9/11 terror attacks, 5–7, 9–10, 120, 179–80
ABC: America Held Hostage, 87
Abdul-Khabeer, Su’ad, 157
Abdullah-Poulos, Layla, 161
Abu-Salha, Razan and Yusor, 23–28
activism: anti-Muslim, 33; Black Lives Matter in, 10–11, 156–57; coalition building in, 179–87; in imagined threats, 127–28; against LAHC as CVE subcontractor, 148–49; against Muslim bans, 176–77, 181; as a social fad, 117–18; in the Trump era, 207; women in, 187–90
African American Muslims: and Black Lives Matter, 160–61; CVE policing of, 141–42; marginalization of, 59, 154, 166–68; and Obama, 109–10; population of, 20–21; poverty of, 140; racism in erasure of, 162–70. See also black Muslims
African Americans, 141, 155–59. See also Black Lives Matter movement
Ahmad, Muneer I.: “A Rage Shared by Law,” 23, 42–43
Al-Azhar University, Cairo, 110–11, 115
Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building, bombing of, 70–75
Ali, Muhammad, 152–54, 168–69, 226n1
Al-Khatahtbeh, Amani, 190
Allison, Robert: The Crescent Obscured, 54
Al Qaeda, 93–94, 97–98, 99–100, 101, 131–32
Alsultany, Evelyn: Arabs and Muslims in the Media, 85–86, 102
Alvarez, Richard, 102–3
America Held Hostage (ABC), 87
American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee, 219n54
American identity, 18–19, 76–77, 78, 133, 205
American-Islamic Relations, Council on, 33, 104
“American Law for American Courts,” 107–8
American Sniper (Eastwood), 83–85
An-Na‘im, Abullahi Ahmed: What Is an American Muslim?, 20–21
Antebellum Islam, 55–59
anti-black racism, 153–61, 162–73
anti-Shari‘a legislation, 105–9
Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act (AEDPA), 1996, 90–91
appearance, physical, 34–35, 83, 94
Arab American Institute, 219n54
Arabian American Oil Company (ARAMCO), 67–68
Arabs: Arab Americans, 20–21, 100, 120–21, 140, 188, 219n54; Arab identity, 21, 34–35, 49, 51, 59–69; as honorary whites, 68; in immigration and citizenship policy, 47; modern imagery of, 89; in the Muslim ban, 172; in Orientalism, 20, 53; as terrorists, 85–86, 101–2
Arabs and Muslims in the Media (Alsultany), 102
Arab Spring, 160–61
Assad regime, 133–34
assimilation, 65–66, 134, 137, 168
Auston, Donna: “Mapping the Intersections of Islamophobia and #Black Lives Matter,” 168–69
Aziz, Sahar, 135–36
backlash: media in, 74–75; political Islamophobia in, 193–94; poverty in vulnerability to, 140; terror attacks in, 6, 41, 71–73; in war on terror/Muslims, 95; wearing of hijabs in, 72, 204–5
Baldwin, James, 61, 194–95; The Fire Next Time, 177
bans of Muslim immigrants: activism against, 176–77, 181; in campaign strategy, 8–9, 191–92; demonization in, 3; fear inspired by, 174–75, 177–78; media on, 31–32, 173; in naturalization, 46–48, 59–69; racism in, 63, 170–73; as structural Islamophobia, 37–38, 62, 63, 176–77, 178. See also immigrants/immigration
Barakat, Deah, 23–28
belonging, in existential binaries, 116–18, 119–20
Beydoun, Ali Amine, 199–203
Beydoun Fikrieh, 1
Bilal, Malika, 190
bin Laden, Osama, 131–32
Black, Hugo, 195–96
black identity/blackness: criminality conflated with, 170; in CVE policing, 141–42; in enslavement of Africans, 46, 56–59; Muslim Americans coopting, 154–55, 161, 168; in narratives of Muslim America, 20; racialization of, 48–49
Black liberation movement, 159–60
Black Lives Matter movement: and anti-black racism, 155–61, 165–66; in coalition-building, 180–81; on institutional racism, 10–11, 153; in intersectionality of racism and Islamophobia, 168, 169–70; and the Obama administration, 115
black Muslims, 49, 55–59, 69, 166–68, 169–73. See also African American Muslims
Blitzer, Wolf, 74–75
Bosniak, Linda: The Citizen and the Alien, 83
Boston, MA, 142
Brown, Mike, 155–56
Bush, George H.W., 77
