Freshwater Life - A field guide to the plants and animals of southern Africa

9	Text by Warwick Tarboton

Damselflies and dragonflies

Order Odonata

Medium to large insects. Adults have long slender abdomens, two pairs of complexly veined, transparent wings, large compound eyes and very short antennae. Adults use their legs to seize other insects in flight; nymphs grab prey under water with their greatly elongated lower jaw (labial mask). Males and females often with different coloration: males brightly coloured, females mostly duller. Males of most species establish territories over water and compete for visiting females. Mating technique and method of sperm transfer unique, with male attached to female’s head using terminal claspers, and female extracting sperm from storage chamber near anterior end of male’s abdomen. Female lays eggs in batches, dropping them on the water, or inserting them into plant stems. Eggs hatch in 1–3 weeks. Nymphs may emerge as adults 1–3 months later, or may remain in this phase for a year or more. Over much of the region adults present in summer only. About 6,000 species worldwide, 240 in southern Africa.

Damselflies

Suborder Zygoptera

More slender-bodied and narrow-winged than dragonflies (suborder Anisoptera, p.158), their smaller compound eyes are separated and, except in a few genera, they have similar-sized wings, held together when at rest.

1 Demoiselles

Family Calopterygidae

One species in the region, the Glistening demoiselle (Phaon iridipennis) is a very large damselfly with large smoky brown wings and long very slender abdomen; metallic bronze-green in colour, males with violet glint on wings; unlike any other damselfly in region. Nymph (1a) slender and very long-legged, easily recognised by greatly enlarged first antennal segment. Size: Body 70mm in length. Biology: A savanna species, mainly in low-lying country, restricted to wooded or forested fringes of perennial rivers and streams. Perches on, or close to, the ground and is easily overlooked, given its dark coloration.

2 Jewels

Family Chlorocyphidae

Three species in the region, all with short broad abdomens, long narrow wings that project beyond abdomen when at rest, and snout-like faces. In the Dancing jewel (Platycypha caligata) the male (2) has a vivid blue abdomen and flattened tibiae that are red in front and white behind; female (2a) dull brown. Nymph is recognised by having only two, not three, gills at the end of the abdomen. Size: Body 32mm in length. Biology: Restricted to flowing streams and rivers, especially those below shady tree canopies; territorial males perch at intervals along such streams on twigs or rocks, competing for the attention of visiting females by hovering in the air, while moving their legs very rapidly forward and backward, producing alternating flashes of red and white.

3 Spreadwings

Family Lestidae

Named for their habit of perching with wings fully spread; 10 species occur in the region, one of which, the Highland spreadwing (Lestes plagiatus) (3 and map, male shown), occurs widely and commonly across the eastern half of southern Africa; it is distinguished from other Lestidae by the thorax colour pattern and, in males, by structure of claspers. Nymphs (3a) long and slender, labium distinctive, very elongate and from below resembling a spoon with a long handle. Size: Body 45mm in length. Biology: Frequent sedge- and grass-fringed ponds and slow-flowing streams and rivers, perching on emergent stems within a metre of the water; often gregarious.

4 Malachites

Family Synlestidae

Large, slender, metallic green damselflies that perch with wings spread and, in males of most species, have powder blue-and-black wing bands. Eight of the world’s nine species are endemic to South Africa and several are listed in the Red Data books, owing to their restricted ranges and shrinking habitat. Mountain malachite (Chlorolestes fasciatus) (4 and map, male shown) is the most widespread species, distinguished by its thorax colour pattern and, in males, by clasper structure. Nymphs (4a) long and slender, resembling those of spreadwings, but appendages at end of abdomen more rounded and marked with a dark bar. Size: Body 45mm in length. Biology: Occurs commonly along grass- and sedge-fringed streams in upland grasslands, territorial males perching at intervals on overhanging plant stems.

Stream damsels

Family Platycnemididae

A diverse family, with 404 species worldwide, of small to medium-sized damselflies with long slender abdomens and distinctive wing venation; males of most species blue or grey, females paler or sandy brown. Nymphs (1) short and robust with long, spindly, banded legs and little patterning. The three gills at the end of the abdomen are thickened and sausage-like.

