l-meknūnāt (Collector of the Concealed), composed between 1529 and 1543.

51. Barbara Flemming, ‘Der Gâmi’ ül-meknûnât: Eine Quelle Âli’s aus der Zeit Sultan Süleymans’, in Studien zur Geschichte und Kultur des vorderen Orients. Festschrift für Bertold Spuler zum 70. Geburtstag (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1981), 79–92; Barbara Flemming, ‘Sâhib-kirân und Mahdi: Türkische Endzeiterwartungen im ersten Jahrzehnt der Regierung Süleymâns’, in Between the Danube and the Caucasus, ed. Gyorgy Kara (Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1987), 43–62; Barbara Flemming, ‘Public Opinion Under Sultan Süleymân’, in Suleyman the Second and His Time, ed. Cemal Kafadar and Halil Inalcik (Istanbul: Isis, 1993), 49–57, here 50, 53; Fleischer, ‘The Lawgiver as Messiah’, 165.

52. Flemming, ‘Public Opinion Under Sultan Süleymân’, 56–57.

53. Cornell H. Fleischer, ‘Shadows of Shadows: Prophecy in Politics in 1530s Istanbul’, International Journal of Turkish Studies 13 (2007): 51–62.

54. Abd al-Rahman al-Bistami, Miftāh al-jafr al-jāmi (Key to the Comprehensive Prognosticon), composed in the early fifteenth century.

55. Cornell H. Fleischer, ‘Shadow of Shadows: Prophecy in Politics in 1530s Istanbul’, in Identity and Identity Formation in the Ottoman World: A Volume of Essays in Honor of Norman Itzkowitz, ed. Baki Tezcan and Karl Barbir (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 2007), 51–62, here 59–60.

56. Fleischer, ‘The Lawgiver as Messiah’, 170.

57. Levhi, cited in Fleischer, ‘The Lawgiver as Messiah’, 169.

58. Otto Kurz, ‘A Gold Helmet Made in Venice for Sultan Sulayman the Magnificent’, Gazette des beaux-arts 74 (1969): 249–258; Gülru Necipoğlu, ‘Süleyman the Magnificent and the Representation of Power in the Context of the Ottoman-Habsburg-Papal Rivalry’, Art Bulletin 71, no. 3 (September, 1989): 401–427.

59. Necipoğlu, ‘Süleyman the Magnificent and the Representation of Power’, 401.

60. Necipoğlu, ‘Süleyman the Magnificent and the Representation of Power’, 407.

61. Necipoğlu, ‘Süleyman the Magnificent and the Representation of Power’, 409.

62. Necipoğlu, ‘Süleyman the Magnificent and the Representation of Power’, 411.

63. Jean Bodin, Methodus (1566), 292, quoted in Malcolm, Useful Enemies, 74.

64. Cardini, Europe and Islam, 146.

65. Cardini, Europe and Islam, 147; Malcolm, Useful Enemies, 77–78.

66. Malcolm, Useful Enemies, 79.

67. Andrew Hess, ‘The Moriscos, an Ottoman Fifth Column in Sixteenth-Century Spain’, American Historical Review 74, no.1 (1968), 20.

68. Cardini, Europe and Islam, 147.

69. Stephen A. Fischer-Galati, Ottoman Imperialism and German Protestantism, 1521–1555 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1959; New York: Octagon Books, 1972), 117.

70. Carl Max Kortepeter, Ottoman Imperialism During the Reformation: Europe and the Caucasus, New York University Studies in Near Eastern Civilization 5 (New York: New York University Press, 1972), 209, note 107.

71. Kortepeter, Ottoman Imperialism During the Reformation, 241.

72. Quoted in Çetin Yetkin, Türk halk hareketleri ve devrimler (Istanbul: Milliyet, 1980), 77–78, cited in Yürekli, Architecture and Hagiography in the Ottoman Empire, 35.

73. Ocak, ‘Ideologie officielle et reaction populaire’, 188.

74. Colin Imber, ‘A Note on “Christian” Preachers in the Ottoman Empire’, Osmanlı Araştırmaları 10 (1990): 59–67.

75. Victoria Holbrook, ‘Ibn ‘Arabi and Ottoman Dervish Traditions: The Melâmi Supra-Order (Part One)’, Journal of the Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi Society 9 (1991): 18–35, here 24.

76. Ocak, ‘Ideologie officielle et reaction populaire’, 188–189.

77. The source is Ottoman historian Idris Bitlisi, Selim-nâme, cited in Vladimir Minorsky, ‘Shaykh Bālī-Effendi on the Safavids’, in Medieval Iran and its Neighbours (London: Varorium Reprints, 1982), 441; see also Colin Imber, ‘The Persecution of the Ottoman Shī’ites According to the Mühimme Defterleri, 1565–1585’, Der Islam 56 (1979): 245–273.

77 

CHAPTER 8: SULTANIC SAVIOURS

1. Marc David Baer, ‘Sultans as Saviors’, in Sultanic Saviors and Tolerant Turks: Writing Ottoman Jewish History, Denying the Armenian Genocide (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2020), 30–52.

2. Benjamin Arbel, Trading Nations: Jews and Venetians in the Early Modern Eastern Mediterranean (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1995), 77–94.

3. Eliyahu Capsali, Seder Eliyahu zuta: Toldot ha-‘Ot’omanim u-Venitsi’ah ve korot ‘am Yisrael be-mamlekhot Turki’yah, Sefarad u-Venitsi’ah (History of the Ottomans and Venice, and the Jews in Turkey, Spain, and Venice), 1523, ed. Aryeh Shmuelevitz, Shlomo Simonsohn, and Meier Benayahu (Jerusalem: Mekhon Ben-Tsvi, 1975–1983).

4. Doukas, Decline and Fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks, 172.

5. Aryeh Shmuelevitz, ‘Capsali as a Source for Ottoman History 1450–1523’, International Journal of Middle East Studies 9 (1978): 339–344, here 339–340.

6. Capsali, Seder Eliyahu zuta, 1:43.

7. Capsali, Seder Eliyahu zuta, 1:10.

8. Capsali, Seder Eliyahu zuta, 1:10. The original text in Isaiah reads, ‘Assyria, rod of My anger, in whose hand, as a staff, is My fury! I send him against a people that provokes Me, to take its spoil and to seize its booty and to make it a thing trampled like the mire of the streets’.

9. Henriette-Rika Benveniste, ‘The Idea of Exile: Jewish Accounts and the Historiography of Salonika Revisited’, in Jewish Communities Between the East and West, 15th–20th Centuries: Economy, Society, Politics, Culture, ed. L. Papastefanaki and A. Machaira (Ioannina: Isnafi, 2016), 31–53, here 39.

10. Capsali, Seder Eliyahu zuta, 2:7.

11. Heinrich Graetz, History of the Jews, trans. B. Löwy (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1891–1898), 4:559–561.

12. Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi, Zakhor: Jewish History and Jewish Memory (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1982), 64.

13. Consolação ás tribulações de Israel (Consolation of the Tribulations of Israel [i.e., the Jewish people]) (1553).

14. Samuel Usque, Samuel Usque’s Consolation for the Tribulations of Israel (Consolaçam ás tribulaçoens de Israel), trans. Martin A. Cohen (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1964), 231.

15. Sefer divre ha-yamim le-malkhey Tzarefat u-malkhey beyt Ottoman ha-Togar (History of the Kings of France and the Kings of the Dynasty of Othman, the Turk) (1554–1577).

16. Joseph Ha-Kohen, The Chronicles of Rabbi Joseph ben Joshua ben Meir the Sephardi, trans. C. H. F. Bialloblotzky (London, 1835), 273.

17. Cecil Roth, Doña Gracia of the House of Nasi: A Jewish Renaissance Woman (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1948), 180.

18. Roth, Doña Gracia of the House of Nasi, 116.

19. Roth, Doña Gracia of the House of Nasi, 117.

19 

CHAPTER 9: THE OTTOMAN AGE OF DISCOVERY

1. Giancarlo Casale, The Ottoman Age of Exploration (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 4–8.

2. Andrew C. Hess, ‘The Evolution of the Ottoman Seaborne Empire in the Age of the Oceanic Discoveries, 1453–1525’, American Historical Review 75, no. 7 (December 1970): 1892–1919, here 1892.

3. Just over two decades ago, there were no books that included the Ottomans as one of the maritime powers of the Mediterranean and Asia. John Wills Jr., ‘Maritime Asia, 1500–1800: The Interactive Emergence of European Domination’, American Historical Review 98 (1993): 83–105.

4. Seydi Ali Reis, Mirror of Countries, in The Sacred Books and Early Literature of the East, vol. 6, 329–395, ed. Charles F. Horne (New York: Parke, Austin, and Lipscomb, 1917), available online in Internet Medieval Sourcebook, https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/16CSidi1.asp.

5. David Arnold, The Age of Discovery, 1400–1600, 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 2002), xi.

6. Arnold, The Age of Discovery, 10.

7. Casale, The Ottoman Age of Exploration, 5–6.

8. Salih Özbaran, ‘Osmanlı İmparatorluğu ve Hindistan Yolu: Onaltıncı yüzyılda ticaret yolları üzerinde Türk-Portekiz rekabet ve ilişkileri’, Tarih Dergisi 31 (March 1977): 66–146.

9. Casale, The Ottoman Age of Exploration, 20.

10. Hess, ‘The Evolution of the Ottoman Seaborne Empire’, 1905.

11. Sadeddin, Tacü’t-Tevarih, 2:86, quoted in Palmira Brummett, Ottoman Seapower and Levantine Diplomacy in the Age of Discovery (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994), 90.

12. Hess, ‘The Evolution of the Ottoman Seaborne Empire’, 1906.

13. Brummett, Ottoman Seapower and Levantine Diplomacy, 91–92.

14. Casale, The Ottoman Age of Exploration, 13.

15. Casale, The Ottoman Age of Exploration, 22–23.

16. Brummett, Ottoman Seapower and Levantine Diplomacy, 120.

17. One such stuffed falcon—along with Ottoman cannonballs from the siege of Rhodes, Ottoman chain mail and battle helmets, and an oxidised bronze cannon Henry VIII gave the Knights Hospitaller to defend Malta—is on display at the Museum of the Order of Saint John in London, located in the remaining Tudor-era tower gate of the English headquarters of the order.

18. Isom-Verhaaren, Allies with the Infidel, 3–5.

19. Jean de Monluc, quoted in Isom-Verhaaren, Allies with the Infidel, 1.

20. Blaise de Monluc, French diplomat and ambassador to Venice, quoted in Isom-Verhaaren, Allies with the Infidel, 161.

21. Isom-Verhaaren, Allies with the Infidel, 35–36.

22. Isom-Verhaaren, Allies with the Infidel, 35–36.

23. Isom-Verhaaren, Allies with the Infidel, 72, 115.

24. Isom-Verhaaren, Allies with the Infidel, 117–119.

25. Isom-Verhaaren, Allies with the Infidel, 126.

26. ‘Stèle en mémoire de Catherine Ségurane’, Nice Côte d’Azur Metropolitan Convention and Visitors Bureau, http://en.nicetourisme.com/nice/51142-stele-en-memoire-de-catherine-segurane.

27. Isom-Verhaaren, Allies with the Infidel, 133.

28. Isom-Verhaaren, Allies with the Infidel, 164.

29. Isom-Verhaaren, Allies with the Infidel, 129.

30. Isom-Verhaaren, Allies with the Infidel, 137–138.

31. Isom-Verhaaren, Allies with the Infidel, 43–44.

32. Isom-Verhaaren, Allies with the Infidel, 44.

33. Hess, ‘The Moriscos’.

34. Malcolm, Useful Enemies, 100.

35. Malcolm, Useful Enemies, 101.

36. Hess, ‘The Evolution of the Ottoman Seaborne Empire’, 1908.

37. Salih Özbaran, ‘The Ottoman Turks and the Portuguese in the Persian Gulf, 1534–1581’, Journal of Asian History 6 (1972): 56–74.