Bush, George W. and administration, 37–38, 88–90, 92, 96–97, 99–101, 103–5, 119
Cairo speech (Obama), 110–11, 115
campaign strategy, 8–9, 12–13, 159–60, 179–80, 190–93
Camus, Albert, 70
caricatures of Muslims, 34–35, 37, 51, 74, 184. See also stereotypes
Carson, Ben, 66–67
Carter, Jimmy, 87
Castille, Philando, 142
Center for American Progress, 173
Chapel Hill murders, 23–28
Charlie Hebdo attack, 134
children as “radicals,” 147–48
Christianity/Christians, 47–48, 59–69, 73–74, 218n42
Chung, Connie, 70–71
Citizen and the Alien, The (Bosniak), 83
citizenship: in antebellum America, 57–58; in the “clash of civilizations,” 73, 87, 220n5; in good Muslim, bad Muslim binary, 119–20; Muslims debarred from, 46–48, 59–69; tenuousness of, 5
civilization, Islamic, 79–80, 81–83, 96–98, 120–21
Civil Rights Act of 1964, 69
civil rights and liberties: denied to Muslim immigrants, 208; in the domestic war on terror/Muslims, 100–101; in good Muslim, bad Muslim binary, 121; and Islamophobia, 188–89; and state legislation on Shari‘a law, 107–8; in structural Islamophobia, 37; white interest in, 218n51
Civil Rights Movement, 69
Clash of Civilizations, The (Huntington), 80–81, 84
“clash of civilizations”: enemies in, 76–78; Muslim population in, 2; new Orientalism in, 78–83; news and entertainment media in, 83–91; in Obama’s Cairo speech, 110–11; Oklahoma City bombing in, 70–75
Clinton, Bill, 90–91
CNN, 32
coalition building, 179–88, 190
Cold War (1947–1991), 76–78
collaborators/collaboration, 113, 114–15, 121–23, 129, 135, 144–51. See also informants
communities, Muslim: anti-black racism in, 164–70; culture of in radicalization theory, 136; CVE policing in, 128–30, 142; division of by informants, 137; imagined threats in, 128–30, 133; poverty in, 3–4, 140–43; and private Islamophobia, 33–34; spiritual, in the antebellum South, 58–59; “stop and frisk” in, 141; as targets for hate, 75; in war on terror/Muslims, 101–2, 112–16
consciousness of Islamophobia, 189
conservatives, 30
Constitutional Convention of 1787, 54–55
conversion, religious, 1–3, 13–18, 46, 65–66
Countering Islamic Violence program, 9, 38–39
Countering Violent Extremism (CVE) program: defined, 210n15; in dialectical Islamophobia, 43; divide and conquer strategies in, 144–51; and “homegrown radicals,” 14–18, 128–30, 135–38, 146, 147–48; in Muslim communities, 128–30; poverty in victimization by, 140–41; and the rise of ISIS, 134–35; of Somali immigrants, 141–42; as structural Islamophobia, 38–39; in war on terror/Muslims, 111–16. See also police/policing
counter-radicalization programs: and anti-black racism, 170; divide and conquer in, 142–51; in good Muslim, bad Muslim binary, 124; and imagined threats, 135–36; liberals in, 31; as structural Islamophobia, 37–38, 111, 145
counterterror laws/policies: in citizen policing, 27; divide and conquer in, 142–51; and the rise of ISIS, 134–35; in war on terror/Muslims, 112–16. See also Countering Islamic Violence program; Countering Violent Extremism program; Homeland Security, Department of; PATRIOT ACT
Covering Islam (Said), 90
Crenshaw, Kimberlé, 7, 21–22, 211n25
Crescent Obscured, The (Allison), 54
criminalization/criminality, 57, 156–57, 163, 170, 171–72
Crisis of Islam, The (Lewis), 81–82
Cuba, 130–31
Cullors, Patrisse, 156–57
culpability, collective, 98–99, 119–20, 196–97
Curtis, Edward E.: “Islamism and Its African American Muslim Critics,” 163–64
Dabashi, Hamid, 30–31, 81–82, 145
Darwish, Mahmoud: “I Belong There,” 199
dehumanization of Muslims, 32, 51, 56–57, 84
demographics: of domestic terrorists, 91; in fear of minorities, 12–13; of Muslim Americans, 20–21; of radicalization, 113–14
demonization, 3, 32–33, 41, 46–47, 51, 162
Detroit, MI, 143–44, 146–49, 148–50, 199–207
