Schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders include schizophrenia, other psychotic disorders, and schizotypal (personality) disorder. They are defined by abnormalities in one or more of the following five domains: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking (speech), grossly disorganized or abnormal motor behavior (including catatonia), and negative symptoms.
Key Features That Define the Psychotic Disorders
Delusions are fixed beliefs that are not amenable to change in light of conflicting evidence. Their content may include a variety of themes (e.g., persecutory, referential, somatic, religious, grandiose). Persecutory delusions (i.e., belief that one is going to be harmed, harassed, and so forth by an individual, organization, or other group) are most common. Referential delusions (i.e., belief that certain gestures, comments, environmental cues, and so forth are directed at oneself) are also common. Grandiose delusions (i.e., when an individual believes that he or she has exceptional abilities, wealth, or fame) and erotomanic delusions (i.e., when an individual believes falsely that another person is in love with him or her) are also seen. Nihilistic delusions involve the conviction that a major catastrophe will occur, and somatic delusions focus on preoccupations regarding health and organ function.
Delusions are deemed bizarre if they are clearly implausible and not understandable to same-culture peers and do not derive from ordinary life experiences. An example of a bizarre delusion is the belief that an outside force has removed his or her internal organs and replaced them with someone else’s organs without leaving any wounds or scars. An example of a nonbizarre delusion is the belief that one is under surveillance by the police, despite a lack of convincing evidence. Delusions that express a loss of control over mind or body are generally considered to be bizarre; these include the belief that one’s thoughts have been “removed” by some outside force (thought withdrawal), that alien thoughts have been put into one’s mind (thought insertion), or that one’s body or actions are being acted on or manipulated by some outside force (delusions of control). The distinction between a delusion and a strongly held idea is sometimes difficult to make and depends in part on the degree of conviction with which the belief is held despite clear or reasonable contradictory evidence regarding its veracity.
Hallucinations are perception-like experiences that occur without an external stimulus. They are vivid and clear, with the full force and impact of normal perceptions, and not under voluntary control. They may occur in any sensory modality, but auditory hallucinations are the most common in schizophrenia and related disorders. Auditory hallucinations are usually experienced as voices, whether familiar or unfamiliar, that are perceived as distinct from the individual’s own thoughts. The hallucinations must occur in the context of a clear sensorium; those that occur while falling asleep (hypnagogic) or waking up (hypnopompic) are considered to be within the range of normal experience. Hallucinations may be a normal part of religious experience in certain cultural contexts.
Disorganized thinking (formal thought disorder) is typically inferred from the individual’s speech. The individual may switch from one topic to another (derailment or loose associations). Answers to questions may be obliquely related or completely unrelated (tangentiality). Rarely, speech may be so severely disorganized that it is nearly incomprehensible and resembles receptive aphasia in its linguistic disorganization (incoherence or “word salad”). Because mildly disorganized speech is common and nonspecific, the symptom must be severe enough to substantially impair effective communication. The severity of the impairment may be difficult to evaluate if the person making the diagnosis comes from a different linguistic background than that of the person being examined. Less severe disorganized thinking or speech may occur during the prodromal and residual periods of schizophrenia.
Grossly disorganized or abnormal motor behavior may manifest itself in a variety of ways, ranging from childlike “silliness” to unpredictable agitation. Problems may be noted in any form of goal-directed behavior, leading to difficulties in performing activities of daily living.
Catatonic behavior is a marked decrease in reactivity to the environment. This ranges from resistance to instructions (negativism); to maintaining a rigid, inappropriate or bizarre posture; to a complete lack of verbal and motor responses (mutism and stupor). It can also include purposeless and excessive motor activity without obvious cause (catatonic excitement). Other features are repeated stereotyped movements, staring, grimacing, mutism, and the echoing of speech. Although catatonia has historically been associated with schizophrenia, catatonic symptoms are nonspecific and may occur in other mental disorders (e.g., bipolar or depressive disorders with catatonia) and in medical conditions (catatonic disorder due to another medical condition).
Negative symptoms account for a substantial portion of the morbidity associated with schizophrenia but are less prominent in other psychotic disorders. Two negative symptoms are particularly prominent in schizophrenia: diminished emotional expression and avolition. Diminished emotional expression includes reductions in the expression of emotions in the face, eye contact, intonation of speech (prosody), and movements of the hand, head, and face that normally give an emotional emphasis to speech. Avolition is a decrease in motivated self-initiated purposeful activities. The individual may sit for long periods of time and show little interest in participating in work or social activities. Other negative symptoms include alogia, anhedonia, and asociality. Alogia is manifested by diminished speech output. Anhedonia is the decreased ability to experience pleasure from positive stimuli or a degradation in the recollection of pleasure previously experienced7. Asociality refers to the apparent lack of interest in social interactions and may be associated with avolition, but it can also be a manifestation of limited opportunities for social interactions.
Disorders in This Chapter
This chapter is organized along a gradient of psychopathology. Clinicians should first consider conditions that do not reach full criteria for a psychotic disorder or are limited to one domain of psychopathology. Then they should consider time-limited conditions. Finally, the diagnosis of a schizophrenia spectrum disorder requires the exclusion of another condition that may give rise to psychosis.
Schizotypal personality disorder is noted within this chapter as it is considered within the schizophrenia spectrum, although its full description is found in the chapter “Personality Disorders.” The diagnosis schizotypal personality disorder captures a pervasive pattern of social and interpersonal deficits, including reduced capacity for close relationships; cognitive or perceptual distortions; and eccentricities of behavior, usually beginning by early adulthood but in some cases first becoming apparent in childhood and adolescence. Abnormalities of beliefs, thinking, and perception are below the threshold for the diagnosis of a psychotic disorder.
Two conditions are defined by abnormalities limited to one domain of psychosis: delusions or catatonia. Delusional disorder is characterized by at least 1 month of delusions but no other psychotic symptoms. Catatonia is described later in the chapter and further in this discussion.
Brief psychotic disorder lasts more than 1 day and remits by 1 month. Schizophreniform disorder is characterized by a symptomatic presentation equivalent to that of schizophrenia except for its duration (less than 6 months) and the absence of a requirement for a decline in functioning.
Schizophrenia lasts for at least 6 months and includes at least 1 month of active-phase symptoms. In schizoaffective disorder, a mood episode and the active-phase symptoms of schizophrenia occur together and were preceded or are followed by at least 2 weeks of delusions or hallucinations without prominent mood symptoms.
Psychotic disorders may be induced by another condition. In substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder, the psychotic symptoms are judged to be a physiological consequence of a drug of abuse, a medication, or toxin exposure and cease after removal of the agent. In psychotic disorder due to another medical condition, the psychotic symptoms are judged to be a direct physiological consequence of another medical condition.
Catatonia can occur in several disorders, including neurodevelopmental, psychotic, bipolar, depressive, and other mental disorders. This chapter also includes the diagnoses catatonia associated with another mental disorder (catatonia specifier), catatonic disorder due to another medical condition, and unspecified catatonia, and the diagnostic criteria for all three conditions are described together.
Other specified and unspecified schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders are included for classifying psychotic presentations that do not meet the criteria for any of the specific psychotic disorders, or psychotic symptomatology about which there is inadequate or contradictory information.
Clinician-Rated Assessment of Symptoms and Related Clinical Phenomena in Psychosis
Psychotic disorders are heterogeneous, and the severity of symptoms can predict important aspects of the illness, such as the degree of cognitive or neurobiological deficits1. To move the field forward, a detailed framework for the assessment of severity is included in Section III “Assessment Measures,” which may help with treatment planning, prognostic decision making, and research on pathophysiological mechanisms. Section III “Assessment Measures” also contains dimensional assessments of the primary symptoms of psychosis, including hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech (except for substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder and psychotic disorder due to another medical condition), abnormal psychomotor behavior, and negative symptoms, as well as dimensional assessments of depression and mania. The severity of mood symptoms in psychosis has prognostic value and guides treatment9. There is growing evidence that schizoaffective disorder is not a distinct nosological category8. Thus, dimensional assessments of depression and mania for all psychotic disorders alert clinicians to mood pathology and the need to treat where appropriate. The Section III scale also includes a dimensional assessment of cognitive impairment. Many individuals with psychotic disorders have impairments in a range of cognitive domains10 that predict functional status4. Clinical neuropsychological assessment can help guide diagnosis and treatment, but brief assessments without formal neuropsychological assessment can provide useful information3, 5, 6 that can be sufficient for diagnostic purposes. Formal neuropsychological testing, when conducted, should be administered and scored by personnel trained in the use of testing instruments. If a formal neuropsychological assessment is not conducted, the clinician should use the best available information to make a judgment. Further research on these assessments is necessary in order to determine their clinical utility; thus, the assessments available in Section III should serve as a prototype to stimulate such research.
1. Barch DM, Carter CS, MacDonald AW 3rd, et al: Context-processing deficit in schizophrenia: diagnostic specificity, 4-week course, and relationships to clinical symptoms. J Abnorm Psychol 112(1):132–143, 2003 12653421
2. Bowie CR, Reichenberg A, Patterson TL, et al: Determinants of real-world functional performance in schizophrenia subjects: correlations with cognition, functional capacity, and symptoms. Am J Psychiatry 163(3):418–425, 2006 16513862
3. Gold JM, Queern C, Iannone VN, Buchanan RW: Repeatable battery for the assessment of neuropsychological status as a screening test in schizophrenia, I: sensitivity, reliability, and validity. Am J Psychiatry 156(12):1944–1950, 1999 10588409
4. Green MF, Kern RS, Heaton RK: Longitudinal studies of cognition and functional outcome in schizophrenia: implications for MATRICS. Schizophr Res 72(1):41–51, 2004 15531406
5. Hurford IM, Marder SR, Keefe RS, et al: A brief cognitive assessment tool for schizophrenia: construction of a tool for clinicians. Schizophr Bull 37(3):538–545, 2011 19776205
6. Keefe RS, Goldberg TE, Harvey PD, et al: The Brief Assessment of Cognition in Schizophrenia: reliability, sensitivity, and comparison with a standard neurocognitive battery. Schizophr Res 68(2–3):283–297, 2004 15099610
7. Kring AM, Moran EK: Emotional response deficits in schizophrenia: insights from affective science. Schizophr Bull 34(5):819–834, 2008 18579556
8. Owen MJ, Craddock N, Jablensky A: The genetic deconstruction of psychosis. Schizophr Bull 33(4):905–911, 2007 17551090
9. Peralta V, Cuesta MJ: Exploring the borders of the schizoaffective spectrum: a categorical and dimensional approach. J Affect Disord 108(1–2):71–86, 2009
10. Reichenberg A, Harvey PD, Bowie CR, et al: Neuropsychological function and dysfunction in schizophrenia and psychotic affective disorders. Schizophr Bull 35(5):1022–1029, 2009 18495643
Criteria and text for schizotypal personality disorder can be found in the chapter “Personality Disorders.” Because this disorder is considered part of the schizophrenia spectrum of disorders, and is labeled in this section of ICD-9 and ICD-10 as schizotypal disorder, it is listed in this chapter and discussed in detail in the DSM-5 chapter “Personality Disorders.”
|
Diagnostic Criteria |
297.1 (F22) |
Note: Hallucinations, if present, are not prominent and are related to the delusional theme (e.g., the sensation of being infested with insects associated with delusions of infestation).
Specify whether:
Erotomanic type: This subtype applies when the central theme of the delusion is that another person is in love with the individual.
Grandiose type: This subtype applies when the central theme of the delusion is the conviction of having some great (but unrecognized) talent or insight or having made some important discovery.
Jealous type: This subtype applies when the central theme of the individual’s delusion is that his or her spouse or lover is unfaithful.
Persecutory type: This subtype applies when the central theme of the delusion involves the individual’s belief that he or she is being conspired against, cheated, spied on, followed, poisoned or drugged, maliciously maligned, harassed, or obstructed in the pursuit of long-term goals.
Somatic type: This subtype applies when the central theme of the delusion involves bodily functions or sensations.
Mixed type: This subtype applies when no one delusional theme predominates.
Unspecified type: This subtype applies when the dominant delusional belief cannot be clearly determined or is not described in the specific types (e.g., referential delusions without a prominent persecutory or grandiose component).
Specify if:
With bizarre content: Delusions are deemed bizarre if they are clearly implausible, not understandable, and not derived from ordinary life experiences (e.g., an individual’s belief that a stranger has removed his or her internal organs and replaced them with someone else’s organs without leaving any wounds or scars).
Specify if:
The following course specifiers are only to be used after a 1-year duration of the disorder:
First episode, currently in acute episode: First manifestation of the disorder meeting the defining diagnostic symptom and time criteria. An acute episode is a time period in which the symptom criteria are fulfilled.
First episode, currently in partial remission: Partial remission is a time period during which an improvement after a previous episode is maintained and in which the defining criteria of the disorder are only partially fulfilled.
First episode, currently in full remission: Full remission is a period of time after a previous episode during which no disorder-specific symptoms are present.
Multiple episodes, currently in acute episode
Multiple episodes, currently in partial remission
Multiple episodes, currently in full remission
Continuous: Symptoms fulfilling the diagnostic symptom criteria of the disorder are remaining for the majority of the illness course, with subthreshold symptom periods being very brief relative to the overall course.
Unspecified
Specify current severity:
Severity is rated by a quantitative assessment of the primary symptoms of psychosis, including delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, abnormal psychomotor behavior, and negative symptoms. Each of these symptoms may be rated for its current severity (most severe in the last 7 days) on a 5-point scale ranging from 0 (not present) to 4 (present and severe). (See Clinician-Rated Dimensions of Psychosis Symptom Severity in the chapter “Assessment Measures.”)