38. Casale, The Ottoman Age of Exploration, 37.

39. Casale, The Ottoman Age of Exploration, 59.

40. Brummett, Ottoman Seapower and Levantine Diplomacy, 120.

41. Casale, The Ottoman Age of Exploration, 75.

42. Casale, The Ottoman Age of Exploration, 95–98.

43. Casale, The Ottoman Age of Exploration, 119.

44. Casale, The Ottoman Age of Exploration, 129.

45. Casale, The Ottoman Age of Exploration, 131.

46. Casale, The Ottoman Age of Exploration, 137.

47. Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire, 39–40.

48. Casale, The Ottoman Age of Exploration, 160–163.

49. Casale, The Ottoman Age of Exploration, 137.

50. Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 159.

51. Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 161.

52. Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire, 51.

53. Quoted in Encyclopaedia of Islam 1, s.v. ‘Sokolli’, by J. H. Kramers.

54. The painting includes the detail of rows of distraught-looking, shirtless, horseshoe-moustachioed, and shaved-headed Janissaries and North Africans taken into captivity aboard the Christians’ vessels.

55. The final Ottoman attempt to conquer Mombasa, and with it the entire Swahili coast, was defeated by the surprise appearance of a large army of African warriors in 1589. Fleeing from the Africans and surrendering to the Portuguese, the Ottoman commander Mir Ali lived out the rest of his life in Portugal, where he converted to Christianity. Casale, The Ottoman Age of Exploration, 176.

56. Marshall G. S. Hodgson, ‘The Role of Islam in World History’, in Rethinking World History, 99.

57. Giancarlo Casale, ‘Did Alexander the Great Discover America? Debating Space and Time in Renaissance Istanbul’, Renaissance Quarterly 72 (2019), 884, 886–887.

58. Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire, 52.

59. Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire, 179.

60. Bernard Lewis, ‘The Muslim Discovery of Europe’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 20, no. 1/3 (1957): 409–416, here 416.

61. Bernard Lewis, Islam and the West (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 15.

62. Bernard Lewis, The Muslim Discovery of Europe (New York: George J. Mcleod, 1982), 297.

63. Lewis, ‘The Muslim Discovery of Europe’, 415.

64. Cemal Kafadar, ‘A Death in Venice (1575): Anatolian Muslim Merchants Trading in the Serenissima’, Journal of Turkish Studies 10 (1986): 191–218, here 202.

65. Kaplan, Divided by Faith, 303–305.

66. Kafadar, ‘A Death in Venice (1575)’.

67. Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE, s.v. ‘Coffee and Coffeehouses, Ottoman’, by Michel Tuchscherer, first published online, 2012, http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_24410.

68. Gazavāt-ı Hayreddīn Paşa, trans. and ed. Mustafa Yıldız (Aachen, Germany: Shaker, 1993), 243, quoted in Cemal Kafadar, ‘How Dark Is the History of the Night, How Black the Story of Coffee, How Bitter the Tale of Love: The Changing Measure of Leisure and Pleasure in Early Modern Istanbul’, in Medieval and Early Modern Performance in the Eastern Mediterranean, ed. Arzu Öztürkmen and Evelyn Birge Vitz (Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2014), 248.

69. ‘Vasco da Gama: Round Africa to India, 1497–1498 CE’, Internet Modern History Sourcebook, https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/1497degama.asp.

70. ‘Christopher Columbus: Extracts from Journal’, Internet Medieval Sourcebook, https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/columbus1.asp.

71. Abbas Hamdani, ‘Columbus and the Recovery of Jerusalem’, Journal of the American Oriental Society 99, no. 1 (1979): 39–48.

72. Miguel Cervantes, Don Quixote, trans. John Rutherford (London: Penguin, 2000), 74–75.

73. Casale, The Ottoman Age of Exploration, 11–12.

74. Salih Özbaran, Ottoman Expansion Towards the Indian Ocean in the 16th Century (Istanbul: Bilgi University Press, 2009).

75. Hess, ‘The Evolution of the Ottoman Seaborne Empire’, 1915–1916.

76. Seydi Ali Reis, Mirror of Countries.

76 

CHAPTER 10: NO WAY LIKE THE ‘OTTOMAN WAY’

1. I am grateful to the staff of the British Museum for having allowed me to view the object. The tughra was featured in former museum director Neil MacGregor’s A History of the World in 100 Objects and broadcast on BBC Radio 4: Neil MacGregor, ‘Tughra of Suleiman the Magnificent’, 14 September 2010, in A History of the World in 100 Objects, produced by Anthony Denselow, podcast, MP3 audio, 13:50, www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00tn9vc

2. Barkey, Empire of Difference.

3. Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, ‘Turkish Letters’, in McNeill and Waldman, The Islamic World, 346.

4. Busbecq, ‘Turkish Letters’, 347.

5. Metin Ibrahim Kunt, ‘Ethnic-Regional (Cins) Solidarity in the Seventeenth-Century Ottoman Establishment’, International Journal of Middle East Studies 5, no. 3 (June 1974): 233–239.

6. Greene, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 39. The independent Serbian patriarchate would be abolished and joined to the Greek Orthodox patriarchate in the eighteenth century. Greene, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks,182–183.

7. Cornell H. Fleischer, Bureaucrat and Intellectual in the Ottoman Empire: The Historian Mustafa Âli (1541–1600) (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), 164.

8. Ömer Lütfi Barkan, ‘Essai sur les données statistiques des registres de recensement dans l’Empire ottoman aux Xve et XVIe siècles’, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 1 (1957): 9–36.

9. Inalcik, ‘Ottoman Galata, 1453–1553’, 324–327.

10. Robert Mantran, ‘Un document sur la cizye à Istanbul à la fin du XVIIe siècle’, Journal of Turkish Studies 11 (1987): 11–15.

11. Jon Mandaville, ‘Usurious Piety: The Cash Waqf Controversy in the Ottoman Empire’, International Journal of Middle East Studies 10, no. 3 (1979): 289–308.

12. Mehmet Ertuğrul Düzdağ, Şeyhülislam Ebussuud Efendi fetvaları ışığında 16. asır Türk hayatı (Istanbul: Enderun Kitabevi, 1972), 109–117. Christians, Jews and Muslims were considered ‘believers’.

13. Fleischer, Bureaucrat and Intellectual in the Ottoman Empire, 93.

14. Necipoğlu, ‘Süleyman the Magnificent and the Representation of Power’, 422.

15. Busbecq, ‘Turkish Letters’, 345.

16. Imber, The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650, 116.

17. ‘Part 2’, Islam: Empire of Faith.

18. Necipoğlu-Kafadar, ‘The Süleymaniye Complex in Istanbul’, 100–101.

19. Necipoğlu-Kafadar, ‘The Süleymaniye Complex in Istanbul’, 103.

20. Necipoğlu-Kafadar, ‘The Süleymaniye Complex in Istanbul’, 106.

21. Necipoğlu-Kafadar, ‘The Süleymaniye Complex in Istanbul’, 111.

22. Yürekli, Architecture and Hagiography in the Ottoman Empire, 98.

23. Matrakçı Nasuh, Süleymānnāme, Ms. Marburg, Staatsbibliothek Hs. Or. Oct. 95, fol. 19a, quoted in Yürekli, Architecture and Hagiography in the Ottoman Empire, 43.

24. M. Tayyib Gökbilgin, ‘Rüstem Paşa ve hakkındaki ithamlar’, Istanbul Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Tarih Dergisi 8 (1955), 46–50, quoted in Yürekli, Architecture and Hagiography in the Ottoman Empire, 47.

25. Karamustafa, God’s Unruly Friends, 83.

26. Karamustafa, God’s Unruly Friends, 84.

27. Phillippe du Fresne-Canaye, quoted in Necipoğlu-Kafadar, ‘The Süleymaniye Complex in Istanbul’, 115, note 24.

28. Busbecq, ‘Turkish Letters’, 351.

28 

CHAPTER 11: HAREM MEANS HOME

1. ‘Part 2’, Islam: Empire of Faith.

2. Leslie Peirce, ‘Part I: The Politics of Reproduction’, in The Imperial Harem.

3. Peirce, The Imperial Harem, 59.

4. Marc Baer, ‘Islamic Conversion Narratives of Women: Social Change and Gendered Religious Hierarchy in Early Modern Ottoman Istanbul’, Gender & History 16, no. 2 (August 2004): 425–458.

5. Cihangir, born a hunchback in 1531, was not considered fit either for a princely governate or to compete with his brothers for the sultanate. He died at the age of twenty-three, most likely from complications arising from his congenital spinal condition.

6. Peirce, The Imperial Harem, 62.

7. This is a main argument of Andrews and Kalpaklı, The Age of Beloveds.

8. Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, s.v. ‘Ibrāhīm Pasha’, by M. Tayyib Gökbilgin, accessed 8 May 2020, first published online 2012, http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3457; Turan, ‘The Sultan’s Favorite’.

9. Report of Pietro Zen, Venetian ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, 1523, 109, quoted in Turan, ‘The Sultan’s Favorite’, 139.

10. Turan, ‘The Sultan’s Favorite’, 139–140.

11. Turan, ‘The Sultan’s Favorite’, 170–171, 210–223.

12. Crazy Brother (Deli Birader) Gazali, quoted in Andrews and Kalpaklı, The Age of Beloveds, 239.

13. Peirce, The Imperial Harem, 75.

14. Buzov, ‘The Lawgiver and His Lawmakers’, 30–34.

15. Preamble to the Law Code of Egypt (1525), translated in Buzov, ‘The Lawgiver and His Lawmakers’, 221.

16. Buzov, ‘The Lawgiver and His Lawmakers’, 38.

17. Piero Bragadin, Venetian ambassador to the Otoman Empire, 1526, 103, quoted in Turan, ‘The Sultan’s Favorite’, 144.

18. Fleischer, ‘Shadow of Shadows’, 62.

19. Quoted in Leslie Peirce, Empress of the East: How a European Slave Girl Became Queen of the Ottoman Empire (New York: Basic Books, 2017), 168.

20. Andrews and Kalpaklı, The Age of Beloveds, 248.

21. Vatin, ‘On Süleyman the Magnificent’s Death and Burials’, 435.

22. Vatin and Veinstein, Le Sérail ébranlé, 135.

23. Imber, The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650, 116.

24. Vatin and Veinstein, Le Sérail ébranlé, 307–308.

25. Selânikî Mustafa Efendi, quoted in Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 152.

26. Ismail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı, Osmanlı tarihi, vol. 3 (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1983), 1, 41.

27. Fleischer, Bureaucrat and Intellectual in the Ottoman Empire, 53.

28. Gülru Necipoğlu, The Age of Sinan: Architectural Culture in the Ottoman Empire (London: Reaktion Books, 2005), 233.

29. Judith Herrin, Unrivalled Influence: Women and Empire in Byzantium (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013), 3.

30. Judith Herrin, Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire (London: Allen Lane, 2007), 185, 191.

31. Herrin, Unrivalled Influence, 6.

32. Herrin, Unrivalled Influence, 8.

33. Herrin, Unrivalled Influence, 314.

34. Herrin, Unrivalled Influence, 315.

35. Rashid al-Din Fazlullah, The Compendium of Histories, quoted in George Qingzhi Zhao, Marriage as Political Strategy and Cultural Expression: Mongolian Royal Marriages from World Empire to Yuan Dynasty (New York: Peter Lang, 2008), 10.

36. ‘Ibn Battuta: Travels in Asia and Africa 1325–1354’, Internet Medieval Sourcebook, https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/1354-ibnbattuta.asp

37. Ibn Battuta’s account of Anatolia can be found in The Travels of Ibn Battuta A.D. 1325–1354, trans. H. A. R. Gibb (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962), 2:412–469.