dialectical Islamophobia, 29, 40–44, 103–4
Diouf, Sylviane, 58
diversity: in activism, 179, 181–82; in “clash of civilizations” theory, 79; of CVE informants, 148; in interpretations of Shari‘a, 106–7; of Muslim America, 20–21; of slaves, 56–57
divide and conquer, 142–51
“dog whistle” campaign messaging, 9
domestic war on terror/Muslims, 97, 99–102
Douglass, Frederick, 57
Dow v. United States, 63, 65, 65 table, 68
dress, style of, 23–26, 34–35, 72, 94, 157–58, 204–5
Dubois, W.E.B.: The Souls of Black Folk, 139
East/West binary: in American identity, 18–19; in Hollywood films, 83–84; in Islamophobia, 33, 36, 37; Orientalism in, 51–52, 75, 76–77, 79–80
Eastwood, Clint: American Sniper, 83–85
Elamin, Nisrin, 171–72
electorate, American, 191–92
Ellis naturalization case, 64 table
“enemies,” 76–78
Engle, Karen, 121
entertainment media, 83–85, 88, 102–3
erasure and anti-black racism, 154–55, 162–70, 172
ethnocentrism, 164
Europe, Orientalism in, 52–53
exclusion of Muslims, 31–32, 59–60, 73, 166–68, 169–70
existential binaries, 116–24
“experts” on terrorism, 31–32, 72
extremism, Islamic: in divide and conquer strategies, 145, 147–48; in Hollywood films, 85; in imagined radicalization, 135–36, 138; in Orientalism, 78, 81; and solidarity, 183–84; and structural Islamophobia, 38, 43; in war on terror/Muslims, 96–98, 99–100. See also radicalism
Federal Bureau of Investigation, 103–4, 136, 138
Federalists, 54–55
Ferguson, Missouri, 155–56, 160
Field, Stephen, 45
Fire Next Time, The (Baldwin), 177
First Amendment rights, 108–9, 120–21, 124, 129, 137, 159–60, 205
“five pillars,” 217n31
foreign policy, 67–68, 76–78, 127–28, 150
founding fathers, 53–55
Fukuyama, Francis, 82
fundamentalism, Islamic, 79, 81, 89
Gabriel, Brigitte, 145
Garza, Alicia, 156–57
Gatestone Institute, 33
geopolitics, 67–68, 75, 77–79, 81, 82–83, 88–89
George Shisim v. United States, 64 table
Gerges, Fawaz, 131
GhaneaBassiri, Kambiz, 162; A History of Islam in America, 69
global Islamophobia, 130–31
good and evil, binary of, 76–78
good muslim, bad muslim binary, 116–24, 137, 144
government: in framing of Islamophobia, 19–20, 27–28; in structural Islamophobia, 36–39
“Ground Zero” mosque (NYC), 106, 107
Gualteiri, Sarah, 68
guilt, presumption of, 40–41, 41–42, 98–99, 134–35, 195–96, 196–97
Gulati, Mitu, 121
Hachem, Du’aa, 25
Hamtramck, Minnesota, 126
“hardships of war” standard, 195–97
harmonized identity, 152–53
Harris, Cheryl, 7; Whiteness as Property, 56
Hassanen, Nabra, 193–94
hate crimes, 25, 29, 33–34, 103–4, 193–94
Havana, Cuba, 130–31
headscarves. See hijabs
Hicks, Craig, Chapel Hill murderer, 25–28, 33, 41–42, 53–54
Hill, Margari, 167–68
Hirsi Ali, Ayaan, 145
History of Islam in America, A (GhaneaBassiri), 69
“homegrown radicals,” 14–18, 38, 129–30, 135–38, 146, 147–48
Homeland Security, Department of: counter-radicalization program of, 13–14; divide and conquer strategy of, 144–51; in imagined threats, 128–30, 135–38, 141; in structural Islamophobia, 37; in war on terror/Muslims, 97. See also national security
homogenization of the Muslim World, 79–80
homophobia, 184–85
hoodies in murders of black men, 157–58
Huntington, Samuel P., 70, 75, 78–83; The Clash of Civilizations, 80–81, 84
Hutton, George H., 59–61
ideology: of color-blindness, 157; of Islam as a rival, 18, 107–8; Islamophobia as, 13; in Orientalism, 81
Ignatius, David, 132
“illegality” and “terrorism,” 13–18
immigrants/immigration: anti-black racism of, 163–65; black, in the Muslim ban, 170–73; in campaign rhetoric, 191–92; and civil liberties, 208; in the “clash of civilizations,” 91; policies on, 38–39, 41, 43, 46–48, 57–58, 68–69, 219n57; policing of in Los Angeles, 4, 14; registries of, 9, 100–101; Sikh, 92–96; undocumented, 172–73; in war on terror/Muslims, 105. See also bans of Muslim immigrants