Note: Diagnosis of delusional disorder can be made without using this severity specifier.
In erotomanic type, the central theme of the delusion is that another person is in love with the individual. The person about whom this conviction is held is usually of higher status (e.g., a famous individual or a superior at work) but can be a complete stranger. Efforts to contact the object of the delusion are common. In grandiose type, the central theme of the delusion is the conviction of having some great talent or insight or of having made some important discovery. Less commonly, the individual may have the delusion of having a special relationship with a prominent individual or of being a prominent person (in which case the actual individual may be regarded as an impostor). Grandiose delusions may have a religious content. In jealous type, the central theme of the delusion is that of an unfaithful partner. This belief is arrived at without due cause and is based on incorrect inferences supported by small bits of “evidence” (e.g., disarrayed clothing). The individual with the delusion usually confronts the spouse or lover and attempts to intervene in the imagined infidelity. In persecutory type, the central theme of the delusion involves the individual’s belief of being conspired against, cheated, spied on, followed, poisoned, maliciously maligned, harassed, or obstructed in the pursuit of long-term goals. Small slights may be exaggerated and become the focus of a delusional system. The affected individual may engage in repeated attempts to obtain satisfaction by legal or legislative action. Individuals with persecutory delusions are often resentful and angry and may resort to violence against those they believe are hurting them. In somatic type, the central theme of the delusion involves bodily functions or sensations. Somatic delusions can occur in several forms. Most common is the belief that the individual emits a foul odor; that there is an infestation of insects on or in the skin; that there is an internal parasite; or that parts of the body are not functioning.
The essential feature of delusional disorder is the presence of one or more delusions that persist for at least 1 month (Criterion A). A diagnosis of delusional disorder is not given if the individual has ever had a symptom presentation that met Criterion A for schizophrenia (Criterion B). Apart from the direct impact of the delusions, impairments in psychosocial functioning may be more circumscribed than those seen in other psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia, and behavior is not obviously bizarre or odd (Criterion C). If mood episodes occur concurrently with the delusions, the total duration of these mood episodes is brief relative to the total duration of the delusional periods (Criterion D). The delusions are not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance (e.g., cocaine) or another medical condition (e.g., Alzheimer’s disease) and are not better explained by another mental disorder, such as body dysmorphic disorder or obsessive-compulsive disorder (Criterion E).
In addition to the five symptom domain areas identified in the diagnostic criteria, the assessment of cognition, depression, and mania symptom domains is vital for making critically important distinctions between the various schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders.
Social, marital, or work problems can result from the delusional beliefs of delusional disorder3, 4, 5, 7. Individuals with delusional disorder may be able to factually describe that others view their beliefs as irrational but are unable to accept this themselves (i.e., there may be “factual insight” but no true insight). Many individuals develop irritable or dysphoric mood, which can usually be understood as a reaction to their delusional beliefs1. Anger and violent behavior can occur with persecutory, jealous, and erotomanic types. The individual may engage in litigious or antagonistic behavior (e.g., sending hundreds of letters of protest to the government). Legal difficulties can occur, particularly in jealous and erotomanic types.
The lifetime prevalence of delusional disorder has been estimated at around 0.2%8, and the most frequent subtype is persecutory2. Delusional disorder, jealous type, is probably more common in males than in females, but there are no major gender differences in the overall frequency of delusional disorder2, 4, 7, 10.
On average, global function is generally better than that observed in schizophrenia1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7. Although the diagnosis is generally stable, a proportion of individuals go on to develop schizophrenia7, 9. Delusional disorder has a significant familial relationship with both schizophrenia and schizotypal personality disorder6. Although it can occur in younger age groups, the condition may be more prevalent in older individuals2, 4, 7, 10.
An individual’s cultural and religious background must be taken into account in evaluating the possible presence of delusional disorder. The content of delusions also varies across cultural contexts.
The functional impairment is usually more circumscribed than that seen with other psychotic disorders, although in some cases, the impairment may be substantial and include poor occupational functioning and social isolation1, 3, 5, 7. When poor psychosocial functioning is present, delusional beliefs themselves often play a significant role. A common characteristic of individuals with delusional disorder is the apparent normality of their behavior and appearance when their delusional ideas are not being discussed or acted on.
Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders. If an individual with obsessive-compulsive disorder is completely convinced that his or her obsessive-compulsive disorder beliefs are true, then the diagnosis of obsessive-compulsive disorder, with absent insight/delusional beliefs specifier, should be given rather than a diagnosis of delusional disorder. Similarly, if an individual with body dysmorphic disorder is completely convinced that his or her body dysmorphic disorder beliefs are true, then the diagnosis of body dysmorphic disorder, with absent insight/delusional beliefs specifier, should be given rather than a diagnosis of delusional disorder.
Delirium, major neurocognitive disorder, psychotic disorder due to another medical condition, and substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder. Individuals with these disorders may present with symptoms that suggest delusional disorder. For example, simple persecutory delusions in the context of major neurocognitive disorder would be diagnosed as major neurocognitive disorder, with behavioral disturbance. A substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder cross-sectionally may be identical in symptomatology to delusional disorder but can be distinguished by the chronological relationship of substance use to the onset and remission of the delusional beliefs.
Schizophrenia and schizophreniform disorder. Delusional disorder can be distinguished from schizophrenia and schizophreniform disorder by the absence of the other characteristic symptoms of the active phase of schizophrenia.
Depressive and bipolar disorders and schizoaffective disorder. These disorders may be distinguished from delusional disorder by the temporal relationship between the mood disturbance and the delusions and by the severity of the mood symptoms. If delusions occur exclusively during mood episodes, the diagnosis is depressive or bipolar disorder with psychotic features. Mood symptoms that meet full criteria for a mood episode can be superimposed on delusional disorder3. Delusional disorder can be diagnosed only if the total duration of all mood episodes remains brief relative to the total duration of the delusional disturbance. If not, then a diagnosis of other specified or unspecified schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorder accompanied by other specified depressive disorder, unspecified depressive disorder, other specified bipolar and related disorder, or unspecified bipolar and related disorder is appropriate.
1. de Portugal E, Gonzãlez N, Haro JM, et al: A descriptive case-register study of delusional disorder. Eur Psychiatry 23(2):125–133, 2008 18082379
2. de Portugal E, Gonzãlez N, Miriam V, et al: Gender differences in delusional disorder: evidence from an outpatient sample. Psychiatry Res 177(1–2):235–239, 2010 20334930
3. de Portugal E, Martinez C, Gonzãlez N, et al: Clinical and cognitive correlates of psychiatric comorbidity in delusional disorder outpatients. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 45(5):416–425, 2011 21417554
4. Kendler KS: Demography of paranoid psychosis (delusional disorder): a review and comparison with schizophrenia and affective illness. Arch Gen Psychiatry 39(8):890–902, 1982 7103678
5. Kendler KS, Walsh D: Schizophreniform disorder, delusional disorder and psychotic disorder not otherwise specified: clinical features, outcome and familial psychopathology. Acta Psychiatr Scand 91(6):370–378, 1995 7676834
6. Kendler KS, McGuire M, Gruenberg AM, et al: The Roscommon Family Study, II: the risk of nonschizophrenic nonaffective psychoses in relatives. Arch Gen Psychiatry 50(8):645–652, 1993 8343035
7. Marneros A, Pillmann F, Wustmann T: Delusional disorders—are they simply paranoid schizophrenia? Schizophr Bull 38(3):561–568, 2012 21078814
8. Perälä J, Suvisaari J, Saarni SI, et al: Lifetime prevalence of psychotic and bipolar I disorders in a general population. Arch Gen Psychiatry 64(1):19–28, 2007 17199051
9. Salvatore P, Baldessarini RJ, Tohen M, et al: McLean-Harvard International First-Episode Project: two-year stability of ICD-10 diagnoses in 500 first-episode psychotic disorder patients. J Clin Psychiatry 72(2):183–193, 2011 20673546
10. Wustmann T, Pillmann F, Marneros A: Gender-related features of persistent delusional disorders. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 261(1):29–36, 2011 20700601
|
Diagnostic Criteria |
298.8 (F23) |
Note: Do not include a symptom if it is a culturally sanctioned response.
Specify if:
With marked stressor(s) (brief reactive psychosis): If symptoms occur in response to events that, singly or together, would be markedly stressful to almost anyone in similar circumstances in the individual’s culture.
Without marked stressor(s): If symptoms do not occur in response to events that, singly or together, would be markedly stressful to almost anyone in similar circumstances in the individual’s culture.
With peripartum onset: If onset is during pregnancy or within 4 weeks postpartum.
Specify if:
With catatonia (refer to the criteria for catatonia associated with another mental disorder, pp. 119–120, for definition)
Coding note: Use additional code 293.89 (F06.1) catatonia associated with brief psychotic disorder to indicate the presence of the comorbid catatonia.
Specify current severity:
Severity is rated by a quantitative assessment of the primary symptoms of psychosis, including delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, abnormal psychomotor behavior, and negative symptoms. Each of these symptoms may be rated for its current severity (most severe in the last 7 days) on a 5-point scale ranging from 0 (not present) to 4 (present and severe). (See Clinician-Rated Dimensions of Psychosis Symptom Severity in the chapter “Assessment Measures.”)
Note: Diagnosis of brief psychotic disorder can be made without using this severity specifier.
The essential feature of brief psychotic disorder is a disturbance that involves the sudden onset of at least one of the following positive psychotic symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech (e.g., frequent derailment or incoherence), or grossly abnormal psychomotor behavior, including catatonia (Criterion A). Sudden onset is defined as change from a nonpsychotic state to a clearly psychotic state within 2 weeks, usually without a prodrome. An episode of the disturbance lasts at least 1 day but less than 1 month, and the individual eventually has a full return to the premorbid level of functioning (Criterion B). The disturbance is not better explained by a depressive or bipolar disorder with psychotic features, by schizoaffective disorder, or by schizophrenia and is not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a hallucinogen) or another medical condition (e.g., subdural hematoma) (Criterion C).
In addition to the five symptom domain areas identified in the diagnostic criteria, the assessment of cognition, depression, and mania symptom domains is vital for making critically important distinctions between the various schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders.
Individuals with brief psychotic disorder typically experience emotional turmoil or overwhelming confusion1. They may have rapid shifts from one intense affect to another. Although the disturbance is brief, the level of impairment may be severe, and supervision may be required to ensure that nutritional and hygienic needs are met and that the individual is protected from the consequences of poor judgment, cognitive impairment, or acting on the basis of delusions. There appears to be an increased risk of suicidal behavior, particularly during the acute episode4.
In the United States, brief psychotic disorder may account for 9% of cases of first-onset psychosis6. Psychotic disturbances that meet Criteria A and C, but not Criterion B, for brief psychotic disorder (i.e., duration of active symptoms is 1–6 months as opposed to remission within 1 month) are more common in developing countries than in developed countries5. Brief psychotic disorder is twofold more common in females than in males5.
Brief psychotic disorder may appear in adolescence or early adulthood, and onset can occur across the lifespan, with the average age at onset being the mid 30s3. By definition, a diagnosis of brief psychotic disorder requires a full remission of all symptoms and an eventual full return to the premorbid level of functioning within 1 month of the onset of the disturbance. In some individuals, the duration of psychotic symptoms may be quite brief (e.g., a few days).
Temperamental. Preexisting personality disorders and traits (e.g., schizotypal personality disorder; borderline personality disorder; or traits in the psychoticism domain, such as perceptual dysregulation, and the negative affectivity domain, such as suspiciousness) may predispose the individual to the development of the disorder.
It is important to distinguish symptoms of brief psychotic disorder from culturally sanctioned response patterns. For example, in some religious ceremonies, an individual may report hearing voices, but these do not generally persist and are not perceived as abnormal by most members of the individual’s community. In addition, cultural and religious background must be taken into account when considering whether beliefs are delusional.
Despite high rates of relapse, for most individuals, outcome is excellent in terms of social functioning and symptomatology3.
Other medical conditions. A variety of medical disorders can manifest with psychotic symptoms of short duration. Psychotic disorder due to another medical condition or a delirium is diagnosed when there is evidence from the history, physical examination, or laboratory tests that the delusions or hallucinations are the direct physiological consequence of a specific medical condition (e.g., Cushing’s syndrome, brain tumor) (see “Psychotic Disorder Due to Another Medical Condition” later in this chapter).
Substance-related disorders. Substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder, substance-induced delirium, and substance intoxication are distinguished from brief psychotic disorder by the fact that a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication, exposure to a toxin) is judged to be etiologically related to the psychotic symptoms (see “Substance/Medication-Induced Psychotic Disorder” later in this chapter). Laboratory tests, such as a urine drug screen or a blood alcohol level, may be helpful in making this determination, as may a careful history of substance use with attention to temporal relationships between substance intake and onset of the symptoms and to the nature of the substance being used.
Depressive and bipolar disorders. The diagnosis of brief psychotic disorder cannot be made if the psychotic symptoms are better explained by a mood episode (i.e., the psychotic symptoms occur exclusively during a full major depressive, manic, or mixed episode).