38. Quoted in Andrews and Kalpaklı, The Age of Beloveds, 151.

39. Quoted in Skilliter, ‘Three Letters from the Ottoman “Sultana” Safiye to Queen Elizabeth I’, 139.

40. Quoted in Skilliter, ‘Three Letters from the Ottoman “Sultana” Safiye to Queen Elizabeth I’, 142.

41. Quoted in Skilliter, ‘Three Letters from the Ottoman “Sultana” Safiye to Queen Elizabeth I’, 143.

42. James Shapiro, Shakespeare and the Jews (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 73.

43. Selânikî Mustafa Efendi, Tarih-i Selânikî, ed. Mehmed İpşirli (Istanbul: Istanbul Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi, 1989), 2:854. See also Mehmed İpşirli, ‘Mustafa Selânikî and His History’, Tarih Enstitüsü Dergisi 9 (January 1978): 417–472.

44. Selânikî Mustafa Efendi, Tarih-i Selânikî, 2:854.

45. Selânikî Mustafa Efendi, Tarih-i Selânikî, 2:855.

46. Na’ima, Tarîh-i Naîmâ (Istanbul: 1281-1283AH), 1:231, 247; Naîmâ Mustafa Efendi, Târih-i Na’îmâ (Ravzatü’l-Hüseyn fî hulâsati ahbâri’l-hâfikayn), ed. Mehmed İpşirli (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 2007), 1:162–163.

47. John Sanderson, The Travels in the Levant (1564–1602), with His Autobiography and Selections from His Correspondance, new ed., W. Forster, 85f, quoted in Salo Wittmayer Baron, A Social and Religious History of the Jews, 2nd revised ed. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1952–1983), 18:133–134.

48. Selânikî Mustafa Efendi, Tarih-i Selânikî, 2:855.

49. Selânikî Mustafa Efendi, Tarih-i Selânikî, 2:856.

50. Selânikî Mustafa Efendi, Tarih-i Selânikî, 2:856–857.

51. Selânikî Mustafa Efendi, Tarih-i Selânikî, 2:864; quoted in İpşirli, ‘Mustafa Selaniki and His History’, lxv.

52. Selânikî Mustafa Efendi, Tarih-i Selânikî, 2:856. Hezarfen Hüseyin Efendi (d. 1676) also mentions the subsequent imposition of sumptuary restrictions following the killing of the lady-in-waiting in his work completed in 1672–1673, Telhîsü’l-beyân fî kavânîn-i Âl-i Osmân, ed. Sevim İlgürel (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1998), 55.

53. Nev’izade ‘Ata’i, Hada’iku’l-haka’ik fi tekmileti’ş-şaka’ik, 2:197, in Şakaik-ı nu’maniye ve zeyilleri, ed. Abdülkadir Özcan, 5 vols. (Istanbul, 1989), referenced in Baki Tezcan, ‘The “Kânûnnâme of Mehmed II”: A Different Perspective’, in The Great Ottoman-Turkish Civilisation, ed. Kemal Çiçek, et al. (Ankara: Yeni Türkiye, 2000), 3:657–665, here 664, note 38. Tezcan does not translate the quote into English.

54. Jane Hathaway, Beshir Agha: Chief Eunuch of the Ottoman Imperial Harem (Oxford: Oneworld, 2005), 13.

55. Hathaway, Beshir Agha, 19.

56. Hathaway, Beshir Agha, 20.

57. Hathaway, Beshir Agha, 21.

58. Jane Hathaway, The Chief Harem Eunuch of the Ottoman Empire: From African Slave to Power-Broker (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 2, 9–10, 53. When Murad III passed away, he was even buried in the burial shroud of the chief harem eunuch. Eager to hide the sultan’s corpse until his oldest son could arrive to claim the throne, Murad III’s harem attendants neglected to render him funeral care, which was postponed until later. They had no linen cloth with which to wrap the deceased, but as it was too dangerous to risk obtaining one from outside the palace, which would attract attention, they used the shroud that the chief harem agha had prepared for his own burial. Vatin and Veinstein, Le Sérail ébranlé, 125.

59. Hathaway, Beshir Agha, 26.

59 

CHAPTER 12: BEARDED MEN AND BEARDLESS YOUTHS

1. Marc David Baer, German, Jew, Muslim, Gay: The Life and Times of Hugo Marcus (New York: Columbia University Press, 2020), 19.

2. Quoted in Andrews and Kalpaklı, The Age of Beloveds, 3–4.

3. The quotes in this paragraph are from Lewis, Rumi, 169, 193, and 196.

4. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam, 2:245.

5. Andrews and Kalpaklı, The Age of Beloveds, 128.

6. A number of studies appearing around the same time make these arguments: along with Andrews and Kalpaklı, The Age of Beloveds, see Afsaneh Najmabadi, Women with Mustaches and Men Without Beards: Gender and Sexual Anxieties of Iranian Modernity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005); Khaled el-Rouayheb, Before Homosexuality in the Arab-Islamic World, 1500–1800 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005); Dror Ze’evi, Producing Desire: Changing Sexual Discourse in the Ottoman Middle East, 1500–1900 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006); and Kathryn Babayan and Afsaneh Najmabadi, eds., Islamicate Sexualities: Translations Across Temporal Geographies of Desire (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008).

7. Quoted in Andrews and Kalpaklı, The Age of Beloveds, 45.

8. Najmabadi, Women with Mustaches and Men Without Beards, 11.

9. Poet Crazy Brother (Deli Birader) Gazali, quoted in Andrews and Kalpaklı, The Age of Beloveds, 177.

10. Quoted in Andrews and Kalpaklı, The Age of Beloveds, 44.

11. The poet Latifi, quoted in Andrews and Kalpaklı, The Age of Beloveds, 64–65.

12. The poet Revani, quoted in Andrews and Kalpaklı, The Age of Beloveds, 65.

13. Ze’evi, Producing Desire, 22–23.

14. Ze’evi, Producing Desire, 31, 35.

15. Quoted in Andrews and Kalpaklı, The Age of Beloveds, 171.

16. Fleischer, Bureaucrat and Intellectual in the Ottoman Empire, 55.

17. Ze’evi, Producing Desire, 138–147.

18. Selim Kuru, ‘Sex in the Text: Deli Birader’s Dâfi‘ü ‘l-gumûm ve Râfi‘ü ‘l-humûm and the Ottoman Literary Canon’, Middle Eastern Literatures 10, no. 2 (2007), 157, 164–165.

19. Kuru, ‘Sex in the Text’, 162.

20. Kuru, ‘Sex in the Text’, 163.

21. Fleischer, Bureaucrat and Intellectual in the Ottoman Empire, 170.

22. Quoted in Andrews and Kalpaklı, The Age of Beloveds, 137–138.

23. Quoted in Andrews and Kalpaklı, The Age of Beloveds, 138.

24. Quoted in Kuru, ‘Sex in the Text’, 167.

25. Quoted in Andrews and Kalpaklı, The Age of Beloveds, 257.

26. Quoted in Andrews and Kalpaklı, The Age of Beloveds, 143.

26 

CHAPTER 13: BEING OTTOMAN, BEING ROMAN: FROM MURAD III TO OSMAN II

1. Vatin and Veinstein, Le Sérail ébranlé, 125.

2. Vatin and Veinstein, Le Sérail ébranlé, 132.

3. Hodgson, ‘The Role of Islam in World History’, 97–98.

4. Fleischer, Bureaucrat and Intellectual in the Ottoman Empire, 13–17.

5. Fleischer, Bureaucrat and Intellectual in the Ottoman Empire, 254.

6. Fleischer, Bureaucrat and Intellectual in the Ottoman Empire, 16–17, 255–256.

7. Norman Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972), 34.

8. Kafadar, ‘A Rome of One’s Own’, 15.

9. Mustafā Ali, Mustafā Ali’s Counsel for Sultans of 1581, trans. and ed. Andreas Tietze (Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1979–1982), 1:63.

10. Fleischer, Bureaucrat and Intellectual in the Ottoman Empire, 315–318.

11. Mustafa Ali, quoted in Casale, The Ottoman Age of Exploration, 184–185.

12. Fleischer, Bureaucrat and Intellectual in the Ottoman Empire, 135.

13. Mustafa Ali, Künh ül-ahbar, Suleimaniye Library, Istanbul, MS Nuruosmaniye 3409, fol. 424b, quoted in Fleischer, Bureaucrat and Intellectual in the Ottoman Empire, 154.

14. Fleischer, Bureaucrat and Intellectual in the Ottoman Empire, 155–158.

15. Sanjay Subrahmanyam, ‘A Tale of Three Empires: Mughals, Ottomans, and Habsburgs in a Comparative Context’, Common Knowledge 12, no. 1 (2006), 73.

16. Tietze, Mustafā Ali’s Counsel for Sultans of 1581, 1:41.

17. Marc David Baer, ‘Manliness, Male Virtue and History Writing at the Seventeenth-Century Ottoman Court’, Gender & History 20, no. 1 (April 2008): 128–148, here 132.

18. Kafadar, Between Two Worlds, 146, 152.

19. According to Hungarian-origin historian Ibrahim Peçevi (d. 1650), quoted in Imber, The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650, 109. Imber does not provide any page references to this quote.

20. Selânikî Mustafa Efendi, Tarih-i Selânikî, 2:436.

21. Ozgen Felek, ‘Displaying Manhood and Masculinity at the Imperial Circumcision Festivity of 1582’, Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association 6, no. 1 (Spring 2019), 142.

22. Mustafa Ali, cited in Fleischer, Bureaucrat and Intellectual in the Ottoman Empire, 154, note 40.

23. Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire, 61–62.

24. Baki Tezcan, The Second Ottoman Empire: Political and Social Transformation in the Early Modern World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 115.

25. Müneccimbaşı, Sahâ’ifü-l-ahbâr (Istanbul, 1285H), 618, cited in Vatin and Veinstein, Le Sérail ébranlé, 310–311.

26. Tezcan, The Second Ottoman Empire, 46–47.

27. According to a Venetian report quoted in Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 184–185.

28. Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 195.

29. Baer, ‘Manliness, Male Virtue and History Writing’, 133.

30. Inalcik, ‘The Socio-Political Effects of the Diffusion of Fire-arms in the Middle East’, 199–200; Halil Inalcik, ‘Military and Fiscal Transformation in the Ottoman Empire, 1600–1700’, Archivum Ottomanicum 6 (1980): 283–337.

31. Mustafa Akdağ, Celâlî isyanları, 1550–1603 (Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi, 1963); Inalcik, ‘The Socio-Political Effects of the Diffusion of Fire-arms in the Middle East’, 201; William Griswold, The Great Anatolian Rebellion, 1000–1020/1591–1611, Islamkundliche Untersuchungen Bd. 83 (Freiburg, Germany: Klaus Schwarz, 1983).

32. Tezcan, The Second Ottoman Empire, 141–142.

33. Tezcan, The Second Ottoman Empire, 143, 150.

34. Karen Barkey, Bandits and Bureaucrats: The Ottoman Route to State Centralization (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993).

35. Tezcan, The Second Ottoman Empire, 146.

36. Silahdar Fındıklılı Mehmed Ağa, Tarih-i Silahdar (Istanbul: Devlet, 1928), 2:263.

37. Sam White, The Climate of Rebellion in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013).

38. Molly Greene, A Shared World: Christians and Muslims in the Early Modern Mediterranean (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 39–44; Michael Meeker, A Nation of Empire: The Ottoman Legacy of Turkish Modernity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 162–176.

39. Greene, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 184.

40. Inalcik, ‘Military and Fiscal Transformation in the Ottoman Empire’.

41. Daniel Goffman, Izmir and the Levantine World, 1550–1650 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1990).

42. Inalcik, ‘Military and Fiscal Transformation in the Ottoman Empire’.

43. Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire, 41.

44. Bernard Lewis, ‘Ottoman Observers of Ottoman Decline’, Islamic Studies 1, no. 1 (March 1962): 71–87.

45. Cornell H. Fleischer, ‘Between the Lines: Realities of Scribal Life in the Sixteenth Century’, in Studies in Honour of Professor V.L. Ménage, ed. Colin Heywood and Colin Imber (Istanbul: Isis, 1994), 45–61.