Immigration Act of 1924, 68–69
Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, 69
imposter syndrome, 117
informants, 104, 112–13, 122, 129, 137–38, 143–51. See also collaborators/collaboration
Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, 140
Institute for Social Policy and Understanding: “Muslim Survey Poll,” 160–61
interlocutors, 113, 122, 143–44
“internment of psyche,” 196–98
intersectionality, 21–22, 153–54, 161, 162–70, 180–81, 211n25
intruder syndrome, 117
Iran hostage crisis, 1979–1981, 86–88
Iraq, 86, 88–90, 99, 132, 133–34
ISIS terrorists (Islamic State of Iraq and Syria), 99, 129–35, 130–35, 191–92
Islam: antebellum, 55–59; as civilizational foil, 36, 50, 54; in the “clash of civilizations,” 78, 79–80, 87–88; compatibility of with American culture, 42; conflated with the Middle East, 139; growth of, in America, 20–21; and insubordination, 216–17n28; in national security policy, 75; in Orientalism, 49–50, 79–80; as political identity, 15; as a rival ideology, 18, 107–8; terrorism conflated with, 30, 102
Islam and the Blackamerican (Jackson), 165
Islamic Circle of North America, 164
Islamic Society of Baltimore, 110, 111, 112–16
Islamic Society of North America, 164, 166–67
Islamophobia: definition of, 6–7, 18–20, 28–32; political, 112–14, 178, 188–94. See also dialectical Islamophobia; private Islamophobia; structural Islamophobia
Islamophobia and Racism (Love), 20
Islamophobia Industry, The (Lean), 88
“Islam’s bloody borders,” 98
Jackson, Sherman: Islam and the Blackamerican, 165
Japanese internment, 195–96
Jasser, Zuhdi, 146
Jesus of Nazareth, 60
Jindal, Bobby, 66–67
Johnson, Lyndon, 69
Karst, Kenneth, 120
Khabeer, Su’ad Abdul: Muslim Cool, 168
Khan, Khizr and Ghazala, 123–24
Khomeini, Ruhollah, Ayatollah, 78, 86–87
Korematsu v. United States, 195–96
Kyle, Chris, 84
Latinx, 1–5, 13–18, 20, 141, 183
law enforcement, 37, 128–30, 135. See also Countering Islamic Violence program; police/policing
laws: anti-Shari‘a, 107–9; in the “clash of civilizations,” 90–91; in dialectical Islamophobia, 42; Muslim identity in, 62; Orientalism in, 54; in structural Islamophobia, 36–39; in war on terror/Muslims, 98–99; whiteness in, 46–48, 65, 68
Leaders Advancing and Helping Communities (LAHC), 146–49
leaders/leadership: of Black Lives Matter, 10–11, 158–59, 160; black Muslims excluded from, 166–68; of the LGBTQ community, 183–84; Muslim women in, 187–90; of the Nation of Islam, 162–63; as native informants, 145–46, 165–66; of student immigrants, 163–64
Lean, Nathan: The Islamophobia Industry, 88
Lebanese American Heritage Club (LAHC), 147–49
Lebanese Americans, 143, 144, 147–49
Le Pen, Marine, 134
Lewis, Bernard: The Crisis of Islam, 81–82
LGBTQ activism, 183–86
liberals, 30–32
liberation, collective, 180–81
lifestyle in imagined threats, 127–29
“Little Mogadishu” (Minneapolis, MN), 125–26
López, Ian Haney: White by Law, 61
Love, Erik: Islamophobia and Racism, 20
Mahan, Alfred Thayer, 216n19
Maher, Bill, 30–31
Mahfouz, Wassim, 147–48
“Make America Great Again” (MAGA), 12, 47
Malik, Nesrine, 123
marginalization, 59, 141–42, 154–55, 166–68
Martin, Trayvon, 156–57
Martinez Torrez, Darwin, 193–94
Mateen, Omar, 183
materialization: of Orientalism, 52; of race, 56–57, 61–62
media: on the Chapel Hill murders, 27–28; in the “clash of civilizations,” 83–91; in dialectical Islamophobia, 41, 42; exclusion of Muslims in, 31–32; Middle East in, 102–3, 104; Muslim American women in, 190; on the Muslim bans, 31–32, 173; on Oklahoma City bombing, 70–75; on private Islamophobia, 34, 35–36. See also news media