Other psychotic disorders. If the psychotic symptoms persist for 1 month or longer, the diagnosis is either schizophreniform disorder, delusional disorder, depressive disorder with psychotic features, bipolar disorder with psychotic features, or other specified or unspecified schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorder, depending on the other symptoms in the presentation. The differential diagnosis between brief psychotic disorder and schizophreniform disorder is difficult when the psychotic symptoms have remitted before 1 month in response to successful treatment with medication. Careful attention should be given to the possibility that a recurrent disorder (e.g., bipolar disorder, recurrent acute exacerbations of schizophrenia) may be responsible for any recurring psychotic episodes.
Malingering and factitious disorders. An episode of factitious disorder, with predominantly psychological signs and symptoms, may have the appearance of brief psychotic disorder, but in such cases there is evidence that the symptoms are intentionally produced. When malingering involves apparently psychotic symptoms, there is usually evidence that the illness is being feigned for an understandable goal.
Personality disorders. In certain individuals with personality disorders, psychosocial stressors may precipitate brief periods of psychotic symptoms2. These symptoms are usually transient and do not warrant a separate diagnosis. If psychotic symptoms persist for at least 1 day, an additional diagnosis of brief psychotic disorder may be appropriate.
1. Fochtmann LJ, Mojtabai R, Bromet EJ: Other psychotic disorders, in Kaplan and Sadock’s Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, 9th Edition. Edited by Sadock BJ, Sadock VA, Ruiz P. Philadelphia, PA, Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2009, pp 1605–1628
2. Jorgensen P, Bennedsen B, Christensen J, Hyllested A: Acute and transient psychotic disorder: comorbidity with personality disorder. Acta Psychiatr Scand 94(6):460–464, 1996 9021000
3. Pillmann F, Haring A, Balzuweit S, et al: The concordance of ICD-10 acute and transient psychosis and DSM-IV brief psychotic disorder. Psychol Med 32(3):525–533, 2002 11989997
4. Pillmann F, Balzuweit S, Haring A, et al: Suicidal behavior in acute and transient psychotic disorders. Psychiatry Res 117(3):199–209, 2003 12686363
5. Susser E, Wanderling J: Epidemiology of nonaffective acute remitting psychosis vs schizophrenia: sex and sociocultural setting. Arch Gen Psychiatry 51(4):294–301, 1994 8161289
6. Susser E, Fennig S, Jandorf L, et al: Epidemiology, diagnosis, and course of brief psychoses. Am J Psychiatry 152(12):1743–1748, 1995 8526240
|
Diagnostic Criteria |
295.40 (F20.81) |
Specify if:
With good prognostic features: This specifier requires the presence of at least two of the following features: onset of prominent psychotic symptoms within 4 weeks of the first noticeable change in usual behavior or functioning; confusion or perplexity; good premorbid social and occupational functioning; and absence of blunted or flat affect.
Without good prognostic features: This specifier is applied if two or more of the above features have not been present.
Specify if:
With catatonia (refer to the criteria for catatonia associated with another mental disorder, pp. 119–120, for definition).
Coding note: Use additional code 293.89 (F06.1) catatonia associated with schizophreniform disorder to indicate the presence of the comorbid catatonia.
Specify current severity:
Severity is rated by a quantitative assessment of the primary symptoms of psychosis, including delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, abnormal psychomotor behavior, and negative symptoms. Each of these symptoms may be rated for its current severity (most severe in the last 7 days) on a 5-point scale ranging from 0 (not present) to 4 (present and severe). (See Clinician-Rated Dimensions of Psychosis Symptom Severity in the chapter “Assessment Measures.”)
Note: Diagnosis of schizophreniform disorder can be made without using this severity specifier.
Note: For additional information on Associated Features Supporting Diagnosis, Development and Course (age-related factors), Culture-Related Diagnostic Issues, Gender-Related Diagnostic Issues, Differential Diagnosis, and Comorbidity, see the corresponding sections in schizophrenia.
The characteristic symptoms of schizophreniform disorder are identical to those of schizophrenia (Criterion A). Schizophreniform disorder is distinguished by its difference in duration: the total duration of the illness, including prodromal, active, and residual phases, is at least 1 month but less than 6 months (Criterion B). The duration requirement for schizophreniform disorder is intermediate between that for brief psychotic disorder, which lasts more than 1 day and remits by 1 month, and schizophrenia, which lasts for at least 6 months. The diagnosis of schizophreniform disorder is made under two conditions: 1) when an episode of illness lasts between 1 and 6 months and the individual has already recovered, and 2) when an individual is symptomatic for less than the 6 months’ duration required for the diagnosis of schizophrenia but has not yet recovered. In this case, the diagnosis should be noted as “schizophreniform disorder (provisional)” because it is uncertain if the individual will recover from the disturbance within the 6-month period. If the disturbance persists beyond 6 months, the diagnosis should be changed to schizophrenia.
Another distinguishing feature of schizophreniform disorder is the lack of a criterion requiring impaired social and occupational functioning. While such impairments may potentially be present, they are not necessary for a diagnosis of schizophreniform disorder.
In addition to the five symptom domain areas identified in the diagnostic criteria, the assessment of cognition, depression, and mania symptom domains is vital for making critically important distinctions between the various schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders.
As with schizophrenia, currently there are no laboratory or psychometric tests for schizophreniform disorder. There are multiple brain regions where neuroimaging, neuropathological, and neurophysiological research has indicated abnormalities, but none are diagnostic4, 6.
Incidence of schizophreniform disorder across sociocultural settings is likely similar to that observed in schizophrenia5. In the United States and other developed countries, the incidence is low, possibly fivefold less than that of schizophrenia1, 2. In developing countries, the incidence may be higher, especially for the specifier “with good prognostic features”; in some of these settings schizophreniform disorder may be as common as schizophrenia.
The development of schizophreniform disorder is similar to that of schizophrenia. About one-third of individuals with an initial diagnosis of schizophreniform disorder (provisional) recover within the 6-month period and schizophreniform disorder is their final diagnosis5. The majority of the remaining two-thirds of individuals will eventually receive a diagnosis of schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder2.
Genetic and physiological. Relatives of individuals with schizophreniform disorder have an increased risk for schizophrenia5.
For the majority of individuals with schizophreniform disorder who eventually receive a diagnosis of schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder, the functional consequences are similar to the consequences of those disorders. Most individuals experience dysfunction in several areas of daily functioning, such as school or work, interpersonal relationships, and self-care. Individuals who recover from schizophreniform disorder have better functional outcomes.
Other mental disorders and medical conditions. A wide variety of mental and medical conditions can manifest with psychotic symptoms that must be considered in the differential diagnosis of schizophreniform disorder. These include psychotic disorder due to another medical condition or its treatment; delirium or major neurocognitive disorder; substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder or delirium; depressive or bipolar disorder with psychotic features; schizoaffective disorder; other specified or unspecified bipolar and related disorder; depressive or bipolar disorder with catatonic features; schizophrenia; brief psychotic disorder; delusional disorder; other specified or unspecified schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorder; schizotypal, schizoid, or paranoid personality disorders; autism spectrum disorder; disorders presenting in childhood with disorganized speech; attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; obsessive-compulsive disorder; posttraumatic stress disorder; and traumatic brain injury.
Since the diagnostic criteria for schizophreniform disorder and schizophrenia differ primarily in duration of illness, the discussion of the differential diagnosis of schizophrenia also applies to schizophreniform disorder.
Brief psychotic disorder. Schizophreniform disorder differs in duration from brief psychotic disorder, which has a duration of less than 1 month.
1. Baldwin P, Browne D, Scully PJ, et al: Epidemiology of first-episode psychosis: illustrating the challenges across diagnostic boundaries through the Cavan-Monaghan study at 8 years. Schizophr Bull 31(3):624–638, 2005 15944446
2. Bromet EJ, Kotov R, Fochtmann LJ, et al: Diagnostic shifts during the decade following first admission for psychosis. Am J Psychiatry 168(11):1186–1194, 2011 21676994
3. Kendler KS, Walsh D: Schizophreniform disorder, delusional disorder and psychotic disorder not otherwise specified: clinical features, outcome and familial psychopathology. Acta Psychiatr Scand 91(6):370–378, 1995 7676834
4. Minzenberg MJ, Laird AR, Thelen S, et al: Meta-analysis of 41 functional neuroimaging studies of executive function in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 66(8):811–822, 2009 19652121
5. Naz B, Bromet EJ, Mojtabai R: Distinguishing between first-admission schizophreniform disorder and schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 62(1–2):51–58, 2003 12765743
6. Ragland JD, Laird AR, Ranganath C, et al: Prefrontal activation deficits during episodic memory in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 166(8):863–874, 2009 19411370
|
Diagnostic Criteria |
295.90 (F20.9) |
Specify if:
The following course specifiers are only to be used after a 1-year duration of the disorder and if they are not in contradiction to the diagnostic course criteria.
First episode, currently in acute episode: First manifestation of the disorder meeting the defining diagnostic symptom and time criteria. An acute episode is a time period in which the symptom criteria are fulfilled.
First episode, currently in partial remission: Partial remission is a period of time during which an improvement after a previous episode is maintained and in which the defining criteria of the disorder are only partially fulfilled.
First episode, currently in full remission: Full remission is a period of time after a previous episode during which no disorder-specific symptoms are present.
Multiple episodes, currently in acute episode: Multiple episodes may be determined after a minimum of two episodes (i.e., after a first episode, a remission and a minimum of one relapse).
Multiple episodes, currently in partial remission
Multiple episodes, currently in full remission
Continuous: Symptoms fulfilling the diagnostic symptom criteria of the disorder are remaining for the majority of the illness course, with subthreshold symptom periods being very brief relative to the overall course.
Unspecified
Specify if:
With catatonia (refer to the criteria for catatonia associated with another mental disorder, pp. 119–120, for definition).
Coding note: Use additional code 293.89 (F06.1) catatonia associated with schizophrenia to indicate the presence of the comorbid catatonia.
Specify current severity:
Severity is rated by a quantitative assessment of the primary symptoms of psychosis, including delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, abnormal psychomotor behavior, and negative symptoms. Each of these symptoms may be rated for its current severity (most severe in the last 7 days) on a 5-point scale ranging from 0 (not present) to 4 (present and severe). (See Clinician-Rated Dimensions of Psychosis Symptom Severity in the chapter “Assessment Measures.”)
Note: Diagnosis of schizophrenia can be made without using this severity specifier.
The characteristic symptoms of schizophrenia involve a range of cognitive, behavioral, and emotional dysfunctions, but no single symptom is pathognomonic of the disorder. The diagnosis involves the recognition of a constellation of signs and symptoms associated with impaired occupational or social functioning. Individuals with the disorder will vary substantially on most features, as schizophrenia is a heterogeneous clinical syndrome.
At least two Criterion A symptoms must be present for a significant portion of time during a 1-month period or longer. At least one of these symptoms must be the clear presence of delusions (Criterion A1), hallucinations (Criterion A2), or disorganized speech (Criterion A3). Grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior (Criterion A4) and negative symptoms (Criterion A5) may also be present. In those situations in which the active-phase symptoms remit within a month in response to treatment, Criterion A is still met if the clinician estimates that they would have persisted in the absence of treatment.
Schizophrenia involves impairment in one or more major areas of functioning (Criterion B). If the disturbance begins in childhood or adolescence, the expected level of function is not attained. Comparing the individual with unaffected siblings may be helpful. The dysfunction persists for a substantial period during the course of the disorder and does not appear to be a direct result of any single feature. Avolition (i.e., reduced drive to pursue goal-directed behavior; Criterion A5) is linked to the social dysfunction described under Criterion B. There is also strong evidence for a relationship between cognitive impairment (see the section “Associated Features Supporting Diagnosis” for this disorder) and functional impairment in individuals with schizophrenia.
Some signs of the disturbance must persist for a continuous period of at least 6 months (Criterion C). Prodromal symptoms often precede the active phase, and residual symptoms may follow it, characterized by mild or subthreshold forms of hallucinations or delusions. Individuals may express a variety of unusual or odd beliefs that are not of delusional proportions (e.g., ideas of reference or magical thinking); they may have unusual perceptual experiences (e.g., sensing the presence of an unseen person); their speech may be generally understandable but vague; and their behavior may be unusual but not grossly disorganized (e.g., mumbling in public). Negative symptoms are common in the prodromal and residual phases and can be severe. Individuals who had been socially active may become withdrawn from previous routines. Such behaviors are often the first sign of a disorder.
Mood symptoms and full mood episodes are common in schizophrenia and may be concurrent with active-phase symptomatology. However, as distinct from a psychotic mood disorder, a schizophrenia diagnosis requires the presence of delusions or hallucinations in the absence of mood episodes. In addition, mood episodes, taken in total, should be present for only a minority of the total duration of the active and residual periods of the illness.
In addition to the five symptom domain areas identified in the diagnostic criteria, the assessment of cognition, depression, and mania symptom domains is vital for making critically important distinctions between the various schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders.
Individuals with schizophrenia may display inappropriate affect (e.g., laughing in the absence of an appropriate stimulus); a dysphoric mood that can take the form of depression, anxiety, or anger; a disturbed sleep pattern (e.g., daytime sleeping and nighttime activity); and a lack of interest in eating or food refusal. Depersonalization, derealization, and somatic concerns may occur and sometimes reach delusional proportions. Anxiety and phobias are common28. Cognitive deficits in schizophrenia are common and are strongly linked to vocational and functional impairments. These deficits can include decrements in declarative memory, working memory, language function, and other executive functions, as well as slower processing speed16. Abnormalities in sensory processing and inhibitory capacity, as well as reductions in attention, are also found. Some individuals with schizophrenia show social cognition deficits, including deficits in the ability to infer the intentions of other people (theory of mind)4, and may attend to and then interpret irrelevant events or stimuli as meaningful, perhaps leading to the generation of explanatory delusions. These impairments frequently persist during symptomatic remission.