46. Rifa’at ‘Ali Abou-El-Haj, Formation of the Modern State: The Ottoman Empire, Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1991), 24–25.

47. Fleischer, Bureaucrat and Intellectual in the Ottoman Empire, 8.

48. Fleischer, ‘Between the Lines’.

49. Cemal Kafadar, ‘The Myth of the Golden Age’, in Süleymân the Second [sic, the First] and His Time, ed. Halil Inalcik and Cemal Kafadar (Istanbul: Isis, 1993), 37–48.

50. Üveysi, Nasîhat-ı İslâmbol (Admonition to Islambol) (ca. 1620s or 1630s), quoted in Baki Tezcan, ‘From Veysî (d. 1628) to Üveysî (fl. ca. 1630): Ottoman Advice Literature and Its Discontents’, in Reforming Early Modern Monarchies: The Castilian Arbitristas in Comparative European Perspectives, ed. Sina Rauschenbach and Christian Windler, Wolfenbütteler Forschungen 143 (Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 2016), 141–156, here 153.

51. Üveysi, Nasîhat-ı İslâmbol, 153.

52. Koçu Bey, advisor to Murad IV, writing in 1631, quoted in Lewis, ‘Ottoman Observers of Ottoman Decline’, 76.

53. Katib Çelebi, Destür ul-amel li islah il-halel (Guide to Practice for the Rectification of Defects, 1653) and Mizan ul-hakk (Balance of Truth, 1656).

54. Kafadar, ‘The Question of Ottoman Decline’, 43.

55. Tezcan, The Second Ottoman Empire, 113–114.

56. Katip Çelebi, Fezleke (Istanbul: Ceride-i Havadis Matbaası, 1287 AH/1871 CE), 1:390.

57. Tezcan, The Second Ottoman Empire, 115. He was also born to the youngest sultan to become a father in history, the fourteen-year-old Ahmed I.

58. Tezcan, The Second Ottoman Empire, 118–119.

59. Tezcan, The Second Ottoman Empire, 115.

60. Vatin and Veinstein, Le Sérail ébranlé, 158–159.

61. Baki Tezcan, ‘Khotin 1621, or How the Poles Changed the Course of Ottoman History’, Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 62 (2009): 185–198.

62. Tezcan, The Second Ottoman Empire, 151–152.

63. Tezcan, The Second Ottoman Empire, 163–164.

64. Anonim bir ibranîce kroniğe göre 1622–1624 yıllarında Osmanlı devleti ve Istanbul, trans. Nuh Arslantaş and Yaron ben Naeh (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 2013), 32.

65. Anonim bir ibranîce kroniğe göre 1622–1624 yıllarında Osmanlı devleti ve Istanbul, 33.

66. Nicolas Vatin, ‘Le corps du sultan ottoman’, Revue des mondes musulmans et de la Méditerranée 113–114 (2006): 213–227.

67. Anonim bir ibranîce kroniğe göre 1622–1624 yıllarında Osmanlı devleti ve Istanbul, 36.

68. Anonim bir ibranîce kroniğe göre 1622–1624 yıllarında Osmanlı devleti ve Istanbul, 37.

69. Katib Çelebi, Fezleke, 2:22.

70. Katib Çelebi, Fezleke, 2:23.

71. The event is discussed in Vatin and Veinstein, Le Sérail ébranlé, 238–239.

72. Anonim bir Ibranîce kroniğe göre 1622–1624 yıllarında Osmanlı devleti ve Istanbul, 49–51.

73. Vatin and Veinstein, Le Sérail ébranlé, 78–79.

74. Kafadar, ‘The Question of Ottoman Decline’, especially 55, 60–61; Cemal Kafadar, ‘Janissaries and Other Riffraff of Ottoman Istanbul: Rebels Without a Cause?’ in Identity and Identity Formation in the Ottoman World, 113–134, although the author provides no citations of his sources, perhaps because the article is actually the text of a talk delivered in 1991; Tezcan, The Second Ottoman Empire.

75. Tezcan, The Second Ottoman Empire, 236.

76. Quoted in Malcolm, Useful Enemies, 370.

77. Quoted in Tezcan, The Second Ottoman Empire, 7, and Malcolm, Useful Enemies, 371.

78. Andrews and Kalpaklı, The Age of Beloveds, 322–323.

79. Rifa’at Ali Abou-El-Haj, The 1703 Rebellion and the Structure of Ottoman Politics (Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 1984), 28.

80. Lewis V. Thomas, A Study of Naima, ed. Norman Itzkowitz, New York University Studies in Near Eastern Civilization 4 (New York: New York University Press, 1972).

81. Cornell H. Fleischer, ‘Royal Authority, Dynastic Cyclism, and “Ibn Khaldûnism” in Sixteenth-Century Ottoman Letters’, Journal of Asian and African Studies 18, no. 3–4 (July 1983): 198–220.

82. Ahlak-ı Ala’i (Ala’id Ethics), quoted in Fleischer, ‘Royal Authority, Dynastic Cyclism, and “Ibn Khaldûnism”’, 201.

82 

CHAPTER 14: RETURN OF THE GAZI: MEHMED IV

1. Baer, ‘Manliness, Male Virtue and History Writing’, 130.

2. Vatin and Veinstein, Le Sérail ébranlé, 159, 194–195.

3. Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslam Ansiklopedisi, s.v. ‘Murad IV’, by Ziya Yılmazer, https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/murad-iv.

4. Naima, cited in Vatin and Veinstein, Le Sérail ébranlé, 195.

5. Baer, ‘Manliness, Male Virtue and History Writing’, 134.

6. Baer, ‘Manliness, Male Virtue and History Writing’, 135.

7. Evliya Çelebi, Seyahatname, quoted in Robert Dankoff, An Ottoman Mentality: The World of Evliya Çelebi (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2004), 103–104.

8. Katip Çelebi, cited in Baer, ‘Manliness, Male Virtue and History Writing’, 135.

9. Katip Çelebi, Fezleke, 2:309, 339–340.

10. Katip Çelebi, Fezleke, 2:310.

11. Karaçelebizade Abdülaziz Efendi, Ravzatü’l-ebrâr zeyli (Tahlîl ve Metin) 1732, ed. Nevzat Kaya (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 2003), 9.

12. Mehmed Hemdani Solakzade, Tarih-i Al-i Osman, Topkapı Palace Museum Library, Ahmed III 3078, fols. 466a–b; Vecihi Hasan Çelebi, Tarih-i Vecihi, Topkapı Palace Museum Library, MS. Revan 1153, fol. 45b.

13. Solakzade, Tarih-i Al-i Osman, fol. 466b; Vecihi Hasan Çelebi, Tarih-i Vecihi, fol. 45b.

14. Katip Çelebi, Fezleke, 2:329.

15. Karaçelebizade, Ravzatü’l-ebrâr zeyli, 4.

16. Karaçelebizade, Ravzatü’l-ebrâr zeyli, 6.

17. Katip Çelebi, Fezleke, 2:337.

18. Mehmed Halife, Tarih-i Gilmani, Topkapı Palace Museum Library, Revan 1306, fol. 18b.

19. Katip Çelebi, Fezleke, 2:329–330.

20. Karaçelebizade, Ravzatü’l-ebrâr zeyli, 12–13.

21. Naima, Tarih-i Naima (Istanbul: 1281–1283 AH), 4:332.

22. Solakzade, Tarihi-i Al-i Osman, fol. 467b.

23. Baer, ‘Manliness, Male Virtue and History Writing at the Seventeenth-Century Ottoman Court’, 133.

24. Naima, Tarih-i Naima, 4:397; Naima, Tarih-i Naima, 5:304.

25. Topkapı Palace Museum Archive, Arzlar, E. 7002/1 to E. 7002/86.

26. Naima, Tarih-i Naima, 5:420.

27. Marc David Baer, ‘The Great Fire of 1660 and the Islamization of Christian and Jewish Space in Istanbul’, International Journal of Middle East Studies 36, no. 2 (May 2004): 159–181.

28. Lucienne Thys-Şenocak, Ottoman Women Builders: The Architectural Patronage of Hadice Turhan Sultan (Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2006), 107–188.

29. Baer, ‘Manliness, Male Virtue and History Writing’, 139.

30. Baer, ‘Manliness, Male Virtue and History Writing’, 140.

31. Baer, ‘Manliness, Male Virtue and History Writing’, 138.

32. Hasan Ağa, Cevahir et-Tarih, Topkapı Palace Museum Library, Revan 1307, fols. 1b–2a.

33. Hasan Ağa, Cevahir et-Tarih, fol. 156a.

34. Hasan Ağa, Cevahir et-Tarih, fol. 159a, fol. 170b.

35. Hasan Ağa, Cevahir et-Tarih, fol. 179a.

36. Dankoff, An Ottoman Mentality, 49.

37. Abdurrahman Abdi Paşa, Vekāyināme, Köprülü Library, Istanbul, 216, fols. 334a–b. Abdi Pasha was Mehmed IV’s chronicler and confidant.

38. Yusuf Nabi, Fethname-i Kamaniça, Topkapı Palace Museum Library, MS. Hazine 1629, fol. 3b.

39. Yusuf Nabi, Fethname-i Kamaniça, fol. 61a.

40. Yusuf Nabi, Fethname-i Kamaniça, fol. 6a.

41. Yusuf Nabi, Fethname-i Kamaniça, fols. 33b, 51a; fol. 38b.

42. Yusuf Nabi, Fethname-i Kamaniça, fol. 28a.

43. Yusuf Nabi, Fethname-i Kamaniça, fol. 38b.

44. Marc David Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam: Conversion and Conquest in Ottoman Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 184.

45. John Covel, ‘Dr. Covel’s Diary’, in Early Voyages and Travels in the Levant, ed. J. Theodore Bent (London: Hakluyt Society, 1893), 209–210.

46. Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam, 191.

47. Baer, ‘The Great Fire of 1660’.

48. The fire is narrated in Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam, 82–85.

49. Abdi Pasha, Vekāyi’nāme, fols. 128b–129b.

50. Mehmed Halife, Tarih-i Gilmani, Topkapı Palace Museum Library, Revan 1306, fols. 62b, 63a.

51. The view of Mehmed Halife, Tarih-i Gilmani, 61a.

52. Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam, 85–91.

53. Office of the Istanbul Mufti, Islamic Law Court Records Archive, Istanbul Şer’iye Sicilleri 10, fol. 156b, May 9, 1662, translated in Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam, 98–99.

54. Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam, 93.

55. Kürd Hatib Mustafa, Risāle-i Kürd Hatīb, Topkapı Palace Museum Library, MS. Eski Hazine 1400, 18a.

56. Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam, 132–134.

57. Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam, 122.

58. Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam, 138.

59. These Christians amassed more power and wealth than Jews ever had in the empire because they were a crucial cog in Ottoman governance. Operating like vizier or pasha households, or provincial notables whose patronage network reached the capital, Phanariots possessed the offices of translator for the imperial navy, translator for the imperial council, and governor of the Danubian principalities of Moldova and Wallachia (Romania). Christine Philliou, ‘Communities on the Verge: Unraveling the Phanariot Ascendancy in Ottoman Governance’, Comparative Studies in Society & History 51, no. 1 (2009): 151–181.

59 

CHAPTER 15: A JEWISH MESSIAH IN THE OTTOMAN PALACE

1. Madeline Zilfi, The Politics of Piety: The Ottoman Ulema in the Postclassical Age (1600–1800) (Minneapolis: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1988), 136.

2. Amin Ahmad Razi, Haft Iqlim, ed. Javad Fazil (Tehran: ‘Ali Akbar ‘Ilmi, 1961), 3:499, quoted in Sunil Sharma, ‘The City of Beauties in Indo-Persian Poetic Landscape’, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 24, no. 2 (August 2004), 81.

3. Mehmed Halife, Tarih-i Gilmani, fol. 7b.

4. Zilfi, The Politics of Piety, 149.

5. Marc David Baer, ‘Death in the Hippodrome: Sexual Politics and Legal Culture in the Reign of Mehmet IV’, Past & Present 210, no. 1 (February 2011): 61–91.