Middle East: divide and conquer in foreign policy in, 150; in the first Muslim ban, 60–69, 64–65 table; in the media, 102–3, 104; in Orientalism, 52–53, 55, 78–80, 81; origins and usage of, 216n19
Middle Eastern Americans, 68, 91, 218n53, 219n54
Middle Eastern identity: in imagined threats, 139, 163; Muslim identity as, 20, 49, 53; in naturalization, 68–69; as proxy for terrorism, 85–87, 101–2
Middle Eastern Muslims: caricatures of, 34–35, 37, 74; in good Muslim/bad Muslim binary, 120–21; in imagined threats, 127–28; lack of American contact with, 102–3, 105; and Oklahoma City bombing, 70–75
Minneapolis, MN, 125–30, 142, 150, 151
minorities, 12–13, 58, 179–80, 193, 194–95
miscegenation, 62–63
Mogahed, Dalia, 161
Mohriez, Mohammed, 65 table, 67–68
mosques: in the “clash of civilizations,” 71, 87; counter-radicalization policing in, 14; informants in, 138; political aversion to, 112; and private Islamophobia, 33–34; in war on terror/Muslims, 101–2, 104
MSNBC, 32
Mudarri, naturalization case of, 64 table
Muhammad, Elijah, 162
multiculturalism, 47
murders: of Balbir Singh Sodhi, 35, 92–96; at Chapel Hill, 23–28, 33; dialectical Islamophobia in, 40–42; of Nabra Hassanen, 193–94; of unarmed black men, 155–59. See also hate crimes; violence
Muslim Americans: and the American dream, 203; and blackness, 154–55, 168; in the “clash of civilizations,” 83, 91; diversity and demographics of, 20–21; as imagined radicals, 125–30, 139–43, 143–51; as informants, 112–13, 137–38; meaning of 9/11 for, 5–7; Muslim Brotherhood, 39; in new coalitions, 180, 184–86; as outsiders, 116–19, 130; support for Black Lives Matter by, 160–61; in war on terror/Muslims, 101–2, 112–16, 120–24
Muslim identity: as as Arab or South Asian, 172; and blackness, 154–55, 161; of black slaves, 46, 55–59; in citizenship policy, 46–48, 59–69; in the “clash of civilizations,” 89–90; concealment of, 205–6; in imagined threats, 125–30, 133, 134; in law, 62; and the Nation of Islam, 163–64; in non-Muslim imaginations, 139; in Orientalism, 20, 49, 55; in performance of patriotism, 120–21; in presumptions of guilt, 41–42; racialization of, 20–21, 52–53; in structural Islamophobia, 36, 37; terrorists conflated with, 13, 27, 37, 43, 74–75, 101–2, 114–15, 176; in war on terror/Muslims, 116–24
Muslim-majority nations, 8, 69, 99, 100–101, 170–73, 219n46
Muslim Public Affairs Council (MPAC), 148, 150
Muslim Students Association, 164
“Muslim Survey Poll” (Institute for Social Policy and Understanding), 160–61
Muslim World: in the clash of civilizations, 78–79, 81, 86, 88–89; in immigration and naturalization policy, 57–58, 60, 67; in Orientalism, 50, 52–53, 54, 56, 79–80
Najour, George, 64 table
national security, 9, 75, 97, 104–5, 195–96, 210n15. See also Countering Violent Extremism (CVE) program; Homeland Security, Department of
National Security Entry and Exit Registration System (NSEERS), 100–101
Nation of Islam (NOI), 162–64, 168–69
naturalization, 46–48, 59–61, 63, 64 table, 65–66
Naturalization Act of 1790, 48
Naturalization Act of 1952, 68–69
news media: in the “clash of civilizations,” 85–91; on Oklahoma City bombings, 70–72, 73–75; Orientalism in, 83; in private Islamophobia, 31–33; on the rise of ISIS, 132–33; in war on terror/Muslims, 102, 103. See also media
New York Police Department, 141
Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, 178
Nomani, Asra, 145
non-Muslims: contact of with Muslims, 102–3; Sikhs, 34–36, 92–96; in terror attacks, 134–35; as victims of Islamophobic violence, 33–35
Noor, Asha, 148–49, 150, 167–68
normalization, 168
Not without My Daughter, 88
oath of induction (shahada), 2–3
Obama, Barak and administration: as an Islamophobe, 31; in CVE policing, 135, 210n15; as “Deporter in Chief,” 4; in divide and conquer, 146; and the myth of color-blindness, 157; in structural Islamophobia, 38; in war on terror/Muslims, 105, 109–16, 119