Some individuals with psychosis may lack insight or awareness of their disorder (i.e., anosognosia). This lack of “insight” includes unawareness of symptoms of schizophrenia and may be present throughout the entire course of the illness. Unawareness of illness is typically a symptom of schizophrenia itself rather than a coping strategy. It is comparable to the lack of awareness of neurological deficits following brain damage, termed anosognosia. This symptom is the most common predictor of non-adherence to treatment, and it predicts higher relapse rates, increased number of involuntary treatments, poorer psychosocial functioning, aggression, and a poorer course of illness24.
Hostility and aggression can be associated with schizophrenia, although spontaneous or random assault is uncommon. Aggression is more frequent for younger males and for individuals with a past history of violence, non-adherence with treatment, substance abuse, and impulsivity9. It should be noted that the vast majority of persons with schizophrenia are not aggressive and are more frequently victimized than are individuals in the general population30.
Currently, there are no radiological, laboratory, or psychometric tests for the disorder. Differences are evident in multiple brain regions between groups of healthy individuals and persons with schizophrenia, including evidence from neuroimaging, neuropathological, and neurophysiological studies18. Differences are also evident in cellular architecture, white matter connectivity, and gray matter volume in a variety of regions such as the prefrontal and temporal cortices5. Reduced overall brain volume has been observed25, as well as increased brain volume reduction with age21. Brain volume reductions with age are more pronounced in individuals with schizophrenia than in healthy individuals21. Finally, individuals with schizophrenia appear to differ from individuals without the disorder in eye-tracking20 and electrophysiological indices13.
Neurological soft signs common in individuals with schizophrenia include impairments in motor coordination, sensory integration, and motor sequencing of complex movements; left-right confusion; and disinhibition of associated movements. In addition, minor physical anomalies of the face and limbs may occur31.
The lifetime prevalence of schizophrenia appears to be approximately 0.3%–0.7%15, although there is reported variation by race/ethnicity, across countries, and by geographic origin for immigrants and children of immigrants. The sex ratio differs across samples and populations: for example, an emphasis on negative symptoms and longer duration of disorder (associated with poorer outcome) shows higher incidence rates for males23, whereas definitions allowing for the inclusion of more mood symptoms and brief presentations (associated with better outcome) show equivalent risks for both sexes3.
The psychotic features of schizophrenia typically emerge between the late teens and the mid-30s; onset prior to adolescence is rare. The peak age at onset for the first psychotic episode is in the early- to mid-20s for males and in the late-20s for females15. The onset may be abrupt or insidious, but the majority of individuals manifest a slow and gradual development of a variety of clinically significant signs and symptoms. Half of these individuals complain of depressive symptoms. Earlier age at onset has traditionally been seen as a predictor of worse prognosis. However, the effect of age at onset is likely related to gender, with males having worse premorbid adjustment, lower educational achievement, more prominent negative symptoms and cognitive impairment, and in general a worse outcome2. Impaired cognition is common, and alterations in cognition are present during development and precede the emergence of psychosis, taking the form of stable cognitive impairments during adulthood29. Cognitive impairments may persist when other symptoms are in remission and contribute to the disability of the disease.
The predictors of course and outcome are largely unexplained, and course and outcome may not be reliably predicted. The course appears to be favorable in about 20% of those with schizophrenia, and a small number of individuals are reported to recover completely. However, most individuals with schizophrenia still require formal or informal daily living supports, and many remain chronically ill, with exacerbations and remissions of active symptoms, while others have a course of progressive deterioration.
Psychotic symptoms tend to diminish over the life course, perhaps in association with normal age-related declines in dopamine activity. Negative symptoms are more closely related to prognosis than are positive symptoms and tend to be the most persistent27. Furthermore, cognitive deficits associated with the illness may not improve over the course of the illness.
The essential features of schizophrenia are the same in childhood, but it is more difficult to make the diagnosis. In children, delusions and hallucinations may be less elaborate than in adults, and visual hallucinations are more common and should be distinguished from normal fantasy play. Disorganized speech occurs in many disorders with childhood onset (e.g., autism spectrum disorder), as does disorganized behavior (e.g., attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder). These symptoms should not be attributed to schizophrenia without due consideration of the more common disorders of childhood. Childhood-onset cases tend to resemble poor-outcome adult cases, with gradual onset and prominent negative symptoms. Children who later receive the diagnosis of schizophrenia are more likely to have experienced nonspecific emotional-behavioral disturbances and psychopathology, intellectual and language alterations, and subtle motor delays.
Late-onset cases (i.e., onset after age 40 years) are overrepresented by females, who may have married12. Often, the course is characterized by a predominance of psychotic symptoms with preservation of affect and social functioning. Such late-onset cases can still meet the diagnostic criteria for schizophrenia, but it is not yet clear whether this is the same condition as schizophrenia diagnosed prior to mid-life (e.g., prior to age 55 years).
Environmental. Season of birth has been linked to the incidence of schizophrenia, including late winter/early spring in some locations and summer for the deficit form of the disease7. The incidence of schizophrenia and related disorders is higher for children growing up in an urban environment14 and for some minority ethnic groups6.
Genetic and physiological. There is a strong contribution for genetic factors in determining risk for schizophrenia26, although most individuals who have been diagnosed with schizophrenia have no family history of psychosis19. Liability is conferred by a spectrum of risk alleles, common and rare, with each allele contributing only a small fraction to the total population variance22. The risk alleles identified to date are also associated with other mental disorders, including bipolar disorder, depression, and autism spectrum disorder22.
Pregnancy and birth complications with hypoxia and greater paternal age17 are associated with a higher risk of schizophrenia for the developing fetus. In addition, other prenatal and perinatal adversities, including stress, infection, malnutrition, maternal diabetes, and other medical conditions, have been linked with schizophrenia7. However, the vast majority of offspring with these risk factors do not develop schizophrenia.
Cultural and socioeconomic factors must be considered, particularly when the individual and the clinician do not share the same cultural and socioeconomic background. Ideas that appear to be delusional in one culture (e.g., witchcraft) may be commonly held in another. In some cultures, visual or auditory hallucinations with a religious content (e.g., hearing God’s voice) are a normal part of religious experience. In addition, the assessment of disorganized speech may be made difficult by linguistic variation in narrative styles across cultures. The assessment of affect requires sensitivity to differences in styles of emotional expression, eye contact, and body language, which vary across cultures. If the assessment is conducted in a language that is different from the individual’s primary language, care must be taken to ensure that alogia is not related to linguistic barriers. In certain cultures, distress may take the form of hallucinations or pseudo-hallucinations and overvalued ideas that may present clinically similar to true psychosis but are normative to the patient’s subgroup.
A number of features distinguish the clinical expression of schizophrenia in females and males. The general incidence of schizophrenia tends to be slightly lower in females, particularly among treated cases. The age at onset is later in females, with a second mid-life peak1 as described earlier (see the section “Development and Course” for this disorder). Symptoms tend to be more affect-laden among females, and there are more psychotic symptoms, as well as a greater propensity for psychotic symptoms to worsen in later life1. Other symptom differences include less frequent negative symptoms and disorganization. Finally, social functioning tends to remain better preserved in females. There are, however, frequent exceptions to these general caveats.
Approximately 5%–6% of individuals with schizophrenia die by suicide, about 20% attempt suicide on one or more occasions, and many more have significant suicidal ideation10. Suicidal behavior is sometimes in response to command hallucinations to harm oneself or others. Suicide risk remains high over the whole lifespan for males and females, although it may be especially high for younger males with comorbid substance use. Other risk factors include having depressive symptoms or feelings of hopelessness and being unemployed, and the risk is higher, also, in the period after a psychotic episode or hospital discharge10.
Schizophrenia is associated with significant social and occupational dysfunction. Making educational progress and maintaining employment are frequently impaired by avolition or other disorder manifestations, even when the cognitive skills are sufficient for the tasks at hand. Most individuals are employed at a lower level than their parents, and most, particularly men, do not marry or have limited social contacts outside of their family.
Major depressive or bipolar disorder with psychotic or catatonic features. The distinction between schizophrenia and major depressive or bipolar disorder with psychotic features or with catatonia depends on the temporal relationship between the mood disturbance and the psychosis, and on the severity of the depressive or manic symptoms. If delusions or hallucinations occur exclusively during a major depressive or manic episode, the diagnosis is depressive or bipolar disorder with psychotic features.
Schizoaffective disorder. A diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder requires that a major depressive or manic episode occur concurrently with the active-phase symptoms and that the mood symptoms be present for a majority of the total duration of the active periods.
Schizophreniform disorder and brief psychotic disorder. These disorders are of shorter duration than schizophrenia as specified in Criterion C, which requires 6 months of symptoms. In schizophreniform disorder, the disturbance is present less than 6 months, and in brief psychotic disorder, symptoms are present at least 1 day but less than 1 month.
Delusional disorder. Delusional disorder can be distinguished from schizophrenia by the absence of the other symptoms characteristic of schizophrenia (e.g., delusions, prominent auditory or visual hallucinations, disorganized speech, grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior, negative symptoms).
Schizotypal personality disorder. Schizotypal personality disorder may be distinguished from schizophrenia by subthreshold symptoms that are associated with persistent personality features.
Obsessive-compulsive disorder and body dysmorphic disorder. Individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder and body dysmorphic disorder may present with poor or absent insight, and the preoccupations may reach delusional proportions. But these disorders are distinguished from schizophrenia by their prominent obsessions, compulsions, preoccupations with appearance or body odor, hoarding, or body-focused repetitive behaviors.
Posttraumatic stress disorder. Posttraumatic stress disorder may include flashbacks that have a hallucinatory quality, and hypervigilance may reach paranoid proportions. But a traumatic event and characteristic symptom features relating to reliving or reacting to the event are required to make the diagnosis.
Autism spectrum disorder or communication disorders. These disorders may also have symptoms resembling a psychotic episode but are distinguished by their respective deficits in social interaction with repetitive and restricted behaviors and other cognitive and communication deficits. An individual with autism spectrum disorder or communication disorder must have symptoms that meet full criteria for schizophrenia, with prominent hallucinations or delusions for at least 1 month, in order to be diagnosed with schizophrenia as a comorbid condition.
Other mental disorders associated with a psychotic episode. The diagnosis of schizophrenia is made only when the psychotic episode is persistent and not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance or another medical condition. Individuals with a delirium or major or minor neurocognitive disorder may present with psychotic symptoms, but these would have a temporal relationship to the onset of cognitive changes consistent with those disorders. Individuals with substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder may present with symptoms characteristic of Criterion A for schizophrenia, but the substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder can usually be distinguished by the chronological relationship of substance use to the onset and remission of the psychosis in the absence of substance use.
Rates of comorbidity with substance-related disorders are high in schizophrenia. Over half of individuals with schizophrenia have tobacco use disorder and smoke cigarettes regularly8. Comorbidity with anxiety disorders is increasingly recognized in schizophrenia. Rates of obsessive-compulsive disorder and panic disorder are elevated in individuals with schizophrenia compared with the general population. Schizotypal or paranoid personality disorder may sometimes precede the onset of schizophrenia.
Life expectancy is reduced in individuals with schizophrenia because of associated medical conditions. Weight gain, diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular and pulmonary disease are more common in schizophrenia than in the general population11. Poor engagement in health maintenance behaviors (e.g., cancer screening, exercise) increases the risk of chronic disease, but other disorder factors, including medications, lifestyle, cigarette smoking, and diet, may also play a role. A shared vulnerability for psychosis and medical disorders may explain some of the medical comorbidity of schizophrenia.