6. Silahdar, Tarih-i Silahdar, 1:732.

7. Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam, 121.

8. Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam, 122.

9. Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam, 123.

10. Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam, 124.

11. Gershom Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi: The Mystical Messiah, 1626–1676, trans. R. J. Zwi Werblowsky (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1973), 174.

12. Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, 212–213.

13. ‘Nathan of Gaza, A Letter to Raphael Joseph’, trans. David Halperin, in Paweł Maciejko, ed., Sabbatian Heresy: Writings on Mysticism, Messianism, and the Origins of Jewish Modernity (Waltham, MA: Brandeis University Press, 2017), 6.

14. Ada Rapoport-Albert, Women and the Messianic Heresy of Sabbatai Zevi 1666–1816, trans. Deborah Greniman (Oxford: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2011), 22–26.

15. Renée Levine Melammed, Heretics or Daughters of Israel? The Crypto-Jewish Women of Castile (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999).

16. Rapoport-Albert, Women and the Messianic Heresy of Sabbatai Zevi.

17. Rapoport-Albert, Women and the Messianic Heresy of Sabbatai Zevi, 107.

18. Rapoport-Albert, Women and the Messianic Heresy of Sabbatai Zevi, 108.

19. Rapoport-Albert, Women and the Messianic Heresy of Sabbatai Zevi, 141.

20. Rapoport-Albert, Women and the Messianic Heresy of Sabbatai Zevi, 258–259.

21. Rapoport-Albert, Women and the Messianic Heresy of Sabbatai Zevi, 261.

22. Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam, 124–125.

23. Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, 403; Rapoport-Albert, Women and the Messianic Heresy of Sabbatai Zevi, 137–138.

24. Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam, 125.

25. Baer, ‘The Great Fire of 1660’.

26. Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam, 125.

27. Silahdar, Tarih-i Silahdar, 1:393.

28. The Memoirs of Glückel of Hameln, trans. Marvin Lowenthal (New York: Harper, 1932; New York: Schocken, 1977), 46.

29. Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam, 126.

30. Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam, 126.

31. The Memoirs of Glückel of Hameln, 45.

32. Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam, 126.

33. Minkarizade Yahya ibn Ömer, Fetāvā-i Minkarizade Efendi, Suleimaniye Library, Istanbul, Hamidiye 610, fol. 34a.

34. Abdi Paşa, Vekāyi’nāme, fols. 224a–b.

35. Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam, 131.

36. Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, 859.

37. Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, 729, 847.

37 

CHAPTER 16: THE SECOND SIEGE OF VIENNA AND THE SWEET WATERS OF EUROPE: FROM MEHMED IV TO AHMED III

1. Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam, 212.

2. Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam, 214.

3. Cited in Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam, 215.

4. Richard Kreutel, ed., Kara Mustafa vor Wien: Das türkische Tagebuch der Belagerung Wiens 1683, verfasst vom Zeremonienmeister der Hohen Pforte (Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch, 1967), 20–21, 31–32.

5. Silahdar, Tarih-i Silahdar, 2:91–92.

6. Cited in Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam, 218.

7. Kreutel, Kara Mustafa vor Wien, 76.

8. Kreutel, Kara Mustafa vor Wien, 79–80.

9. Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam, 220.

10. Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam, 223–224.

11. Silahdar, Tarih-i Silahdar, 2:245–246.

12. Baer, ‘Manliness, Male Virtue and History Writing’, 134.

13. Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam, 208–209, 226.

14. Silahdar, Tarih-i Silahdar, 2:262–263.

15. Silahdar, Tarih-i Silahdar, 2:290.

16. Silahdar, Tarih-i Silahdar, 2:291.

17. Silahdar, Tarih-i Silahdar, 2:298.

18. Silahdar, Tarih-i Silahdar, 2:297.

19. Silahdar, Tarih-i Silahdar, 2:690–691.

20. Abou-El-Haj, Formation of the Modern State, 19.

21. Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam, 253.

22. The museum’s website is https://askerimuze.msb.gov.tr.

23. The museum’s website is Heeresgeschichtliches Museum, Militärhistorisches Institut, https://www.hgm.at/en.html.

24. Vatin and Veinstein, Le Sérail ébranlé, 293, 295.

25. The decree is translated in Abou-El-Haj, Formation of the Modern State, 113–119.

26. Abou-El-Haj, The 1703 Rebellion and the Structure of Ottoman Politics.

27. Kortepeter, Ottoman Imperialism During the Reformation, 243.

28. Quoted in Kafadar, ‘Janissaries and Other Riffraff of Ottoman Istanbul’, 133.

29. Silahdar Fındıklılı Mehmed Ağa, as told in Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 331–332.

30. Ahmed III was onto something. Nothing is as enjoyable in Istanbul as sitting outside on the upper deck of a slow-moving commuter ferry travelling from the European to the Asian side, sipping piping-hot tea from a tulip-shaped glass after having popped in two white sugar cubes that sizzle as they dissolve and tossing pieces of sesame ring to screeching seagulls suspended effortlessly in midair, the silhouettes of the domes and minarets of the city set against the background of a sky lit up by a pink and purple sunset. Tea, however, was not yet consumed in eighteenth-century Istanbul.

31. Ariel Salzmann, ‘The Age of Tulips: Confluence and Conflict in Early Modern Consumer Culture (1550–1730)’, in Consumption Studies and the History of the Ottoman Empire, 1550-1922, ed. Donald Quataert (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2000), 83–106, here 92.

32. Quoted in Shirine Hamadeh, ‘Public Spaces and the Garden Culture of Istanbul in the Eighteenth Century’, in The Early Modern Ottomans: Remapping the Empire, ed. Virginia Aksan and Daniel Goffman (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 277–312, here 277–278.

33. Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 345.

34. Hamadeh, ‘Public Spaces and the Garden Culture of Istanbul’, 278.

35. Shirine Hamadeh, ‘Splash and Spectacle: The Obsession with Fountains in Eighteenth-Century Istanbul’, Muqarnas 19 (2002): 123–148. One can get a sense for what this must have been like in the eighteenth century by visiting one of the many cafés in Tophane in Istanbul, where you can smoke a water pipe in the shade on a summer day, the original eighteenth-century fountain, now dry, peering over your shoulder.

36. Alexander Bevilacqua and Helen Pfeifer, ‘Turquerie: Culture in Motion, 1650–1750’, Past & Present 221, no. 1 (2013): 75–118.

37. This section is based on Greene, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 192–215.

38. Greene, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 203.

39. Bekir Harun Küçük, ‘Natural Philosophy and Politics in the Eighteenth Century: Esad of Ioannina and Greek Aristotelianism at the Ottoman Court’, Osmanlı Araştırmaları/Journal of Ottoman Studies 41 (2013): 125–158.

40. Bekir Harun Küçük, ‘Early Enlightenment in Istanbul’ (PhD diss., University of California, San Diego, 2012), 164, 172; Greene, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 199.

41. The main proponent of this view is Küçük, ‘Early Enlightenment in Istanbul’.

42. Steven Topik, ‘The Integration of the World Coffee Market’, in The Global Coffee Economy in Africa, Asia and Latin America, 1500–1989, ed. William Gervase Clarence-Smith and Steven Topik (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 28–29.

43. The lyrics of ‘Schweigt stille, plaudert nicht—Kaffeekantate’ can be found at www.bach-cantatas.com/Texts/BWV211-Eng3P.htm.

44. Bevilacqua and Pfeifer, ‘Turquerie’, 96.

45. Ceylan Yeginsu, ‘Swedish Meatballs Are Turkish? “My Whole Life Has Been a Lie”’, New York Times, 2 May 2018, www.nytimes.com/2018/05/02/world/europe/swedish-meatballs-turkey.html.

46. Bevilacqua and Pfeifer, ‘Turquerie’, 75.

47. Bevilacqua and Pfeifer, ‘Turquerie’, 98–101.

48. Bevilacqua and Pfeifer, ‘Turquerie’, 107.

49. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, The Letters and Works of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, ed. Lord Wharncliffe and William Moy Thomas (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 1:369–370.

50. The nickname might refer to his skin tone, or his not having a beard.

51. Tülay Artan, ‘18. yüzyıl başlarında yönetici elitin saltanatın meşruiyet arayışına katılımı’, Toplum ve Bilim 83, Osmanlı: Muktedirler ve Mâdunlar (Kış 1999–2000), 294–296.

52. Artan, ‘18. yüzyıl başlarında yönetici elitin saltanatın meşruiyet arayışına katılımı’, 296–297.

53. Artan, ‘18. yüzyıl başlarında yönetici elitin saltanatın meşruiyet arayışına katılımı’, 302–303.

54. Artan, ‘18. yüzyıl başlarında yönetici elitin saltanatın meşruiyet arayışına katılımı’, 306–313.

55. Fariba Zarinebaf, Crime and Punishment in Istanbul 1700–1800 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010), 34–35.

56. Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 350.

57. Serkan Delice, ‘The Janissaries and Their Bedfellows: Masculinity and Male Homosexuality in Early Modern Ottoman Istanbul, 1500–1826’ (PhD diss., London College of Fashion, University of the Arts London, 2015), chapter four.

58. Delice, ‘The Janissaries and Their Bedfellows’, 174–175.

59. Delice, ‘The Janissaries and Their Bedfellows’, 178.

60. Delice, ‘The Janissaries and Their Bedfellows’, 162.

61. Salzmann, ‘The Age of Tulips’, 94.

62. Quoted in Hamadeh, ‘Public Spaces and the Garden Culture of Istanbul’, 305.

63. Barkey, Empire of Difference, 213–214.

64. This account of the rebellion follows that of Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 353–357, which is based on original Ottoman and foreign accounts.

65. Faik Reşit Unat, 1730 Patrona ihtilâlı hakkında bir eser, Abdi Tarihi (Ankara: Türk Tarih kurumu, 1943), 39–40, cited in Vatin and Veinstein, Le Sérail ébranlé, 253.

66. Salzmann, ‘The Age of Tulips’, 97.

67. Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslam Ansiklopedisi, s.v. ‘Bağdat Köşkü’, by Semavi Eyice, https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/bagdat-kosku.

68. Zarinebaf, Crime and Punishment in Istanbul, 60–61.

69. Hamadeh, ‘Public Spaces and the Garden Culture of Istanbul’, 302–304.

70. Alan Fisher, The Russian Annexation of the Crimea, 1772–1783 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970).

71. Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 381.

72. Orlando Figes, Crimea: The Last Crusade (London: Allen Lane, 2010), 18.

73. Thomas Gallant, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 1768 to 1913: The Long Nineteenth Century (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2015), 19–21, 25.

74. Figes, Crimea, 12–13, 25–26.

74 

CHAPTER 17: REFORM: BREAKING THE CYCLE OF REBELLION FROM SELIM III TO ABDÜLAZIZ I

1. Engin Akarlı, ‘The Problems of External Pressures, Power Struggles, and Budgetary Deficits in Ottoman Politics Under Abdulhamid II (1876-1909): Origins and Solutions’ (PhD diss., Princeton University, 1976), 2.

2. Mütercim Ahmed Asım, Tarih, 2:204, quoted in Vatin and Veinstein, Le Sérail ébranlé, 67.

3. Vatin and Veinstein, Le Sérail ébranlé, 161.

4. The document is translated into English in Ali Yaycioglu, Partners of the Empire: The Crisis of the Ottoman Order in the Age of Revolutions (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2016), 205–220.

5. Erik J. Zürcher, Turkey: A Modern History, 4th revised ed. (London: I.B. Tauris, 2017), 23.

6. Yaycioglu, Partners of the Empire, 234.

7. Mütercim Ahmed Asım, Tarih, 2:255, cited in Vatin and Veinstein, Le Sérail ébranlé, 161.

8. Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 423.

9. Gallant, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 43–44.

10. Gallant, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 62.

11. Gallant, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 49–50.

12. Gallant, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 65, 74.

13. Gallant, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 73.

14. Şanizade Mehmed Ataullah Efendi, Şanizade Tarihi (1223–1237/1808–1821), ed. Ziya Yılmazer (Istanbul: Çamlıca, 2008), 2:1072. Although this transliterated version of the text is printed in two volumes, the original nineteenth-century text was published in four volumes. The pages quoted here are in the third volume of the original.