Obama, Michelle, 110
Oklahoma City bombing, 70–75
“one attack away,” 193, 194–98
Operation Desert Shield, 88–90
organizations, Muslim American, 9, 39, 87, 101–2, 147–48, 164–68
Orientalism: in the antebellum South, 58–59; in the “clash of civilizations,” 75, 78–83, 86, 90; in early American history, 49, 53–55; in the first Muslim ban, 62, 63; integration in, 66; Islamophobia as, 28–29, 36; of Muslim identity, 20, 49, 55; new, 78–83; in the roots of Islamophobia, 50–55; tropes of, 20, 37, 78, 79–80, 90, 104–5, 139; in war on terror/Muslims, 104–5
Osman, Hibaaq, 151
Out of Place (Said), 118
Paris attacks, 134
patriotism, 26, 119–24, 121, 123–24
performance, 76, 119–24, 120–21, 163–64
Persian Gulf War, 1990, 86, 88–90
police/policing: anti-black racism in, 155–59, 160, 170; in the “clash of civilizations,” 90–91; in counter-radicalization programs, 14; Muslim identity in, 62; as structural Islamophobia, 29, 37; in Trump’s policies, 9; in war on terror/Muslims, 27, 37, 97, 99–100, 112, 124. See also Countering Violent Extremism (CVE) program
policies: in the “clash of civilizations,” 90–91; in the Cold War, 76–77; in dialectical Islamophobia, 40–41, 42; in framing Islamophobia, 19–20; in Islamophobia, 27, 36–39; Muslim ban as, 176–77; Orientalism in, 54, 80; and poverty, 140; xenophobia in, 4–5
political Islamophobia, 112–14, 178, 188–94
population statistics: of African American Muslims, 20–21; of enslaved Muslims, 56; in fear mongering, 12–13; Latinos in, 2; of Muslim immigrants in Detroit, 143; rise of in the “clash of civilizations,” 2
post-racial fictions, 157
practice of faith, 45–46, 56, 58, 121–22, 127–29, 137, 217n31
presidential election, 2016, 122–23, 204–7
print media, 87–88
private Islamophobia: in anti-Shari‘a legislation, 108–9; in the “clash of civilizations,” 90; CVE policing in, 137; in defining Islamophobia, 29–30, 32–36, 39, 40–44; in war on terror, 29–30, 103–4, 111–12
profiling, religious and racial: and anti-black racism, 170; in dialectical Islamophobia, 41, 43; in imagined threats, 125–30, 135, 137; in war on terror/Muslims, 103, 119
propaganda, 79–80, 86–90, 132–33, 138
protest and protest movements, 12–13, 33, 155–61, 167–68, 176–77, 181
Pulse nightclub, Orlando, FL, 183–84, 185–86
quotas on immigration, 68–69, 219n57
race: criminalization of, 156–57, 170, 171–72; defined, 215n15; in good Muslim/bad Muslim binary, 116–17, 120–21; legal construction of, 55–59, 61; and poverty, 140, 141–42; in xenophobia, 4–5
racialization: of blackness, 48–49; definition of, 215n15; of Muslim identity, 20–21, 52–53; in private Islamophobia, 34–36
racial justice, 153, 156, 180–81, 190
racism: anti-black, 153–61, 162–73; in fear mongering, 12–13; institutional, 10–11, 39, 153, 157–58, 188; in Muslim bans, 63, 170–73; in the Trump campaign, 191–92
radicalism: black, 162–63, 168; “homegrown,” 14–18, 129–30, 135–38, 146, 147–48; poverty in, 139–43; and the rise of Isis, 130–35; and Shari‘a law, 107; as a social fad, 117–18; Somalis associated with, 172; suspected of recent converts, 14–18
radicalization: divide and conquer in countering, 144–51; homegrown, 135–38; ISIS terrorists in, 129–35; in Obama’s rhetoric, 113–14; presumed, of Muslim youth, 125–30; prevention of, 135–36, 137–38
radicalization theory, 135–38
Rascoff, Samuel, 135
Rashad, Kameelah Mu’min, 109–10, 115–16
Reagan, Ronald, 77
Real Time with Bill Maher, 30–31
recruitment: of informants, 113, 144; by terror groups, 131, 133, 141
Reel Bad Arabs (Shaheen), 102
registry of Muslim immigration, 9, 38–39, 100–101