1. Abel KM, Drake R, Goldstein JM: Sex differences in schizophrenia. International Review of Psychiatry 22(5):417–428, 2010
2. Ãlvarez-Jiménez M, Gleeson JF, Henry LP, et al: Road to full recovery: longitudinal relationship between symptomatic remission and psychosocial recovery in first-episode psychosis over 7.5 years. Psychol Med 42(3):595–606, 2012 21854682
3. Beauchamp G, Gagnon A: Influence of diagnostic classification on gender ratio in schizophrenia—a meta-analysis of youths hospitalized for psychosis. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 39(12):1017–1022, 2004 15583911
4. Bora E, Yucel M, Pantelis C: Theory of mind impairment in schizophrenia: meta-analysis. Schizophr Res 109(1–3):1–9, 2009 19195844
5. Bora E, Fornito A, Radua J, et al: Neuroanatomical abnormalities in schizophrenia: a multimodal voxelwise meta-analysis and meta-regression analysis. Schizophr Res 127(1–3):46–57, 2011 21300524
6. Bourque F, van der Ven E, Malla A: A meta-analysis of the risk for psychotic disorders among first- and second-generation immigrants. Psychol Med 41(5):897–910, 2011 20663257
7. Brown AS: The environment and susceptibility to schizophrenia. Prog Neurobiol 93(1):23–58, 2011 20955757
8. de Leon J, Diaz FJ: A meta-analysis of worldwide studies demonstrates an association between schizophrenia and tobacco smoking behaviors. Schizophr Res 76(2–3):135–157, 2005 15949648
9. Elbogen EB, Johnson SC: The intricate link between violence and mental disorder: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Arch Gen Psychiatry 66(2):152–161, 2009 19188537
10. Hawton K, Sutton L, Haw C, et al: Schizophrenia and suicide: systematic review of risk factors. Br J Psychiatry 187:9–20, 2005 15994566
11. Hennekens CH: Increasing global burden of cardiovascular disease in general populations and patients with schizophrenia. J Clin Psychiatry 68(suppl 4):4–7, 2007 17539693
12. Howard R, Rabins PV, Seeman MV, Jeste DV: Late-onset schizophrenia and very-late-onset schizophrenia-like psychosis: an international consensus. The International Late-Onset Schizophrenia Group. Am J Psychiatry 157(2):172–178, 2000 10671383
13. Jeon YW, Polich J: Meta-analysis of P300 and schizophrenia: patients, paradigms, and practical implications. Psychophysiology 40(5):684–701, 2003 14696723
14. March D, Hatch SL, Morgan C, et al: Psychosis and place. Epidemiol Rev 30:84–100, 2008 18669521
15. McGrath J, Saha S, Chant D, Welham J: Schizophrenia: a concise overview of incidence, prevalence, and mortality. Epidemiol Rev 30:67–76, 2008 18480098
16. Mesholam-Gately RI, Giuliano AJ, Goff KP, et al: Neurocognition in first-episode schizophrenia: a meta-analytic review. Neuropsychology 23(3):315–336, 2009 19413446
17. Miller B, Messias E, Miettunen J, et al: Meta-analysis of paternal age and schizophrenia risk in male versus female offspring. Schizophr Bull 37(5):1039–1047, 2011 20185538
18. Minzenberg MJ, Laird AR, Thelen S, et al: Meta-analysis of 41 functional neuroimaging studies of executive function in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 66(8):811–822, 2009 19652121
19. Mortensen PB, Pedersen MG, Pedersen CB: Psychiatric family history and schizophrenia risk in Denmark: which mental disorders are relevant? Psychol Med 40(2):201–210, 2010 19607751
20. O’Driscoll GA, Callahan BL: Smooth pursuit in schizophrenia: a meta-analytic review of research since 1993. Brain Cogn 68(3):359–370, 2008 18845372
21. Olabi B, Ellison-Wright I, McIntosh AM, et al: Are there progressive brain changes in schizophrenia? A meta-analysis of structural magnetic resonance imaging studies. Biol Psychiatry 70(1):88–96, 2011 21457946
22. Owen MJ, Craddock N, O’Donovan MC: Suggestion of roles for both common and rare risk variants in genome-wide studies of schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 67(7):667–673, 2010 20603448
23. Roy MA, Maziade M, Labbé A, Mérette C: Male gender is associated with deficit schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Schizophr Res 47(2–3):141–147, 2001 11278131
24. Shad MU, Tamminga CA, Cullum M, et al: Insight and frontal cortical function in schizophrenia: a review. Schizophr Res 86(1–3):54–70, 2006 16837168
25. Steen RG, Mull C, McClure R, et al: Brain volume in first-episode schizophrenia: systematic review and meta-analysis of magnetic resonance imaging studies. Br J Psychiatry 188:510–518, 2006 16738340
26. Sullivan PF, Kendler KS, Neale MC: Schizophrenia as a complex trait: evidence from a meta-analysis of twin studies. Arch Gen Psychiatry 60(12):1187–1192, 2003 14662550
27. Tamminga CA, Buchanan RW, Gold JM: The role of negative symptoms and cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia outcome. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 13(suppl 3):S21–S26, 1998 9690966
28. Tandon R, Nasrallah HA, Keshavan MS: Schizophrenia, “just the facts” 4: clinical features and conceptualization. Schizophr Res 110(1–3):1–23, 2009 19328655
29. Tarbox SI, Pogue-Geile MF: Development of social functioning in preschizophrenia children and adolescents: a systematic review. Psychol Bull 134(4):561–583, 2008 18605820
30. Teplin LA, McClelland GM, Abram KM, Weiner DA: Crime victimization in adults with severe mental illness: comparison with the National Crime Victimization Survey. Arch Gen Psychiatry 62(8):911–921, 2005 16061769
31. Weinberg SM, Jenkins EA, Marazita ML, Maher BS: Minor physical anomalies in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Schizophr Res 89(1–3):72–85, 2007 17079117
|
Diagnostic Criteria |
Note: The major depressive episode must include Criterion A1: Depressed mood.
Specify whether:
295.70 (F25.0) Bipolar type: This subtype applies if a manic episode is part of the presentation. Major depressive episodes may also occur.
295.70 (F25.1) Depressive type: This subtype applies if only major depressive episodes are part of the presentation.
Specify if:
With catatonia (refer to the criteria for catatonia associated with another mental disorder, pp. 119–120, for definition).
Coding note: Use additional code 293.89 (F06.1) catatonia associated with schizoaffective disorder to indicate the presence of the comorbid catatonia.
Specify if:
The following course specifiers are only to be used after a 1-year duration of the disorder and if they are not in contradiction to the diagnostic course criteria.
First episode, currently in acute episode: First manifestation of the disorder meeting the defining diagnostic symptom and time criteria. An acute episode is a time period in which the symptom criteria are fulfilled.
First episode, currently in partial remission: Partial remission is a time period during which an improvement after a previous episode is maintained and in which the defining criteria of the disorder are only partially fulfilled.
First episode, currently in full remission: Full remission is a period of time after a previous episode during which no disorder-specific symptoms are present.
Multiple episodes, currently in acute episode: Multiple episodes may be determined after a minimum of two episodes (i.e., after a first episode, a remission and a minimum of one relapse).
Multiple episodes, currently in partial remission
Multiple episodes, currently in full remission
Continuous: Symptoms fulfilling the diagnostic symptom criteria of the disorder are remaining for the majority of the illness course, with subthreshold symptom periods being very brief relative to the overall course.
Unspecified
Specify current severity:
Severity is rated by a quantitative assessment of the primary symptoms of psychosis, including delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, abnormal psychomotor behavior, and negative symptoms. Each of these symptoms may be rated for its current severity (most severe in the last 7 days) on a 5-point scale ranging from 0 (not present) to 4 (present and severe). (See Clinician-Rated Dimensions of Psychosis Symptom Severity in the chapter “Assessment Measures.”)
Note: Diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder can be made without using this severity specifier.
Note: For additional information on Development and Course (age-related factors), Risk and Prognostic Factors (environmental risk factors), Culture-Related Diagnostic Issues, and Gender-Related Diagnostic Issues, see the corresponding sections in schizophrenia, bipolar I and II disorders, and major depressive disorder in their respective chapters.
The diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder is based on the assessment of an uninterrupted period of illness during which the individual continues to display active or residual symptoms of psychotic illness. The diagnosis is usually, but not necessarily, made during the period of psychotic illness. At some time during the period, Criterion A for schizophrenia has to be met. Criteria B (social dysfunction) and F (exclusion of autism spectrum disorder or other communication disorder of childhood onset) for schizophrenia do not have to be met. In addition to meeting Criterion A for schizophrenia, there is a major mood episode (major depressive or manic) (Criterion A for schizoaffective disorder). Because loss of interest or pleasure is common in schizophrenia, to meet Criterion A for schizoaffective disorder, the major depressive episode must include pervasive depressed mood (i.e., the presence of markedly diminished interest or pleasure is not sufficient). Episodes of depression or mania are present for the majority of the total duration of the illness (i.e., after Criterion A has been met) (Criterion C for schizoaffective disorder). To separate schizoaffective disorder from a depressive or bipolar disorder with psychotic features, delusions or hallucinations must be present for at least 2 weeks in the absence of a major mood episode (depressive or manic) at some point during the lifetime duration of the illness (Criterion B for schizoaffective disorder). The symptoms must not be attributable to the effects of a substance or another medical condition (Criterion D for schizoaffective disorder).
Criterion C for schizoaffective disorder specifies that mood symptoms meeting criteria for a major mood episode must be present for the majority of the total duration of the active and residual portion of the illness. Criterion C requires the assessment of mood symptoms for the entire course of a psychotic illness, which differs from the criterion in DSM-IV, which required only an assessment of the current period of illness. If the mood symptoms are present for only a relatively brief period, the diagnosis is schizophrenia, not schizoaffective disorder. When deciding whether an individual’s presentation meets Criterion C, the clinician should review the total duration of psychotic illness (i.e., both active and residual symptoms) and determine when significant mood symptoms (untreated or in need of treatment with antidepressant and/or mood-stabilizing medication) accompanied the psychotic symptoms. This determination requires sufficient historical information and clinical judgment. For example, an individual with a 4-year history of active and residual symptoms of schizophrenia develops depressive and manic episodes that, taken together, do not occupy more than 1 year during the 4-year history of psychotic illness. This presentation would not meet Criterion C.
In addition to the five symptom domain areas identified in the diagnostic criteria, the assessment of cognition, depression, and mania symptom domains is vital for making critically important distinctions between the various schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders.
Occupational functioning is frequently impaired, but this is not a defining criterion (in contrast to schizophrenia). Restricted social contact and difficulties with self-care are associated with schizoaffective disorder, but negative symptoms may be less severe and less persistent than those seen in schizophrenia9. Anosognosia (i.e., poor insight) is also common in schizoaffective disorder, but the deficits in insight may be less severe and pervasive than those in schizophrenia10. Individuals with schizoaffective disorder may be at increased risk for later developing episodes of major depressive disorder or bipolar disorder if mood symptoms continue following the remission of symptoms meeting Criterion A for schizophrenia. There may be associated alcohol and other substance-related disorders.
There are no tests or biological measures that can assist in making the diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder. Whether schizoaffective disorder differs from schizophrenia with regard to associated features such as structural or functional brain abnormalities, cognitive deficits, or genetic risk factors is not clear5, 9.
Schizoaffective disorder appears to be about one-third as common as schizophrenia. Lifetime prevalence of schizoaffective disorder is estimated to be 0.3%17. The incidence of schizoaffective disorder is higher in females than in males, mainly due to an increased incidence of the depressive type among females16.
The typical age at onset of schizoaffective disorder is early adulthood, although onset can occur anywhere from adolescence to late in life. A significant number of individuals diagnosed with another psychotic illness initially will receive the diagnosis schizoaffective disorder later when the pattern of mood episodes has become more apparent6, 19. With the current diagnostic Criterion C, it is expected that the diagnosis for some individuals will convert from schizoaffective disorder to another disorder as mood symptoms become less prominent. The prognosis for schizoaffective disorder is somewhat better than the prognosis for schizophrenia but worse than the prognosis for mood disorders11.
Schizoaffective disorder may occur in a variety of temporal patterns. The following is a typical pattern: An individual may have pronounced auditory hallucinations and persecutory delusions for 2 months before the onset of a prominent major depressive episode. The psychotic symptoms and the full major depressive episode are then present for 3 months. Then, the individual recovers completely from the major depressive episode, but the psychotic symptoms persist for another month before they too disappear. During this period of illness, the individual’s symptoms concurrently met criteria for a major depressive episode and Criterion A for schizophrenia, and during this same period of illness, auditory hallucinations and delusions were present both before and after the depressive phase. The total period of illness lasted for about 6 months, with psychotic symptoms alone present during the initial 2 months, both depressive and psychotic symptoms present during the next 3 months, and psychotic symptoms alone present during the last month. In this instance, the duration of the depressive episode was not brief relative to the total duration of the psychotic disturbance, and thus the presentation qualifies for a diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder.
The expression of psychotic symptoms across the lifespan is variable. Depressive or manic symptoms can occur before the onset of psychosis, during acute psychotic episodes, during residual periods, and after cessation of psychosis. For example, an individual might present with prominent mood symptoms during the prodromal stage of schizophrenia. This pattern is not necessarily indicative of schizoaffective disorder, since it is the co-occurrence of psychotic and mood symptoms that is diagnostic. For an individual with symptoms that clearly meet the criteria for schizoaffective disorder but who on further follow-up only presents with residual psychotic symptoms (such as subthreshold psychosis and/or prominent negative symptoms), the diagnosis may be changed to schizophrenia, as the total proportion of psychotic illness compared with mood symptoms becomes more prominent. Schizoaffective disorder, bipolar type, may be more common in young adults, whereas schizoaffective disorder, depressive type, may be more common in older adults.
Genetic and physiological. Among individuals with schizophrenia, there may be an increased risk for schizoaffective disorder in first-degree relatives18. The risk for schizoaffective disorder may be increased among individuals who have a first-degree relative with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or schizoaffective disorder14.
Cultural and socioeconomic factors must be considered, particularly when the individual and the clinician do not share the same cultural and economic background. Ideas that appear to be delusional in one culture (e.g., witchcraft) may be commonly held in another. There is also some evidence in the literature for the overdiagnosis of schizophrenia compared with schizoaffective disorder in African American and Hispanic populations, so care must be taken to ensure a culturally appropriate evaluation that includes both psychotic and affective symptoms2, 4, 20.
The lifetime risk of suicide for schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder is 5%, and the presence of depressive symptoms is correlated with a higher risk for suicide13. There is evidence that suicide rates are higher in North American populations than in European, Eastern European, South American, and Indian populations of individuals with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder1, 3.
Schizoaffective disorder is associated with social and occupational dysfunction12, 15, but dysfunction is not a diagnostic criterion (as it is for schizophrenia), and there is substantial variability between individuals diagnosed with schizoaffective disorder.