15. Şanizade, Şanizade Tarihi, 2:1073.

16. Şanizade, Şanizade Tarihi, 2:1074.

17. Şanizade, Şanizade Tarihi, 2:1078–1079.

18. Şanizade, Şanizade Tarihi, 2:1080. In Bursa, his wife Hâcce was accused of witchcraft, murdered, and her naked corpse left exposed for one or two days in public. A distraught Halil Efendi died soon after. Şanizade, Şanizade Tarihi, 2:1224–1226. The latter pages are in the fourth volume of the original.

19. Şanizade, Şanizade Tarihi, 2:1121. These pages are in the fourth volume of the original. The patriarch was actually seventy-four years old. Benderli Ali Pasha was soon dismissed and executed. The street in front of the patriarchate was named Grand Vizier (Sadrazam) Ali Pasha in the 1920s. It was renamed in the 1990s.

20. Şanizade, Şanizade Tarihi, 2:1123–1124. Several metropolitans from Anatolia were also hanged in Istanbul.

21. Gallant, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 86.

22. Gallant, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 95–96. Among the fatalities at Missolonghi was the British Romantic poet and satirist George Gordon, Lord Byron.

23. Howard Reed, ‘The Destruction of the Janissaries by Mahmud II in June 1826’ (PhD diss., Princeton University, 1951), cited in Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 434–436.

24. Reed, ‘The Destruction of the Janissaries’, 236–237, cited in Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 435.

25. Şirvânlı Fatih Efendi, Gülzâr-i Fütûhât, 13, cited in Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 435.

26. Sir James Porter, late eighteenth-century British ambassador in Istanbul, quoted in Tezcan, The Second Ottoman Empire, 8.

27. Cited in Şerif Mardin, The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought: A Study in the Modernization of Turkish Political Ideas (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962), 310.

28. Abraham Galanté, Histoire des Juifs d’Istanbul (Istanbul: Imprimerie Husnutabiat, 1941), 27–28.

29. Cengiz Kırlı, ‘Kahvehaneler ve hafiyeler: 19. yüzyıl ortalarında Osmanlı’da sosyal kontrol’, Toplum ve Bilim 83, Osmanlı: Muktedirler ve Mâdunlar (Kış 1999–2000): 58–77.

30. Abdülkadir Özcan, ‘II. Mahmud’un memleket gezileri’, Prof. Dr. Bekir Kütükoğlu’na Armağan, Istanbul Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Tarih Araştırma Merkezi (Istanbul: Edebiyat Fakültesi, 1991), 361–379.

31. Gallant, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 99–100.

32. Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 445.

33. Zürcher, Turkey, 49.

34. İlber Ortaylı, İmparatorluğun en uzun yüzyıl, 3rd ed. (Istanbul: Hil, 1995), 77–150.

35. ‘The Gülhane Decree and the Beginning of the Tanzimat Reform Era in the Ottoman Empire, 1839’, trans. Halil Inalcik, in The Middle East and North Africa in World Politics: A Documentary Record, vol. 1, European Expansion, 1535–1914, ed. J. C. Hurewitz (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1975).

36. Yener Bayar, ‘The Life and Work of Mustafa Reshid Pasha, Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Reformer’ (PhD diss., London School of Economics and Political Science, in progress).

37. Galanté, Histoire des Juifs d’Istanbul, 26.

38. Selim Deringil, Conversion and Apostasy in the Late Ottoman Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 69, 75.

39. Deringil, Conversion and Apostasy in the Late Ottoman Empire, 98–105.

40. Figes, Crimea, 295–296.

41. Figes, Crimea, 118.

42. Figes, Crimea, 141.

43. Figes, Crimea, 142.

44. Figes, Crimea, 147.

45. Figes, Crimea, xvii, xx.

46. Nicholas Woods, quoted in Figes, Crimea, 269.

47. Figes, Crimea, xix, 489.

48. Figes, Crimea, 389.

49. Figes, Crimea, 483.

50. Figes, Crimea, 253.

51. Leo Tolstoy, The Sebastopol Sketches, trans. D. McDuff (London, 1986), 44, 47–48, quoted in Figes, Crimea, 298.

52. Figes, Crimea, 105, 323. Nicolas I was buried with a silver cross bearing an image of the Hagia Sophia as a church.

53. Alan Fisher, ‘Emigration of Muslims from the Russian Empire in the Years After the Crimean War’, Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 35, no. 3 (1987): 356–371.

54. (Ahmed) Cevdet Paşa, Tezâkir, ed. Cavid Baysun (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1953–1967), 1:68, quoted in Mardin, The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought, 18, and Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 459.

55. Esra Özyürek, ‘Convert Alert: German Muslims and Turkish Christians as Threats to Security in the New Europe’, Comparative Studies in Society and History 51, no. 1 (2009): 91–116.

56. Deringil, Conversion and Apostasy in the Late Ottoman Empire, 111–112.

57. Deringil, Conversion and Apostasy in the Late Ottoman Empire, 115.

58. Deringil, Conversion and Apostasy in the Late Ottoman Empire, 162.

59. Deringil, Conversion and Apostasy in the Late Ottoman Empire, 159–160.

60. Deringil, Conversion and Apostasy in the Late Ottoman Empire, 192.

61. Deringil, Conversion and Apostasy in the Late Ottoman Empire, 157.

62. Nilüfer Göle, The Forbidden Modern: Civilization and Veiling (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996), 30–33.

63. Göle, The Forbidden Modern, 31–32.

64. Arus Yumul, ‘Osmanlı’nın ilk anayasası’, Toplum ve Bilim 83, Osmanlı: Muktedirler ve Mâdunlar (Kış 1999–2000), 346.

65. The Greek Orthodox patriarchate received its ‘Regulations’ in 1862, and the chief rabbinate received its own in 1865.

66. Yumul, ‘Osmanlı’nın ilk anayasası’, 347.

67. Yumul, ‘Osmanlı’nın ilk anayasası’, 343.

68. Zürcher, Turkey, 62.

69. Mardin, The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought, 21.

70. Namık Kemal, cited in Mardin, The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought, 115.

71. Zürcher, Turkey, 63–64.

72. Mardin, The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought, 288.

73. Mardin, The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought, 399.

74. Mardin, The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought, 311–313.

75. Namık Kemal, ‘Vatan’, İbret, 12 March 1873, quoted in Mardin, The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought, 327.

76. Mardin, The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought, 44–45.

77. Zürcher, Turkey, 64.

78. Namık Kemal, Vatan şiiri (Fatherland poem), quoted in Kemal Karpat, The Politicization of Islam: Reconstructing Identity, State, Faith, and Community in the Late Ottoman State (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 334.

79. Mardin, The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought, 67.

80. İpek Yosmaoğlu, Blood Ties: Religion, Violence, and the Politics of Nationhood in Ottoman Macedonia, 1878–1908 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2014), 53–60. Nationalism was diffused to the wider Bulgarian population in the exarchate churches and its new schools.

81. Mardin, The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought, 70.

82. Zürcher, Turkey, 67–68.

83. Mardin, The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought, 73.

84. Yumul, ‘Osmanlı’nın ilk anayasası’, 349.

85. Quoted in Deringil, Conversion and Apostasy in the Late Ottoman Empire, 64.

85 

CHAPTER 18: REPRESSION: A MODERN CALIPH, ABDÜLHAMID II

1. Akarlı, ‘The Problems of External Pressures’, 3.

2. Benjamin Fortna, ‘The Reign of Abdülhamid II’, in The Cambridge History of Turkey, ed. Reşat Kasaba, vol. 4, Turkey in the Modern World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 41.

3. Zürcher, Turkey, 59.

4. William Ewart Gladstone, Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East (London: John Murray, 1876), 9.

5. Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslam Ansiklopedisi, s.v. ‘Doksanüç Harbi: 1877–1878 Osmanlı-Rus savaşı’, by Mahir Aydın, https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/doksanuc-harbi.

6. Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslam Ansiklopedisi, s.v. ‘Doksanüç Harbi’.

7. Murat Bardakçı, ed., Talât Paşa’nın evrak-ı metrûkesi: Sadrazam Talât Paşa’nın özel arşivinde bulunan Ermeni tehciri konusundaki belgeler ve hususî yazışmalar (Istanbul: Everest, 2013), 35.

8. Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 500–501.

9. Selim Deringil, The Well-Protected Domains: Ideology and the Legitimation of Power in the Late Ottoman Empire, 1876–1909 (London: I.B. Tauris, 1998), 22, 26, 29.

10. Deringil, The Well-Protected Domains, 60–61.

11. Deringil, The Well-Protected Domains, 37–39.

12. Deringil, The Well-Protected Domains, 48.

13. Deringil, The Well-Protected Domains, 50.

14. Deringil, The Well-Protected Domains, 53.

15. Selçuk Akşin Somel, ‘Osmanlı modernleşme döneminde periferik nüfus grupları’, Toplum ve Bilim 83, Osmanlı: Muktedirler ve Mâdunlar (Kış 1999–2000): 178–199.

16. Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE, s.v., ‘Alevīs’, by Markus Dressler.

17. Deringil, The Well-Protected Domains, 68–75.

18. Deringil, The Well-Protected Domains, 85.

19. Eugene Rogan, ‘Aşiret Mektebi: Abdülhamid II’s School for Tribes (1892–1907)’, International Journal of Middle East Studies 28, no. 1 (February 1996): 83–107; Deringil, The Well-Protected Domains, 99–104.

20. Somel, ‘Osmanlı modernleşme döneminde periferik nüfus grupları’, 197–198.

21. Göle, The Forbidden Modern, 32.

22. Elizabeth Frierson, ‘Unimagined Communities: Women and Education in the Late-Ottoman Empire, 1876–1909’, Critical Matrix 9, no. 2 (1995): 55–90.

23. David Leupold, Embattled Dreamlands: The Politics of Contesting Armenian, Kurdish and Turkish Memory (London: Routledge, 2020), 108, 111, 153.

24. Ronald Grigor Suny, “They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else”: A History of the Armenian Genocide (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015), 86–87.

25. Quoted in David McDowall, A Modern History of the Kurds, 3rd rev. ed. (London: I.B. Tauris, 2004), 53.

26. Janet Klein, The Margins of Empire: Kurdish Militias in the Ottoman Tribal Zone (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011).

27. Stephan Astourian, ‘The Silence of the Land: Agrarian Relations, Ethnicity, and Power’, in A Question of Genocide: Armenians and Turks at the End of the Ottoman Empire, ed. Ronald Grigor Suny, Fatma Müge Göçek, and Norman Naimark (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 55–81.

28. Suny, “They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else”, 105–123.

29. Deringil, Conversion and Apostasy in the Late Ottoman Empire, 203.

30. Deringil, The Well-Protected Domains, 27, 31–32.

31. Deringil, The Well-Protected Domains, 135–149.

32. Deringil, The Well-Protected Domains, 137.

33. Deringil, The Well-Protected Domains, 149.

34. Baer, Sultanic Saviors and Tolerant Turks, 53–72.

35. Julia Phillips Cohen, Becoming Ottomans: Sephardi Jews and Imperial Citizenship in the Modern Era (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 6, 8.

36. Cohen, Becoming Ottomans, 49.

37. Cohen, Becoming Ottomans, 59.

38. Teacher Mercado Joseph Covo (d. 1940), quoted in Devin Naar, ‘Fashioning the “Mother of Israel”: The Ottoman Jewish Historical Narrative and the Image of Jewish Salonica’, Jewish History 28, no. 3 (2014): 337–372, here 363.