religion: of the 9/11 terrorists, 98; freedom of, 108–9, 120–21, 124, 129, 137, 159–60, 205; in imagined threats, 135, 141–42; in the roots of Islamophobia, 57, 61; in xenophobia, 4–5. See also Christianity/Christians; Islam
religious identity, 2, 56–57, 148–49. See also Muslim identity
representations of Muslims, 37, 103. See also caricatures of Muslims; stereotypes
resistance to Islamophobia, 181–82, 187–90, 207
revenge. See vengeance, American
Reviving the Islamic Spirit gathering, 164, 165–66
rhetoric: in dialectical Islamophobia, 42; in French Islamophobia, 134; national security in, 9; in political Islamophobia, 191–93; radicalization in, 113–14; of Trump, 13, 84–85, 191–92
Ridge, Tom, 97
roots of Islamophobia, 50–55, 192–93, 195–96, 207
Roque, Frank, 35
Roy, Olivier, 138
Said, Edward: Covering Islam, 90; Orientalism, 20, 50–51, 52; Out of Place, 118
Saito, Natsu, 120–21
Sanford, FL, 156–57
Saudi Arabia, 88–89
Saudi Arabs, 67
scapegoating, 9–10, 70–73, 183
sectarian divides, 143–44, 148, 150
Sethi, Arjun, 35
shahada (oath of induction), 2–3, 15
Shaheen, Jack: Reel Bad Arabs, 102
Shahid, Faras, 62–63, 64 table
Shari‘a law, 105–9
Shiite Muslims, 89, 116, 131–32, 133–34, 143–44, 148
Sikhs, 34–36, 92–96. See also South Asian non-Muslims
slaves, Muslim, 45–46, 48–49, 55–59, 162, 172, 207, 216–17n28
Smith, Henry, 62–63
social justice activism, 127–28, 180–81, 190
social media, 10–11, 126–28, 132–33, 148–49
Sodhi, Balbir Singh, 35, 92–96
solidarity, 160–61, 182–84, 186–87, 190, 204–5
Somali Muslims, 125–30, 141–42, 150, 170–71, 172
Souls of Black Folk, The (Dubois), 139
South Asian Muslims: in BLM, 180; and the Civil Rights Act of 1964, 69; in immigration and citizenship policy, 47; in the Muslim bans, 47, 172; and the NOI, 163–64; population of, 20–21; poverty of, 140
South Asian non-Muslims, 34–36, 92–96
Southern Poverty Law Center, 34
Soviet Union, 76–77
“spiritlessness,” 57
spirituality, 127–29
statelessness, 118
stereotypes: in American Orientalism, 54; in the “clash of civilizations,” 78, 88, 91; homophobia in, 184; in Islamophobia, 18, 26–27, 34–35, 41–42; of Muslims as terrorists, 13, 43, 74–75, 85–86, 101–2, 114–15, 176; subversion in, 37, 196; wealth and poverty in, 139–40
stigmatization: of Arab and Middle Eastern identity, 68–69
“stop and frisk,” 141
structural Islamophobia: and anti-black racism, 170–73; in the “clash of civilizations,” 90–91; and the CVE program, 38–39, 111, 145; in dialectical Islamophobia, 40–44; East/West binary in, 36, 37; in imagined threats, 141, 150; “legitimacy” of, 29–30; Muslim bans as, 37–38, 62, 63, 176–77, 178; in the Obama administration, 112–16; in war on terror/Muslims, 101–2, 103, 104–9, 114, 121; women’s activism against, 188–89
student associations, 14, 101–2, 138
students, 69, 163–64, 171–72, 180–81, 219n46
subversion, 15, 37, 121–22, 137, 141–42, 165, 196
Sudanese Muslims, 170–72
Sunni Muslims: identity of, 116, 118; as informants, 143, 144; in the media, 89; tensions of with Shiites, 148; and terror networks, 142; vulnerability of, to recruitment, 133; in war on terror/Muslims, 98
Supreme Court, 195–96
surveillance programs: and anti-black racism, 170; in dialectical Islamophobia, 41; in good Muslim, bad Muslim binary, 119; poverty in vulnerability to, 140–43; in war on terror/Muslims, 99–100, 101–2, 105. See also Countering Islamic Violence program; Countering Violent Extremism (CVE) program
suspicion: “acting Muslim” in, 205; in the “clash of civilizations,” 91; in dialectical Islamophobia, 41–42; legal justification of, 195–97; of radicalism, 126–35; recent converts under, 14–18; in war on terror/Muslims, 97, 101–2
Syrian Christians, 68
Takruri, Dena, 190
Taliban, 99
Taylor, Keeanga-Yamahtta, 157
television media, 87–88, 102. See also media