Other mental disorders and medical conditions. A wide variety of psychiatric and medical conditions can manifest with psychotic and mood symptoms that must be considered in the differential diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder. These include psychotic disorder due to another medical condition; delirium; major neurocognitive disorder; substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder or neurocognitive disorder; bipolar disorders with psychotic features; major depressive disorder with psychotic features; depressive or bipolar disorders with catatonic features; schizotypal, schizoid, or paranoid personality disorder; brief psychotic disorder; schizophreniform disorder; schizophrenia; delusional disorder; and other specified and unspecified schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders. Medical conditions and substance use can present with a combination of psychotic and mood symptoms, and thus psychotic disorder due to another medical condition needs to be excluded. Distinguishing schizoaffective disorder from schizophrenia and from depressive and bipolar disorders with psychotic features is often difficult. Criterion C is designed to separate schizoaffective disorder from schizophrenia, and Criterion B is designed to distinguish schizoaffective disorder from a depressive or bipolar disorder with psychotic features. More specifically, schizoaffective disorder can be distinguished from a depressive or bipolar disorder with psychotic features due to the presence of prominent delusions and/or hallucinations for at least 2 weeks in the absence of a major mood episode. In contrast, in depressive or bipolar disorders with psychotic features, the psychotic features primarily occur during the mood episode(s). Because the relative proportion of mood to psychotic symptoms may change over time, the appropriate diagnosis may change from and to schizoaffective disorder (e.g., a diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder for a severe and prominent major depressive episode lasting 3 months during the first 6 months of a persistent psychotic illness would be changed to schizophrenia if active psychotic or prominent residual symptoms persist over several years without a recurrence of another mood episode).
Psychotic disorder due to another medical condition. Other medical conditions and substance use can manifest with a combination of psychotic and mood symptoms, and thus psychotic disorder due to another medical condition needs to be excluded.
Schizophrenia, bipolar, and depressive disorders. Distinguishing schizoaffective disorder from schizophrenia and from depressive and bipolar disorders with psychotic features is often difficult. Criterion C is designed to separate schizoaffective disorder from schizophrenia, and Criterion B is designed to distinguish schizoaffective disorder from a depressive or bipolar disorder with psychotic features. More specifically, schizoaffective disorder can be distinguished from a depressive or bipolar disorder with psychotic features based on the presence of prominent delusions and/or hallucinations for at least 2 weeks in the absence of a major mood episode. In contrast, in depressive or bipolar disorder with psychotic features, the psychotic features primarily occur during the mood episode(s). Because the relative proportion of mood to psychotic symptoms may change over time, the appropriate diagnosis may change from and to schizoaffective disorder. (For example, a diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder for a severe and prominent major depressive episode lasting 3 months during the first 6 months of a chronic psychotic illness would be changed to schizophrenia if active psychotic or prominent residual symptoms persist over several years without a recurrence of another mood episode.)
Many individuals diagnosed with schizoaffective disorder are also diagnosed with other mental disorders, especially substance use disorders and anxiety disorders. Similarly, the incidence of medical conditions is increased above base rate for the general population and leads to decreased life expectancy8.
1. Altamura AC, Mundo E, Bassetti R, et al: Transcultural differences in suicide attempters: analysis on a high-risk population of patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. Schizophr Res 89(1–3):140–146, 2007 17097854
2. Anglin DM, Malaspina D: Ethnicity effects on clinical diagnoses compared to best-estimate research diagnoses in patients with psychosis: a retrospective medical chart review. J Clin Psychiatry 69(6):941–945, 2008 18494534
3. Bhatia T, Thomas P, Semwal P, et al: Differing correlates for suicide attempts among patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder in India and USA. Schizophr Res 86(1–3):208–214, 2006 16781121
4. Blow FC, Zeber JE, McCarthy JF, et al: Ethnicity and diagnostic patterns in veterans with psychoses. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 39(10):841–851, 2004 15669666
5. Bora E, Yucel M, Pantelis C: Cognitive functioning in schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder and affective psychoses: meta-analytic study. Br J Psychiatry 195(6):475–482, 2009 19949193
6. Bromet EJ, Kotov R, Fochtmann LJ, et al: Diagnostic shifts during the decade following first admission for psychosis. Am J Psychiatry 168(11):1186–1194, 2011 21676994
7. Brown AS: The environment and susceptibility to schizophrenia. Prog Neurobiol 93(1):23–58, 2011 20955757
8. Chang CK, Hayes RD, Perera G, et al: Life expectancy at birth for people with serious mental illness and other major disorders from a secondary mental health care case register in London. PLoS ONE 6(5):e19590, 2011 21611123
9. Cheniaux E, Landeira-Fernandez J, Lessa Telles L, et al: Does schizoaffective disorder really exist? A systematic review of the studies that compared schizoaffective disorder with schizophrenia or mood disorders. J Affect Disord 106(3):209–217, 2008 17719092
10. Drake RJ: Insight into illness: impact on diagnosis and outcome of nonaffective psychosis. Curr Psychiatry Rep 10(3):210–216, 2008 18652788
11. Harrow M, Grossman LS, Herbener ES, Davies EW: Ten-year outcome: patients with schizoaffective disorders, schizophrenia, affective disorders and mood-incongruent psychotic symptoms. Br J Psychiatry 177:421–426, 2000 11059995
12. Heckers S: Is schizoaffective disorder a useful diagnosis? Curr Psychiatry Rep 11(4):332–337, 2009 19635243
13. Hor K, Taylor M: Suicide and schizophrenia: a systematic review of rates and risk factors. J Psychopharmacol 24(4 suppl):81–90, 2010
14. Laursen TM, Labouriau R, Licht RW, et al: Family history of psychiatric illness as a risk factor for schizoaffective disorder: a Danish register-based cohort study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 62(8):841–848, 2005 16061761
15. Lysaker PH, Davis LW: Social function in schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder: associations with personality, symptoms and neurocognition. Health Qual Life Outcomes 2:15, 2004 15025789
16. Malhi GS, Green M, Fagiolini A, et al: Schizoaffective disorder: diagnostic issues and future recommendations. Bipolar Disord 10(1 pt 2):215–230, 2008 18199238
17. Perälä J, Suvisaari J, Saarni SI, et al: Lifetime prevalence of psychotic and bipolar I disorders in a general population. Arch Gen Psychiatry 64(1):19–28, 2007 17199051
18. Potash JB: Carving chaos: genetics and the classification of mood and psychotic syndromes. Harv Rev Psychiatry 14(2):47–63, 2006 16603472
19. Salvatore P, Baldessarini RJ, Tohen M, et al: McLean-Harvard International First-Episode Project: two-year stability of DSM-IV diagnoses in 500 first-episode psychotic disorder patients. J Clin Psychiatry 70(4):458–466, 2009 19200422
20. Strakowski SM, McElroy SL, Keck PE Jr, West SA: Racial influence on diagnosis in psychotic mania. J Affect Disord 39(2):157–162, 1996 8827426
|
Diagnostic Criteria |
The symptoms preceded the onset of the substance/medication use; the symptoms persist for a substantial period of time (e.g., about 1 month) after the cessation of acute withdrawal or severe intoxication; or there is other evidence of an independent non-substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder (e.g., a history of recurrent non-substance/medication-related episodes).
Note: This diagnosis should be made instead of a diagnosis of substance intoxication or substance withdrawal only when the symptoms in Criterion A predominate in the clinical picture and when they are sufficiently severe to warrant clinical attention.
Coding note: The ICD-9-CM and ICD-10-CM codes for the [specific substance/medication]-induced psychotic disorders are indicated in the table below. Note that the ICD-10-CM code depends on whether or not there is a comorbid substance use disorder present for the same class of substance. If a mild substance use disorder is comorbid with the substance-induced psychotic disorder, the 4th position character is “1,” and the clinician should record “mild [substance] use disorder” before the substance-induced psychotic disorder (e.g., “mild cocaine use disorder with cocaine-induced psychotic disorder”). If a moderate or severe substance use disorder is comorbid with the substance-induced psychotic disorder, the 4th position character is “2,” and the clinician should record “moderate [substance] use disorder” or “severe [substance] use disorder,” depending on the severity of the comorbid substance use disorder. If there is no comorbid substance use disorder (e.g., after a one-time heavy use of the substance), then the 4th position character is “9,” and the clinician should record only the substance-induced psychotic disorder.
|
|
|
ICD-10-CM |
||
|---|---|---|---|---|
|
|
ICD-9-CM |
With use disorder, mild |
With use disorder, moderate or severe |
Without use disorder |
|
Alcohol |
291.9 |
F10.159 |
F10.259 |
F10.959 |
|
Cannabis |
292.9 |
F12.159 |
F12.259 |
F12.959 |
|
Phencyclidine |
292.9 |
F16.159 |
F16.259 |
F16.959 |
|
Other hallucinogen |
292.9 |
F16.159 |
F16.259 |
F16.959 |
|
Inhalant |
292.9 |
F18.159 |
F18.259 |
F18.959 |
|
Sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic |
292.9 |
F13.159 |
F13.259 |
F13.959 |
|
Amphetamine (or other stimulant) |
292.9 |
F15.159 |
F15.259 |
F15.959 |
|
Cocaine |
292.9 |
F14.159 |
F14.259 |
F14.959 |
|
Other (or unknown) substance |
292.9 |
F19.159 |
F19.259 |
F19.959 |
Specify if (see Table 1 in the chapter “Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders” for diagnoses associated with substance class):
With onset during intoxication: If the criteria are met for intoxication with the substance and the symptoms develop during intoxication.
With onset during withdrawal: If the criteria are met for withdrawal from the substance and the symptoms develop during, or shortly after, withdrawal.
Specify current severity:
Severity is rated by a quantitative assessment of the primary symptoms of psychosis, including delusions, hallucinations, abnormal psychomotor behavior, and negative symptoms. Each of these symptoms may be rated for its current severity (most severe in the last 7 days) on a 5-point scale ranging from 0 (not present) to 4 (present and severe). (See Clinician-Rated Dimensions of Psychosis Symptom Severity in the chapter “Assessment Measures.”)
Note: Diagnosis of substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder can be made without using this severity specifier.
ICD-9-CM. The name of the substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder begins with the specific substance (e.g., cocaine, dexamethasone) that is presumed to be causing the delusions or hallucinations. The diagnostic code is selected from the table included in the criteria set, which is based on the drug class. For substances that do not fit into any of the classes (e.g., dexamethasone), the code for “other substance” should be used; and in cases in which a substance is judged to be an etiological factor but the specific class of substance is unknown, the category “unknown substance” should be used.
The name of the disorder is followed by the specification of onset (i.e., onset during intoxication, onset during withdrawal). Unlike the recording procedures for ICD-10-CM, which combine the substance-induced disorder and substance use disorder into a single code, for ICD-9-CM a separate diagnostic code is given for the substance use disorder. For example, in the case of delusions occurring during intoxication in a man with a severe cocaine use disorder, the diagnosis is 292.9 cocaine-induced psychotic disorder, with onset during intoxication. An additional diagnosis of 304.20 severe cocaine use disorder is also given. When more than one substance is judged to play a significant role in the development of psychotic symptoms, each should be listed separately (e.g., 292.9 cannabis-induced psychotic disorder with onset during intoxication, with severe cannabis use disorder; 292.9 phencyclidine-induced psychotic disorder, with onset during intoxication, with mild phencyclidine use disorder).
ICD-10-CM. The name of the substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder begins with the specific substance (e.g., cocaine, dexamethasone) that is presumed to be causing the delusions or hallucinations. The diagnostic code is selected from the table included in the criteria set, which is based on the drug class and presence or absence of a comorbid substance use disorder. For substances that do not fit into any of the classes (e.g., dexamethasone), the code for “other substance” with no comorbid substance use should be used; and in cases in which a substance is judged to be an etiological factor but the specific class of substance is unknown, the category “unknown substance” with no comorbid substance use should be used.
When recording the name of the disorder, the comorbid substance use disorder (if any) is listed first, followed by the word “with,” followed by the name of the substance-induced psychotic disorder, followed by the specification of onset (i.e., onset during intoxication, onset during withdrawal). For example, in the case of delusions occurring during intoxication in a man with a severe cocaine use disorder, the diagnosis is F14.259 severe cocaine use disorder with cocaine-induced psychotic disorder, with onset during intoxication. A separate diagnosis of the comorbid severe cocaine use disorder is not given. If the substance-induced psychotic disorder occurs without a comorbid substance use disorder (e.g., after a one-time heavy use of the substance), no accompanying substance use disorder is noted (e.g., F16.959 phencyclidine-induced psychotic disorder, with onset during intoxication). When more than one substance is judged to play a significant role in the development of psychotic symptoms, each should be listed separately (e.g., F12.259 severe cannabis use disorder with cannabis-induced psychotic disorder, with onset during intoxication; F16.159 mild phencyclidine use disorder with phencyclidine-induced psychotic disorder, with onset during intoxication).
The essential features of substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder are prominent delusions and/or hallucinations (Criterion A) that are judged to be due to the physiological effects of a substance/medication (i.e., a drug of abuse, a medication, or a toxin exposure) (Criterion B). Hallucinations that the individual realizes are substance/medication-induced are not included here and instead would be diagnosed as substance intoxication or substance withdrawal with the accompanying specifier “with perceptual disturbances” (applies to alcohol withdrawal; cannabis intoxication; sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic withdrawal; and stimulant intoxication).
A substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder is distinguished from a primary psychotic disorder by considering the onset, course, and other factors. For drugs of abuse, there must be evidence from the history, physical examination, or laboratory findings of substance use, intoxication, or withdrawal1, 5. Substance/medication-induced psychotic disorders arise during or soon after exposure to a medication or after substance intoxication or withdrawal but can persist for weeks, whereas primary psychotic disorders may precede the onset of substance/medication use or may occur during times of sustained abstinence3, 8. Once initiated, the psychotic symptoms may continue as long as the substance/medication use continues. Another consideration is the presence of features that are atypical of a primary psychotic disorder (e.g., atypical age at onset or course). For example, the appearance of delusions de novo in a person older than 35 years without a known history of a primary psychotic disorder should suggest the possibility of a substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder. Even a prior history of a primary psychotic disorder does not rule out the possibility of a substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder. In contrast, factors that suggest that the psychotic symptoms are better accounted for by a primary psychotic disorder include persistence of psychotic symptoms for a substantial period of time (i.e., a month or more) after the end of substance intoxication or acute substance withdrawal or after cessation of medication use; or a history of prior recurrent primary psychotic disorders2, 4. Other causes of psychotic symptoms must be considered even in an individual with substance intoxication or withdrawal, because substance use problems are not uncommon among individuals with non-substance/medication-induced psychotic disorders.
In addition to the four symptom domain areas identified in the diagnostic criteria, the assessment of cognition, depression, and mania symptom domains is vital for making critically important distinctions between the various schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders.
Psychotic disorders can occur in association with intoxication with the following classes of substances: alcohol; cannabis; hallucinogens, including phencyclidine and related substances; inhalants; sedatives, hypnotics, and anxiolytics; stimulants (including cocaine); and other (or unknown) substances. Psychotic disorders can occur in association with withdrawal from the following classes of substances: alcohol; sedatives, hypnotics, and anxiolytics; and other (or unknown) substances.
Some of the medications reported to evoke psychotic symptoms include anesthetics and analgesics, anticholinergic agents, anticonvulsants, antihistamines, antihypertensive and cardiovascular medications, antimicrobial medications, antiparkinsonian medications, chemotherapeutic agents (e.g., cyclosporine, procarbazine), corticosteroids, gastrointestinal medications, muscle relaxants, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications, other over-the-counter medications (e.g., phenylephrine, pseudoephedrine), antidepressant medication, and disulfiram. Toxins reported to induce psychotic symptoms include anticholinesterase, organophosphate insecticides, sarin and other nerve gases, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and volatile substances such as fuel or paint.
Prevalence of substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder in the general population is unknown. Between 7% and 25% of individuals presenting with a first episode of psychosis in different settings are reported to have substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder3.
The initiation of the disorder may vary considerably with the substance. For example, smoking a high dose of cocaine may produce psychosis within minutes, whereas days or weeks of high-dose alcohol or sedative use may be required to produce psychosis. Alcohol-induced psychotic disorder, with hallucinations, usually occurs only after prolonged, heavy ingestion of alcohol in individuals who have moderate to severe alcohol use disorder, and the hallucinations are generally auditory in nature.
Psychotic disorders induced by amphetamine and cocaine share similar clinical features. Persecutory delusions may rapidly develop shortly after use of amphetamine or a similarly acting sympathomimetic. The hallucination of bugs or vermin crawling in or under the skin (formication) can lead to scratching and extensive skin excoriations. Cannabis-induced psychotic disorder may develop shortly after high-dose cannabis use and usually involves persecutory delusions, marked anxiety, emotional lability, and depersonalization. The disorder usually remits within a day but in some cases may persist for a few days.
Substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder may at times persist when the offending agent is removed, such that it may be difficult initially to distinguish it from an independent psychotic disorder. Agents such as amphetamines, phencyclidine, and cocaine have been reported to evoke temporary psychotic states that can sometimes persist for weeks or longer despite removal of the agent and treatment with neuroleptic medication. In later life, polypharmacy for medical conditions and exposure to medications for parkinsonism, cardiovascular disease, and other medical disorders may be associated with a greater likelihood of psychosis induced by prescription medications as opposed to substances of abuse.
With substances for which relevant blood levels are available (e.g., blood alcohol level, other quantifiable blood levels such as digoxin), the presence of a level consistent with toxicity may increase diagnostic certainty.
Substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder is typically severely disabling and consequently is observed most frequently in emergency rooms, as individuals are often brought to the acute-care setting when it occurs7. However, the disability is typically self-limited and resolves upon removal of the offending agent.
Substance intoxication or substance withdrawal. Individuals intoxicated with stimulants, cannabis, the opioid meperidine, or phencyclidine, or those withdrawing from alcohol or sedatives, may experience altered perceptions that they recognize as drug effects. If reality testing for these experiences remains intact (i.e., the individual recognizes that the perception is substance induced and neither believes in nor acts on it), the diagnosis is not substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder. Instead, substance intoxication or substance withdrawal, with perceptual disturbances, is diagnosed (e.g., cocaine intoxication, with perceptual disturbances). “Flashback” hallucinations that can occur long after the use of hallucinogens has stopped are diagnosed as hallucinogen persisting perception disorder6. If substance/medication-induced psychotic symptoms occur exclusively during the course of a delirium, as in severe forms of alcohol withdrawal, the psychotic symptoms are considered to be an associated feature of the delirium and are not diagnosed separately. Delusions in the context of a major or mild neurocognitive disorder would be diagnosed as major or mild neurocognitive disorder, with behavioral disturbance.
Primary psychotic disorder. A substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder is distinguished from a primary psychotic disorder, such as schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, delusional disorder, brief psychotic disorder, other specified schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorder, or unspecified schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorder, by the fact that a substance is judged to be etiologically related to the symptoms.
Psychotic disorder due to another medical condition. A substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder due to a prescribed treatment for a mental or medical condition must have its onset while the individual is receiving the medication (or during withdrawal, if there is a withdrawal syndrome associated with the medication). Because individuals with medical conditions often take medications for those conditions, the clinician must consider the possibility that the psychotic symptoms are caused by the physiological consequences of the medical condition rather than the medication, in which case psychotic disorder due to another medical condition is diagnosed. The history often provides the primary basis for such a judgment. At times, a change in the treatment for the medical condition (e.g., medication substitution or discontinuation) may be needed to determine empirically for that individual whether the medication is the causative agent. If the clinician has ascertained that the disturbance is attributable to both a medical condition and substance/medication use, both diagnoses (i.e., psychotic disorder due to another medical condition and substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder) may be given.
1. Caton CL, Drake RE, Hasin DS, et al: Differences between early-phase primary psychotic disorders with concurrent substance use and substance-induced psychoses. Arch Gen Psychiatry 62(2):137–145, 2005 15699290
2. Caton CL, Hasin DS, Shrout PE, et al: Stability of early-phase primary psychotic disorders with concurrent substance use and substance-induced psychosis. Br J Psychiatry 190:105–111, 2007 17267925
3. Crebbin K, Mitford E, Paxton R, Turkington D: First-episode drug-induced psychosis: a medium term follow up study reveals a high-risk group. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 44(9):710–715, 2009 19183816
4. Fiorentini A, Volonteri LS, Dragogna F, et al: Substance-induced psychoses: a critical review of the literature. Curr Drug Abuse Rev 4(4):228–240, 2011 21999698
5. Fraser S, Hides L, Philips L, et al: Differentiating first episode substance induced and primary psychotic disorders with concurrent substance use in young people. Schizophr Res 136(1–3):110–115, 2012 22321667
6. Gonzãlez-Maeso J, Sealfon SC: Psychedelics and schizophrenia. Trends Neurosci 32(4):225–232, 2009 19269047
7. Schanzer BM, First MB, Dominguez B, et al: Diagnosing psychotic disorders in the emergency room in the context of substance use. Psychiatr Serv 57(10):1468–1473, 2006 17035567
8. Tandon R, Nasrallah HA, Keshavan MS: Schizophrenia, “just the facts” 4: clinical features and conceptualization. Schizophr Res 110(1–3):1–23, 2009 19328655
|
Diagnostic Criteria |
Specify whether:
Code based on predominant symptom:
293.81 (F06.2) With delusions: If delusions are the predominant symptom.
293.82 (F06.0) With hallucinations: If hallucinations are the predominant symptom.
Coding note: Include the name of the other medical condition in the name of the mental disorder (e.g., 293.81 [F06.2] psychotic disorder due to malignant lung neoplasm, with delusions). The other medical condition should be coded and listed separately immediately before the psychotic disorder due to the medical condition (e.g., 162.9 [C34.90] malignant lung neoplasm; 293.81 [F06.2] psychotic disorder due to malignant lung neoplasm, with delusions).
Specify current severity:
Severity is rated by a quantitative assessment of the primary symptoms of psychosis, including delusions, hallucinations, abnormal psychomotor behavior, and negative symptoms. Each of these symptoms may be rated for its current severity (most severe in the last 7 days) on a 5-point scale ranging from 0 (not present) to 4 (present and severe). (See Clinician-Rated Dimensions of Psychosis Symptom Severity in the chapter “Assessment Measures.”)
Note: Diagnosis of psychotic disorder due to another medical condition can be made without using this severity specifier.
In addition to the symptom domain areas identified in the diagnostic criteria, the assessment of cognition, depression, and mania symptom domains is vital for making critically important distinctions between the various schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders.
The essential features of psychotic disorder due to another medical condition are prominent delusions or hallucinations that are judged to be attributable to the physiological effects of another medical condition and are not better explained by another mental disorder (e.g., the symptoms are not a psychologically mediated response to a severe medical condition, in which case a diagnosis of brief psychotic disorder, with marked stressor, would be appropriate).
Hallucinations can occur in any sensory modality (i.e., visual, olfactory, gustatory, tactile, or auditory), but certain etiological factors are likely to evoke specific hallucinatory phenomena. Olfactory hallucinations are suggestive of temporal lobe epilepsy. Hallucinations may vary from simple and unformed to highly complex and organized, depending on etiological and environmental factors. Psychotic disorder due to another medical condition is generally not diagnosed if the individual maintains reality testing for the hallucinations and appreciates that they result from the medical condition. Delusions may have a variety of themes, including somatic, grandiose, religious, and, most commonly, persecutory. On the whole, however, associations between delusions and particular medical conditions appear to be less specific than is the case for hallucinations.
In determining whether the psychotic disturbance is attributable to another medical condition, the presence of a medical condition must be identified and considered to be the etiology of the psychosis through a physiological mechanism. Although there are no infallible guidelines for determining whether the relationship between the psychotic disturbance and the medical condition is etiological, several considerations provide some guidance. One consideration is the presence of a temporal association between the onset, exacerbation, or remission of the medical condition and that of the psychotic disturbance. A second consideration is the presence of features that are atypical for a psychotic disorder (e.g., atypical age at onset or presence of visual or olfactory hallucinations). The disturbance must also be distinguished from a substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder or another mental disorder (e.g., an adjustment disorder).
The temporal association of the onset or exacerbation of the medical condition offers the greatest diagnostic certainty that the delusions or hallucinations are attributable to a medical condition. Additional factors may include concomitant treatments for the underlying medical condition that confer a risk for psychosis independently, such as steroid treatment for autoimmune disorders.
Prevalence rates for psychotic disorder due to another medical condition are difficult to estimate given the wide variety of underlying medical etiologies. Lifetime prevalence has been estimated to range from 0.21% to 0.54%2, 5. When the prevalence findings are stratified by age group, individuals older than 65 years have a significantly greater prevalence of 0.74% compared with those in younger age groups5. Rates of psychosis also vary according to the underlying medical condition; conditions most commonly associated with psychosis include untreated endocrine and metabolic disorders, autoimmune disorders (e.g., systemic lupus erythematosus, N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor autoimmune encephalitis), or temporal lobe epilepsy. Psychosis due to epilepsy has been further differentiated into ictal, postictal, and interictal psychosis. The most common of these is postictal psychosis, observed in 2%–7.8% of epilepsy patients4. Among older individuals, there may be a higher prevalence of the disorder in females5, although additional gender-related features are not clear and vary considerably with the gender distributions of the underlying medical conditions.
Psychotic disorder due to another medical condition may be a single transient state or it may be recurrent, cycling with exacerbations and remissions of the underlying medical condition. Although treatment of the underlying medical condition often results in a resolution of the psychosis, this is not always the case, and psychotic symptoms may persist long after the medical event (e.g., psychotic disorder due to focal brain injury). In the context of chronic conditions such as multiple sclerosis or chronic interictal psychosis of epilepsy, the psychosis may assume a long-term course.
The expression of psychotic disorder due to another medical condition does not differ substantially in phenomenology depending on age at occurrence. However, older age groups have a higher prevalence of the disorder, which is most likely due to the increasing medical burden associated with advanced age and the cumulative effects of deleterious exposures and age-related processes (e.g., atherosclerosis). The nature of the underlying medical conditions is likely to change across the lifespan, with younger age groups more affected by epilepsy, head trauma, autoimmune, and neoplastic diseases of early to mid-life, and older age groups more affected by stroke disease, anoxic events, and multiple system comorbidities. Underlying factors with increasing age, such as preexisting cognitive impairment as well as vision and hearing impairments, may incur a greater risk for psychosis, possibly by serving to lower the threshold for experiencing psychosis.
Course modifiers. Identification and treatment of the underlying medical condition has the greatest impact on course, although preexisting central nervous system injury may confer a worse course outcome (e.g., head trauma, cerebrovascular disease).