39. Covo, quoted in Naar, ‘Fashioning the “Mother of Israel”’, 366.

40. Quoted in Cohen, Becoming Ottomans, 49.

41. Quoted in Cohen, Becoming Ottomans, 54.

42. Suny, “They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else”, 123–125.

43. Cohen, Becoming Ottomans, 75–76.

44. ‘Eyewitness to Massacres of Armenians in Istanbul (1896)’, in Sephardi Lives: A Documentary History, 1700–1950, ed. Sarah Abrevaya Stein and Julia Phillips Cohen (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2014), 134–139.

45. Margaret Lavinia Anderson, ‘“Down in Turkey, Far Away”: Human Rights, the Armenian Massacres, and Orientalism in Wilhelmine Germany’, Journal of Modern History 79, no. 1 (March 2007): 80–111, here 87.

46. Quoted in Yair Auron, The Banality of Indifference: Zionism and the Armenian Genocide (London: Transaction, 2000), 116.

47. Auron, The Banality of Indifference, 119.

48. Irvin Cemil Schick, ‘Sultan Abdülhamid II from the Pen of His Detractors: Oriental Despotism and the Sexualization of the Ancien Régime’, Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association 5, no. 2 (Fall 2018): 47–73.

48 

CHAPTER 19: LOOKING WITHIN: THE OTTOMAN ORIENT

1. Edward Said, Orientalism (London: Routledge, 1978), 1–3.

2. Eugene Rogan, Frontiers of the State in the Late Ottoman Empire: Transjordan, 1850–1921 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 151; Maurus Reinkowski, Die Dinge der Ordnung: Eine vergleichende Untersuchung über die osmanische Reformpolitik im 19. Jahrhundert (Munich: R. Oldenbourg, 2005), 249–253.

3. Quoted in Deringil, The Well-Protected Domains, 41.

4. Reinkowski, Die Dinge der Ordnung, 245.

5. Christoph Herzog and Raoul Motika, ‘Orientalism “alla turca”’, Die Welt des Islams 40, no. 2 (2000): 141–195.

6. Quoted in Herzog and Motika, ‘Orientalism “alla turca”’ 185–186.

7. Quoted in Herzog and Motika, ‘Orientalism “alla turca”’, 142.

8. Quoted in Herzog and Motika, ‘Orientalism “alla turca”’, 191.

9. Quoted in Herzog and Motika, ‘Orientalism “alla turca”’, 168.

10. Selim Deringil, ‘“They Live in a State of Nomadism and Savagery”: The Late Ottoman Empire and Post-Colonial Debate’, Comparative Studies in Society and History 45, no. 2 (2003), 312.

11. Deringil, ‘They Live in a State of Nomadism and Savagery’, 312.

12. Deringil, ‘They Live in a State of Nomadism and Savagery’, 334.

13. Deringil, ‘They Live in a State of Nomadism and Savagery’, 334.

14. Deringil, ‘They Live in a State of Nomadism and Savagery’, 338.

15. Mary Roberts, Intimate Outsiders: The Harem in Ottoman and Orientalist Art and Travel Literature (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007), 21.

16. Roberts, Intimate Outsiders, 39. One can view the painting on Tate Britain’s website: www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/lewis-the-siesta-n03594.

17. Roberts, Intimate Outsiders, 33.

18. Roberts, Intimate Outsiders, 21, 31.

19. Roberts, Intimate Outsiders, 60–61.

20. Roberts, Intimate Outsiders, 109.

21. Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 471–472.

22. Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 473–474.

23. Roberts, Intimate Outsiders, 111.

24. Roberts, Intimate Outsiders, 112.

25. Roberts, Intimate Outsiders, 114.

26. The Palestinian literary critic Edward Said chose the painting to grace the cover of the first edition of his 1978 classic, Orientalism.

27. Edhem Eldem, ‘Making Sense of Osman Hamdi Bey and His Paintings’, Muqarnas 29 (2012), 374.

28. Eldem, ‘Making Sense of Osman Hamdi Bey’, 371.

29. Edhem Eldem, ed., Un Ottoman en Orient: Osman Hamdi Bey en Irak, 1869–1871 (Paris: Actes Sud, 2010).

30. Eldem, ‘Making Sense of Osman Hamdi Bey’, 355–363.

31. Najmabadi, Women with Mustaches and Men Without Beards; Ze’evi, Producing Desire; and Kuru, ‘Sex in the Text’.

32. Quoted in Ze’evi, Producing Desire, 164.

33. Kuru, ‘Sex in the Text’, 159.

34. Mustafa Ali, cited in Fleischer, Bureaucrat and Intellectual in the Ottoman Empire, 23.

35. Deringil, The Well-Protected Domains, 150–151, 171–172.

36. Eldem, ‘Making Sense of Osman Hamdi Bey’, 376–377.

36 

CHAPTER 20: SAVING THE DYNASTY FROM ITSELF: YOUNG TURKS

1. ‘Sabbatai Tsevi, A Letter on Conversion’, trans. Paweł Maciejko, in Maciejko, Sabbatian Heresy, 34.

2. ‘Sabbatai Tsevi, A Letter on Conversion’, 35.

3. ‘Sabbatai Tsevi, Bury My Faith!’, trans. David Halperin, in Maciejko, Sabbatian Heresy, 37.

4. Marc David Baer, The Dönme: Jewish Converts, Muslim Revolutionaries, and Secular Turks (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010).

5. Baer, The Dönme, 86–87.

6. Baer, The Dönme, 89.

7. Baer, The Dönme, 90.

8. Baer, The Dönme, 91.

9. His identity papers are found in Bardakçı, Talât Paşa’nın evrak-ı metrûkesi, 235.

10. Hans-Lukas Kieser, Talaat Pasha: Father of Modern Turkey, Architect of Genocide (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018), 49.

11. Erik J. Zürcher, ‘Who Were the Young Turks?’, in The Young Turk Legacy and Nation Building: From the Ottoman Empire to Atatürk’s Turkey (London: I.B. Tauris, 2010), 97–98.

12. Karpat, The Politicization of Islam, 112; Baer, The Dönme, 92.

13. Baer, The Dönme, 93.

14. Lewis, Rumi, 452.

15. Lewis, Rumi, 452–453.

16. Baer, The Dönme, 94.

17. Baer, The Dönme, 95.

18. Baer, The Dönme, 96.

19. Şükrü Hanioğlu, ‘The Second Constitutional Period, 1908–1918’, in The Cambridge History of Turkey, 4:62.

20. Erik J. Zürcher, ‘The Historiography of the Constitutional Revolution: Broad Consensus, Some Disagreement and a Missed Opportunity’, in The Young Turk Legacy and Nation Building, 26–40.

21. Yosmaoğlu, Blood Ties, 2.

22. ‘The Young Turks’, trans. A. Sarrou, in Civilization Since Waterloo, ed. Rondo Cameron (Paris, 1912), 40–42.

23. Baer, The Dönme, 97.

24. Mehmet Ö. Alkan, İmparatorluk’tan Cumhuriyet’e Selânik’ten İstanbul’a Terakki Vakfı ve Terakki Okulları, 1877–2000 (Istanbul: Terakki Vakfı, 2003), 94.

25. Baer, The Dönme, 93.

26. Baer, The Dönme, 94.

27. Zürcher, Turkey, 93.

28. Zürcher, ‘Who Were the Young Turks?’, 102–104.

29. Yeşim Arat, ‘Contestation and Collaboration: Women’s Struggles for Empowerment in Turkey’, in The Cambridge History of Turkey, 4:389–390.

30. Göle, The Forbidden Modern, 38.

31. Göle, The Forbidden Modern, 43.

32. Erik J. Zürcher, ‘The Ides of April: A Fundamentalist Uprising in Istanbul in 1909?’, in The Young Turk Legacy and Nation Building, 73–83.

33. Asena Günal and Murat Çelikkan, Hatırlayan şehir: Taksim’den Sultanahmet’e mekân ve hafiza/A City That Remembers: Space and Memory from Taksim to Sultanahmet (Istanbul: Truth Justice Memory Center, 2019), 208–209.

34. Bedross Der Matossian, ‘From Bloodless Revolution to a Bloody Counterrevolution: The Adana Massacres of 1909’, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal 6, no. 2 (2011): 152–173.

35. Kieser, Talaat Pasha, 76–79.

36. Baer, The Dönme, 98.

37. Baer, The Dönme, 99.

38. Baer, The Dönme, 100.

39. Baer, The Dönme, 110.

40. Ahmet Emin Yalman, Yakın tarihte gördüklerim ve geçirdiklerim, ed. Erol Şadi Erdinç, 2nd ed. (Istanbul: Pera Turizm ve Ticaret, 1997), 1:700–701; Baer, The Dönme, 45–46.

41. Erik J. Zürcher, ‘The Young Turk Mindset’, in The Young Turk Legacy and Nation Building, 110–123.

42. Zürcher, ‘The Young Turk Mindset’, 110–112.

43. Zürcher, ‘The Young Turk Mindset’, 112–114.

44. Yosmaoğlu, Blood Ties, 25–36, 78.

45. Yosmaoğlu, Blood Ties, 5.

46. Zürcher, ‘The Young Turk Mindset’, 114–115.

47. Zürcher, ‘The Young Turk Mindset’, 116.

48. Zürcher, ‘The Young Turk Mindset’, 117.

49. Zürcher, Turkey, 91–92.

50. Zürcher, ‘The Young Turk Mindset’, 117–118.

51. M. Şükrü Hanioğlu, Atatürk: An Intellectual Biography (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011), 33–35.

52. Baer, The Dönme, 92.

53. Yusuf Akçura and Ismail Fehmi, ‘Yusuf Akçura’s Üç Tarz—ı Siyaset (“Three Kinds of Policy”)’, Oriente Moderno 61, no. 1/12 (January–December 1981): 1–20.

54. Akçura and Fehmi, ‘Yusuf Akçura’s Üç Tarz—ı Siyaset (“Three Kinds of Policy”)’, 5.

55. Akçura and Fehmi, ‘Yusuf Akçura’s Üç Tarz—ı Siyaset (“Three Kinds of Policy”)’, 18.

56. Gallant, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 294–299.

57. Gallant, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 300.

58. Kieser, Talaat Pasha, 133–136.

59. Bardakçı, Talât Paşa’nın evrak-ı metrûkesi, 39.

60. Bardakçı, Talât Paşa’nın evrak-ı metrûkesi, 79–81.

61. Zürcher, ‘The Young Turk Mindset’, 118–121.

61 

CHAPTER 21: THE GENOCIDE OF THE ARMENIANS AND THE FIRST WORLD WAR: TALAT PASHA

1. Bedross Der Matossian, Shattered Dreams of Revolution: From Liberty to Violence in the Late Ottoman Empire (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2014), 23–24.

2. Kieser, Talaat Pasha, 25.

3. Eyal Ginio, The Ottoman Culture of Defeat: The Balkan Wars and Their Aftermath (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016).

4. Ziya Gökalp, ‘Kızılelma’, Türk Yurdu 2, no. 31 (January 1913), quoted in Kieser, Talaat Pasha, 101.

5. Kieser, Talaat Pasha, 18–19.

6. Kieser, Talaat Pasha, 109, 159.

7. Fatma Müge Göçek, Denial of Violence: Ottoman Past, Turkish Present, and Collective Violence Against the Armenians, 1789–2009 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015).

8. Zürcher, Turkey, 121.

9. Quoted in Mustafa Aksakal, The Ottoman Road to War in 1914: The Ottoman Empire and the First World War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 38.

10. Stefan Ihrig, Atatürk in the Nazi Imagination (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2014), 1–2.

11. Stefan Ihrig, Justifying Genocide: Germany and the Armenians from Bismarck to Hitler (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016), 27, 34, 40; Sultan Abdülhamit, Siyasî hatıratım (Istanbul: Dergah, 1987), 133, quoted in Fortna, ‘The Reign of Abdülhamid II’, 56.