terminology: in Orientalism, 81, 82–83; in structural Islamophobia, 106–7
terror groups/networks: in good Muslim, bad Muslim binary, 119, 122; Islam conflated with, 30, 102; and radicalization, 135–36; recruitment by, 131, 133, 141; Sunni communities targeted by, 142
terrorism: backlash from, 6, 41, 71–73; in campaign strategy, 179–80; by Christians, 70–75; in the “clash of civilizations,” 70–75, 87, 90–91, 122; in creating Islamophobia, 19; in dialectical Islamophobia, 40–41, 43; in fear of rising Islamophobia, 194–98; and “illegality,” 13–18; and political identity, 15; poverty in suspicion of, 142; September 11, 2001, 5–7, 9–10, 120, 179–80
terrorists: Black Lives Matter activists as, 159; demographics of, 91; “Middle Eastern” as proxy for, 85–87, 101–2; Muslim identity conflated with, 13, 43, 74–75, 101–2, 114–15, 176; portrayals of, 84, 85–86
threats, imagined: counter-radicalization strategies for, 144–51; homegrown radicals as, 135–38; ISIS terrorists in, 129–35; Muslim youth as, 125–30; poverty in, 139–43
Tometi, Opal, 156–57
Touré, Tariq: “Respectable Genocide,” 158–59
traditions, Muslim, 58, 141, 144, 168, 207
Trump, Donald J. and administration: campaign of, 159–60, 179–80, 191–92; election of in renewed fear, 4, 12–13, 179, 204–7; in intensified Islamophobia, 179; and Muslim and Latinx communities, 3–4; Muslim bans by, 8–9, 174–77; political Islamophobia of, 178, 189–90; on private Islamophobia, 34; rhetoric of, 13, 84–85, 191–92; in war on terror/Muslims, 96
Tuttle, Arthur J., 66
undocumented immigrants, 172–73
U.S. Census, 219n54
values, American, 18, 37, 46–47, 66–67
Varisco, Daniel Martin, 52
vengeance, American, 84, 99–102
Victims of Immigration Crime Engagement (VOICE) program, 14
victims/victimhood, 17–18, 42–43, 97–98
vigilantes, 40–42, 103–4, 157–58
violence: in backlash from terrorism, 72; in institutional racism, 10–11; in Islamophobia, 19–20, 24–25, 26–29, 32–33, 34–35, 40–42; Muslim identity conflated with, 133; in Orientalism, 51; in the rise of ISIS, 132–33; systemic, 153; vigilante, 103–4, 157–58. See also murders
Waheed, Nayyirah: “Immigrant,” 174
Wahhabism, 98–99
Walsh, Declan, 123–24
war-on-terror law and policy, 6–7, 26–27, 29–30, 36–39, 41, 44, 100. See also Countering Islamic Violence program; Countering Violent Extremism (CVE) program; PATRIOT ACT
war on terror/war on Muslims: collective culpability in, 98–99, 196–97; divide and conquer in, 150; good Muslim/bad Muslim binary in, 116–24; in new Orientalism, 80; Obama in, 109–16; in the post 9/11 period, 51; poverty and imagined threats in, 139–43; “with us or against us” binary in, 96–105
Warsame, Rahma, 41
wealth of Muslim Americans, 139–40
Western civilization/society, 33, 50–52, 81–83, 107–8. See also “clash of civilizations”
What Is an American Muslim? (An-Na‘im), 20–21
White by Law (López), 61
white men as experts on Muslims, 31–32
whiteness: and citizenship, 12, 46–48, 59–69; materialization of, 56–57, 61–62; in Orientalism, 49–50; in racism by non-black Muslims, 164, 165–66, 168
Whiteness as Property (Harris), 56
Wilson, Darren, 155–56
wiretaps, 100
“with us or against us” binary, 96–109, 119
women, Muslim American, 137, 187–90
Women’s March, January 2, 2017, 182–83, 186–87
working-class Muslims, 139–43
World Trade Center bombing, 71. See also 9/11 terror attacks
Wyzanski, Charles, 67–68
xenophobia, 4–5, 12, 102, 173, 188–89, 191–92
Yemen, 66
Yemenis, 143
youth, Muslim: and CVE policing, 113, 136–37; in divide and conquer strategy, 150; and the election of Trump, 206–7; integration of, 116–17; ISIS recruitment of, 133; profiling of as radicals, 125–30; in social justice activism, 180–81
Yusuf, Hamza (Sheikh), 165–66
al-Zawahiri, Ayman, 131–32
Zimmerman, George, 156–57
Zinn, Howard, 92