The diagnosis of psychotic disorder due to another medical condition depends on the clinical condition of each individual, and the diagnostic tests will vary according to that condition. A variety of medical conditions may cause psychotic symptoms. These include neurological conditions (e.g., neoplasms, cerebrovascular disease, Huntington’s disease, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, auditory or visual nerve injury or impairment, deafness, migraine, central nervous system infections), endocrine conditions (e.g., hyper- and hypothyroidism, hyper- and hypoparathyroidism, hyper- and hypoadrenocorticism), metabolic conditions (e.g., hypoxia, hypercarbia, hypoglycemia), fluid or electrolyte imbalances, hepatic or renal diseases, and autoimmune disorders with central nervous system involvement (e.g., systemic lupus erythematosus). The associated physical examination findings, laboratory findings, and patterns of prevalence or onset reflect the etiological medical condition.
Suicide risk in the context of psychotic disorder due to another medical condition is not clearly delineated, although certain conditions such as epilepsy and multiple sclerosis are associated with increased rates of suicide1, 3, which may be further increased in the presence of psychosis.
Functional disability is typically severe in the context of psychotic disorder due to another medical condition but will vary considerably by the type of condition and likely improve with successful resolution of the condition.
Delirium. Hallucinations and delusions commonly occur in the context of a delirium; however, a separate diagnosis of psychotic disorder due to another medical condition is not given if the disturbance occurs exclusively during the course of a delirium. Delusions in the context of a major or mild neurocognitive disorder would be diagnosed as major or mild neurocognitive disorder, with behavioral disturbance.
Substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder. If there is evidence of recent or prolonged substance use (including medications with psychoactive effects), withdrawal from a substance, or exposure to a toxin (e.g., LSD [lysergic acid diethylamide] intoxication, alcohol withdrawal), a substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder should be considered. Symptoms that occur during or shortly after (i.e., within 4 weeks) of substance intoxication or withdrawal or after medication use may be especially indicative of a substance-induced psychotic disorder, depending on the character, duration, or amount of the substance used. If the clinician has ascertained that the disturbance is due to both a medical condition and substance use, both diagnoses (i.e., psychotic disorder due to another medical condition and substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder) can be given.
Psychotic disorder. Psychotic disorder due to another medical condition must be distinguished from a psychotic disorder (e.g., schizophrenia, delusional disorder, schizoaffective disorder) or a depressive or bipolar disorder, with psychotic features. In psychotic disorders and in depressive or bipolar disorders, with psychotic features, no specific and direct causative physiological mechanisms associated with a medical condition can be demonstrated. Late age at onset and the absence of a personal or family history of schizophrenia or delusional disorder suggest the need for a thorough assessment to rule out the diagnosis of psychotic disorder due to another medical condition. Auditory hallucinations that involve voices speaking complex sentences are more characteristic of schizophrenia than of psychotic disorder due to a medical condition. Other types of hallucinations (e.g., visual, olfactory) commonly signal a psychotic disorder due to another medical condition or a substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder.
Psychotic disorder due to another medical condition in individuals older than 80 years is associated with concurrent major neurocognitive disorder (dementia)5.
1. Bagary M: Epilepsy, antiepileptic drugs and suicidality. Curr Opin Neurol 24(2):177–182, 2011 21293270
2. Bogren M, Mattisson C, Isberg PE, Nettelbladt P: How common are psychotic and bipolar disorders? A 50-year follow-up of the Lundby population.. Nord J Psychiatry 63(4):336–346, 2009 19492244
3. Brønnum-Hansen H, Stenager E, Nylev Stenager E, Koch-Henriksen N: Suicide among Danes with multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 76(10):1457–1459, 2005 16170097
4. Nadkarni S, Arnedo V, Devinsky O: Psychosis in epilepsy patients. Epilepsia 48(suppl 9):17–19, 2007 18047594
5. Perälä J, Suvisaari J, Saarni SI, et al: Lifetime prevalence of psychotic and bipolar I disorders in a general population. Arch Gen Psychiatry 64(1):19–28, 2007 17199051
Catatonia can occur in the context of several disorders, including neurodevelopmental, psychotic, bipolar, depressive disorders, and other medical conditions (e.g., cerebral folate deficiency, rare autoimmune and paraneoplastic disorders)3, 4. The manual does not treat catatonia as an independent class but recognizes a) catatonia associated with another mental disorder (i.e., a neurodevelopmental, psychotic disorder, a bipolar disorder, a depressive disorder, or other mental disorder), b) catatonic disorder due to another medical condition, and c) unspecified catatonia.
Catatonia is defined by the presence of three or more of 12 psychomotor features5, 6 in the diagnostic criteria for catatonia associated with another mental disorder and catatonic disorder due to another medical condition. The essential feature of catatonia is a marked psychomotor disturbance that may involve decreased motor activity, decreased engagement during interview or physical examination, or excessive and peculiar motor activity. The clinical presentation of catatonia can be puzzling, as the psychomotor disturbance may range from marked unresponsiveness to marked agitation. Motoric immobility may be severe (stupor) or moderate (catalepsy and waxy flexibility). Similarly, decreased engagement may be severe (mutism) or moderate (negativism). Excessive and peculiar motor behaviors can be complex (e.g., stereotypy) or simple (agitation) and may include echolalia and echopraxia. In extreme cases, the same individual may wax and wane between decreased and excessive motor activity1. The seemingly opposing clinical features and variable manifestations of the diagnosis contribute to a lack of awareness and decreased recognition of catatonia10. During severe stages of catatonia, the individual may need careful supervision to avoid self-harm or harming others. There are potential risks from malnutrition, exhaustion, hyperpyrexia and self-inflicted injury3.
1. Fink M, Taylor MA: Catatonia: A Clinician’s Guide to Diagnosis and Treatment. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press, 2003
2. Fink M, Taylor MA: The catatonia syndrome: forgotten but not gone. Arch Gen Psychiatry 66(11):1173–1177, 2009 19884605
3. Kayser MS, Dalmau J: The emerging link between autoimmune disorders and neuropsychiatric disease. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 23(1): 90–97, 2011 21304144
4. Kayser MS, Kohler CG, Dalmau J: Psychiatric manifestations of paraneoplastic disorders. Am J Psychiatry 167(9):1039–1050, 2010 20439389
5. Peralta V, Cuesta MJ: Motor features in psychotic disorders, II: development of diagnostic criteria for catatonia. Schizophr Res 47(2–3):117–126, 2001 11278128
6. Peralta V, Campos MS, de Jalon EG, Cuesta MJ: DSM-IV catatonia signs and criteria in first-episode, drug-naive, psychotic patients: psychometric validity and response to antipsychotic medication. Schizophr Res 118(1–3):168–175, 2010 20071147
7. van der Heijden FM, Tuinier S, Arts NJ, et al: Catatonia: disappeared or under-diagnosed? Psychopathology 38(1):3–8, 2005 15714008
Coding note: Indicate the name of the associated mental disorder when recording the name of the condition (i.e., 293.89 [F06.1] catatonia associated with major depressive disorder). Code first the associated mental disorder (e.g., neurodevelopmental disorder, brief psychotic disorder, schizophreniform disorder, schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, or other mental disorder) (e.g., 295.70 [F25.1] schizoaffective disorder, depressive type; 293.89 [F06.1] catatonia associated with schizoaffective disorder).
Catatonia associated with another mental disorder (catatonia specifier) may be used when criteria are met for catatonia during the course of a neurodevelopmental, psychotic, bipolar, depressive, or other mental disorder. The catatonia specifier is appropriate when the clinical picture is characterized by marked psychomotor disturbance and involves at least three of the 12 diagnostic features listed in Criterion A. Catatonia is typically diagnosed in an inpatient setting and occurs in up to 35% of individuals with schizophrenia, but the majority of catatonia cases involve individuals with depressive or bipolar disorders4, 5, 8, 9, 11. Before the catatonia specifier is used in neurodevelopmental, psychotic, bipolar, depressive, or other mental disorders, a wide variety of other medical conditions need to be ruled out; these conditions include, but are not limited to, medical conditions due to infectious, metabolic, or neurological conditions (see “Catatonic Disorder Due to Another Medical Condition”). Catatonia can also be a side effect of a medication (see the chapter “Medication-Induced Movement Disorders and Other Adverse Effects of Medication”). Because of the seriousness of the complications, particular attention should be paid to the possibility that the catatonia is attributable to 333.92 (G21.0) neuroleptic malignant syndrome.
1. Caroff SN, Mann SC, Francis A, Fricchione GL (eds): Catatonia: From Psychopathology to Neurobiology. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Publishing, 2004
2. Fink M, Taylor MA: Catatonia: A Clinician’s Guide to Diagnosis and Treatment. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press, 2003
3. Fink M, Taylor MA: The catatonia syndrome: forgotten but not gone. Arch Gen Psychiatry 66(11):1173–1177, 2009 19884605
4. Kruger S, Bräunig P: Catatonia in affective disorder: new findings and a review of the literature. CNS Spectr 5(7):48–53, 2000 18197155
5. Kruger S, Cooke RG, Spegg CC, Bräunig P: Relevance of the catatonic syndrome to the mixed manic episode. J Affect Disord 74(3):279–285, 2003 12738047
6. Peralta V, Cuesta MJ: Motor features in psychotic disorders, II: development of diagnostic criteria for catatonia. Schizophr Res 47(2–3):117–126. 2001 11278128
7. Peralta V, Campos MS, de Jalon EG, Cuesta MJ: DSM-IV catatonia signs and criteria in first-episode, drug-naive, psychotic patients: psychometric validity and response to antipsychotic medication. Schizophr Res 118(1–3):168–175, 2010 20071147
8. Stompe T, Ortwein-Swoboda G, Ritter K, et al: Are we witnessing the disappearance of catatonic schizophrenia? Compr Psychiatry 43(3):167–174, 2002 11994832
9. Ungvari GS, Leung SK, Ng FS, et al: Schizophrenia with prominent catatonic features (‘catatonic schizophrenia’), I: demographic and clinical correlates in the chronic phase. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 29(1):27–38, 2005 15610942
10. van der Heijden FM, Tuinier S, Arts NJ, et al: Catatonia: disappeared or under-diagnosed? Psychopathology 38(1):3–8, 2005 15714008
11. Weder ND, Muralee S, Penland H, Tampi RR: Catatonia: a review. Ann Clin Psychiatry 20(2):97–107, 2008 18568581
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Diagnostic Criteria |
293.89 (F06.1) |
Coding note: Include the name of the medical condition in the name of the mental disorder (e.g., 293.89 [F06.1]) catatonic disorder due to hepatic encephalopathy). The other medical condition should be coded and listed separately immediately before the catatonic disorder due to the medical condition (e.g., 572.2 [K71.90] hepatic encephalopathy; 293.89 [F06.1] catatonic disorder due to hepatic encephalopathy).
The essential feature of catatonic disorder due to another medical condition is the presence of catatonia that is judged to be attributed to the physiological effects of another medical condition. Catatonia can be diagnosed by the presence of at least three of the 12 clinical features in Criterion A. There must be evidence from the history, physical examination, or laboratory findings that the catatonia is attributable to another medical condition (Criterion B). The diagnosis is not given if the catatonia is better explained by another mental disorder (e.g., manic episode) (Criterion C) or if it occurs exclusively during the course of a delirium (Criterion D).
A variety of medical conditions may cause catatonia, especially neurological conditions (e.g., neoplasms, head trauma, cerebrovascular disease, encephalitis) and metabolic conditions (e.g., hypercalcemia, hepatic encephalopathy, homocystinuria, diabetic ketoacidosis)1, 2. The associated physical examination findings, laboratory findings, and patterns of prevalence and onset reflect those of the etiological medical condition.
A separate diagnosis of catatonic disorder due to another medical condition is not given if the catatonia occurs exclusively during the course of a delirium or neuroleptic malignant syndrome. If the individual is currently taking neuroleptic medication, consideration should be given to medication-induced movement disorders (e.g., abnormal positioning may be due to neuroleptic-induced acute dystonia) or neuroleptic malignant syndrome (e.g., catatonic-like features may be present, along with associated vital sign and/or laboratory abnormalities). Catatonic symptoms may be present in any of the following five psychotic disorders: brief psychotic disorder, schizophreniform disorder, schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, and substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder. It may also be present in some of the neurodevelopmental disorders, in all of the bipolar and depressive disorders, and in other mental disorders.
1. Caroff SN, Mann SC, Francis A, Fricchione GL (eds): Catatonia: From Psychopathology to Neurobiology. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Publishing, 2004
2. Fink M, Taylor MA: Catatonia: A Clinician’s Guide to Diagnosis and Treatment. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press, 2003
This category applies to presentations in which symptoms characteristic of catatonia cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning but either the nature of the underlying mental disorder or other medical condition is unclear, full criteria for catatonia are not met, or there is insufficient information to make a more specific diagnosis (e.g., in emergency room settings).
Coding note: Code first 781.99 (R29.818) other symptoms involving nervous and musculoskeletal systems, followed by 293.89 (F06.1) unspecified catatonia.
This category applies to presentations in which symptoms characteristic of a schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorder that cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning predominate but do not meet the full criteria for any of the disorders in the schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders diagnostic class. The other specified schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorder category is used in situations in which the clinician chooses to communicate the specific reason that the presentation does not meet the criteria for any specific schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorder. This is done by recording “other specified schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorder” followed by the specific reason (e.g., “persistent auditory hallucinations”).
Examples of presentations that can be specified using the “other specified” designation include the following:
This category applies to presentations in which symptoms characteristic of a schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorder that cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning predominate but do not meet the full criteria for any of the disorders in the schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders diagnostic class. The unspecified schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorder category is used in situations in which the clinician chooses not to specify the reason that the criteria are not met for a specific schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorder, and includes presentations in which there is insufficient information to make a more specific diagnosis (e.g., in emergency room settings).