12. Ihrig, Atatürk in the Nazi Imagination, 4–5.

13. Suny, “They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else”, 231.

14. Eugene Rogan, The Fall of the Ottomans: The Great War in the Middle East (New York: Basic Books, 2015), xvii.

15. Hanioğluu, ‘The Second Constitutional Period, 1908–1918’, 94.

16. Quoted in Rogan, The Fall of the Ottomans, 111.

17. Rogan, The Fall of the Ottomans, 114.

18. Rogan, The Fall of the Ottomans, 115.

19. Rogan, The Fall of the Ottomans, 135.

20. Kieser, Talaat Pasha, 295–314.

21. Rogan, The Fall of the Ottomans, 298.

22. Rogan, The Fall of the Ottomans, 309, 353.

23. Rogan, The Fall of the Ottomans, 351.

24. One can view the object on the website of the Imperial War Museum London: ‘Flag, Military, White, Surrender of Jerusalem by Turks’, catalogue no. FLA 553, Imperial War Museum, www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/30016591.

25. Doctor Nazım, quoted in the 1929 memoir of Kurdish journalist and former CUP Central Committee member Rıfat Mevlanzade, Ittihat Terakki iktidarı ve Türk inkılabın içyüzü (Istanbul: Yedi Iklim, 1993), 125, quoted in Göçek, Denial of Violence, 202.

26. Suny, “They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else”, 248–249.

27. Aram Arkun, ‘Zeytun and the Commencement of the Armenian Genocide’, in A Question of Genocide, 221–243.

28. Leupold, Embattled Dreamlands, 125.

29. Suny, “They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else”, 253–263.

30. Bardakçı, Talât Paşa’nın evrak-ı metrûkesi, 23–24.

31. Günal and Çelikkan, Hatırlayan şehir, 334–335.

32. A. P. Herbert, ‘Flies’, written at Gallipoli in 1915, quoted in Rogan, The Fall of the Ottomans, 196.

33. Rogan, The Fall of the Ottomans, 214.

34. Bardakçı, Talât Paşa’nın evrak-ı metrûkesi, 25–26.

35. ‘Talât Paşa’nın eşi Hayriye Talât Hanım (Bafralı) ile mülâkat (Ekim 1982)’, in Bardakçı, Talât Paşa’nın evrak-ı metrûkesi, 211.

36. Takvîm-i Vekâyi’ #3540 (28 Nisan 1335), 4-14 (Karârnâme), translated in Vahakn Dadrian and Taner Akçam, Judgment at Istanbul: The Armenian Genocide Trials (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2011), 280.

37. Mevlanzade, Ittihat Terakki iktidarı ve Türk inkılabın içyüzü, 126–127, quoted in Göçek, Denial of Violence, 202.

38. Madame P. Captanian, Mémoires d’une déportée arménienne (Paris: M. Flinikowski, 1919). The work was translated into Turkish in the 2010s.

39. Captanian, Mémoires d’une déportée arménienne, 20.

40. Captanian, Mémoires d’une déportée arménienne, 23–24.

41. Captanian, Mémoires d’une déportée arménienne, 30.

42. Captanian, Mémoires d’une déportée arménienne, 31.

43. Captanian, Mémoires d’une déportée arménienne, 35.

44. Captanian, Mémoires d’une déportée arménienne, 36.

45. Captanian, Mémoires d’une déportée arménienne, 40.

46. Captanian, Mémoires d’une déportée arménienne, 46.

47. Captanian, Mémoires d’une déportée arménienne, 47.

48. Captanian, Mémoires d’une déportée arménienne, 67.

49. Captanian, Mémoires d’une déportée arménienne, 130.

50. Captanian, Mémoires d’une déportée arménienne, 130.

51. Captanian, Mémoires d’une déportée arménienne, 131.

52. Captanian, Mémoires d’une déportée arménienne, 68.

53. Captanian, Mémoires d’une déportée arménienne, 68.

54. Captanian, Mémoires d’une déportée arménienne, 72.

55. Captanian, Mémoires d’une déportée arménienne, 87.

56. Captanian, Mémoires d’une déportée arménienne, 95.

57. Captanian, Mémoires d’une déportée arménienne, 96.

58. Bardakçı, Talât Paşa’nın evrak-ı metrûkesi, 77, 109. Talat Pasha wrote that although the Armenian population was tabulated as reaching only 1,256,403 in 1914, because not all were counted, the actual figure was as high as 1,500,000.

59. Bardakçı, Talât Paşa’nın evrak-ı metrûkesi, 109. He noted that although he counted only 284,157 Armenians living in the empire after the deportations, one-third of whom were in Istanbul, it was necessary to add 30 percent to the figure to arrive at what he considered the true number remaining, which was between 350,000 and 400,000 people.

60. Armin T. Wegner, Der Weg ohne Heimkehr. Ein Martyrium in Briefen (Berlin: Fleischel, 1919), reprinted in Wege ohne Heimkehr: Die Armenier, der Erste Weltkrieg und die Folgen, ed. Corry Guttstadt (Hamburg: Assoziation A, 2014), 121.

61. Wegner, Der Weg ohne Heimkehr, 122.

62. Wegner, Der Weg ohne Heimkehr, 122.

63. Wegner, Der Weg ohne Heimkehr, 122.

64. Kieser, Talaat Pasha, 262.

65. Quoted in Hans-Lukas Kieser, ‘From “Patriotism” to Mass Murder: Dr. Mehmed Reşid (1873–1919)’, in A Question of Genocide, 137.

66. Göçek, Denial of Violence, 227.

67. Quoted in Suny, “They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else”, 294.

68. Suny, “They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else”, 295.

69. Suny, “They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else”, 321–323.

70. See the discussion of Talat Pasha’s figures in Fuat Dündar, ‘Talât Paşa’nın evrak-ı metrûkesi’ni “okumak”’, Toplumsal Tarih 196 (Nisan 2010): 92–96.

71. Quoted in Kieser, Talaat Pasha, 232.

72. Kieser, Talaat Pasha, 234.

73. Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Rûznamesi (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 2014–2015), 3:135–136, quoted in Kieser, Talaat Pasha, 22–23.

74. Faiz al-Huseyin, Bedouin notable of Damascus, Martyred Armenia, translated from the original Arabic (New York: George H. Doran, 1918), quoted in Kieser, Talaat Pasha, 275, 277.

75. David Gaunt, ‘The Ottoman Treatment of the Assyrians’, in A Question of Genocide, 244–259.

76. Quoted in Gaunt, ‘The Ottoman Treatment of the Assyrians’, 253–254.

77. Eric Weitz, ‘Germany and the Young Turks: Revolutionaries into Statesmen’, in A Question of Genocide, 175–198.

78. George N. Shirinian, ‘Turks Who Saved Armenians: Righteous Muslims During the Armenian Genocide’, Genocide Studies International 9, no. 2 (Fall 2015): 208–227.

79. Kieser, Talaat Pasha, 163–164.

80. Kieser, Talaat Pasha, 184.

81. Robert Melson, Revolution and Genocide: On the Origins of the Armenian Genocide and the Holocaust (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 49–52.

82. Takvîm-i Vekâyi’ #3540 (28 Nisan 1335), 4-14 (Karârnâme), translated in Dadrian and Akçam, Judgment at Istanbul, 272–273.

83. Takvîm-i Vekâyi’ #3540, 277.

84. Takvîm-i Vekâyi’ #3571, 127–140 (Iddi’ânâme ve Karârnâme), translated in Dadrian and Akçam, Judgment at Istanbul, 284.

85. Takvîm-i Vekâyi’ #3604, 217–220 (Karar Sureti), translated in Dadrian and Akçam, Judgment at Istanbul, 330.

86. Takvîm-i Vekâyi’ #3771, 1–2 Ma’muretü’l’aziz Taktîl Muhâkemeleri (Karar Sureti), translated in Dadrian and Akçam, Judgment at Istanbul, 300.

87. Takvîm-i Vekâyi’ #3616, 1–3 Trabzon Tehcîr ve Taktîli Muhâkemesi (Karar Sureti), translated in Dadrian and Akçam, Judgment at Istanbul, 294–295.

88. Göçek, Denial of Violence, 382.

89. Philippe Sands, East West Street: On the Origin of “Genocide” and “Crimes Against Humanity” (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2016), 149.

90. The text is available on the website of the United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner: UN General Assembly, Resolution 260 A, Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, December 9, 1948, www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crimeofgenocide.aspx.

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CHAPTER 22: THE END: GAZI MUSTAFA KEMAL

1. Hasan Kayalı, ‘The Ottoman Experience of World War I: Historiographical Problems and Trends’, Journal of Modern History 89 (December 2017), 880–881.

2. Zürcher, Turkey, 164.

3. Hasan Kayalı, ‘The Struggle for Independence’, in The Cambridge History of Turkey, 4:116–117.

4. Kayalı, ‘The Struggle for Independence’, 122.

5. Quoted in Erik J. Zürcher, ‘Young Turks, Ottoman Muslims and Turkish Nationalists: Identity Politics 1908–38’, in The Young Turk Legacy and Nation Building, 223–224.

6. Suny, “They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else”, 339.

7. Hervé Georgelin, La fin de Smyrne. Du cosmopolitisme aux nationalismes (Paris: CNRS Éditions, 2005), 199–225.

8. A forty-one-year-old Enver Pasha was killed by the Soviet Army in Turkestan (today Tajikistan), Central Asia, in 1922.

9. Among them was Ali Kemal, great-grandfather of Boris Johnson, British prime minister (2019–). ‘Boris Johnson - How We Did It’, Who Do You Think You Are?, BBC One, www.bbc.co.uk/whodoyouthinkyouare/new-stories/boris-johnson/how-we-did-it_1.shtml.

10. Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslam Ansiklopedisi, s.v. ‘Mehmed VI’, by Cevdet Küçük, https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/mehmed-vi.

11. Spending the last twenty years of his life devoted to prayer, painting, and music, he passed away in Paris on 23 August 1944, two days before the city was liberated from the Nazis. His corpse remained in the Grand Mosque of Paris for a decade before it was given permission for burial in Medina, Saudi Arabia. Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslam Ansiklopedisi, s.v. ‘Abdülmecid Efendi’, by Cevdet Küçük, https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/abdulmecid-efendi.

12. League of Nations, Treaty Series, No. 807, Convention Concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations and Protocol, signed at Lausanne, January 30, 1923, article 1.

13. Renée Hirschon, ‘The Consequences of the Lausanne Convention: An Overview’, in Crossing the Aegean: An Appraisal of the 1923 Compulsory Population Exchange Between Greece and Turkey, ed. Renée Hirschon (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2003), 14.

14. Çağlar Keyder, State and Class in Turkey: A Study in Capitalist Development (London: Verso, 1987), 79.

15. Esra Özyürek, ‘Introduction’, in The Politics of Public Memory in Turkey, ed. Esra Özyürek (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2007), 1–15, here 3.

16. Quoted in Uğur Ümit Üngör, The Making of Modern Turkey: Nation and State in Eastern Anatolia, 1913–1950 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 224.

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CONCLUSION: THE OTTOMAN PAST ENDURES

1. ‘Atatürk’s Speech at the 10th Anniversary of the Turkish Republic’, October 29, 1933, Atatürk Society of America, ataturksociety.org.

2. Quoted in Raffi Khatchadourian, ‘A Century of Silence’, New Yorker, 5 January 2015, 32–53, here 36.

3. Quoted in Baer, The Dönme, 250.

4. On Gökçen’s role as a pilot during the Dersim rebellion, and a photo of her in uniform, see Hanioğlu, Atatürk, 210–211; on the massacres in Dersim and Gökçen’s Armenian background, see Göçek, Denial of Violence, 347–348, 420, and 598 note 69, as well as Hrant Dink, ‘Sabiha-Hatun’un sırrı’, Agos 6 (February 2004): 1.

5. Zürcher, ‘Young Turks, Ottoman Muslims and Turkish Nationalists’, 232.

6. Fethiye Çetin, ‘Hikâyelerden köprüler kurmak’, in Ayşe Gül Altınay and Fethiye Çetin, Torunlar (Istanbul: Metis, 2009), 20.

7. Pamuk, The White Castle, 135.

8. Pamuk, The White Castle, 58.

9. Pamuk, The White Castle, 64, 74–75.

9