2 Goldtail

Allocnemis leucosticta

Easily recognised, having smoky brown wings and bulbous white pterostigma; male (2) with vivid yellow terminal segments to abdomen (hence name), blue face and blue undersides to eyes. Endemic to South Africa. Size: Body 42mm in length. Biology: Restricted to areas of higher rainfall; occurs along streams and seeps, especially in wooded or forested mountainous country; often gregarious, perching on tops of plant stems close to water. When disturbed, takes off with weak fluttering flight.

3 Common threadtail

Elattoneura glauca

Small, with very slender abdomen; male (3) has pale greyish-blue head, thorax and terminal segments of abdomen, rest of abdomen black, with distinctive narrow white rings where segments join; female (3a) pale brown with broad white thorax stripe. Threadtails distinguished from other small damselflies by wing venation. Size: Body 34mm in length. Biology: Frequents vegetated margins of seeps, streams and slow-flowing rivers, perching close to water surface on emergent plants or rocks; often gregarious; common but easily overlooked, given its small size. RELATED SPECIES: Dark-coloured Sooty threadtail (E. frenulata) is endemic to the Western Cape.

Bluets, sprites and other small coenagrionid damselflies

Family Coenagrionidae

A very large diverse family of small damselflies: 1,267 species currently recognised worldwide, with about 60 in southern Africa. Many of these are endemic to the region and several have restricted ranges. Males and females have different coloration, females being duller than males. Wing venation serves to distinguish the different genera, and male clasper morphology separates the various species. Nymphs (4) relatively slender, with three leaf-like gills and fairly short labial mask that reaches back only to first pair of legs.

5 Swamp bluet

Africallagma glaucum

The most common of several small, bright blue-and-black damselflies in the region, collectively called bluets; several of these species closely similar and only identifiable with certainty by male’s clasper morphology. Female (5, shown below blue male) pale blue or pale brown and best identified by association with male. Size: Body 28mm in length. Biology: Common, occurring on most still water bodies (ponds, dams, pans) where there is floating vegetation and/or emergent grasses and sedges. Perches close to water on low emergent plant stems or floating plant leaves; flight weak.

6 Common citril

Ceriagrion glabrum

Male has bright orange abdomen, orange-yellow thorax and green eyes (6); female dull greenish orange and olive brown. Commonest of seven citril species in the region and its range extends northwards to East and West Africa. Size: Body 40mm in length. Biology: Frequents swampy habitats, especially areas of flooded grass, but commonly ranges into surrounding dry vegetation; flies weakly when disturbed, settles on plant stems close to water.

7 Tropical bluetail

Ischnura senegalensis

Colour highly variable – identifiable by bicoloured pterostigma and, in males (7), by distinctively marked blue-and-black terminal segments of abdomen; abdomen otherwise black; thorax has black dorsal lines with blue, green, white or orange sides. Very widespread species, occurring across Africa to southern Europe, Asia and Japan. Size: Body 29mm in length. Biology: Marsh-dwelling, living close to water on vegetated fringes of ponds, pans, dams and lakes; more tolerant than other Odonata of high salinity and polluted waters, where it is often the only species present.

Sprites

Pseudagrion species

This large sub-Saharan genus, the most prolific group of Odonata on the continent, has 30 species in southern Africa; seven, all common, illustrated here. In males of most species, the thorax, head and eyes are colourful, and this usually enables field identification; males also have distinctive bright blue terminal abdominal segments and many have brightly coloured spots on the head behind the eyes. Females dull in colour and most readily identified by association with males. Nymphs with slender caudal gills borne on a short stem. Preferred habitats vary between species, from fast-flowing streams to ponds and lakes; all are weak fliers.

1 Masai sprite

Pseudagrion massaicum

Most common and widespread (1, male shown) of several sprite species that have a red thorax, face, postocular spots and eyes; unequivocal identification relies on male clasper morphology. Size: Body 32mm in length. Biology: Frequents floating aquatic vegetation, especially Nymphaea (p.304), on still or slow-flowing water.

2 Cherry-eye sprite

Pseudagrion sublacteum

Male’s (2) main distinguishing feature is his eyes, which are deep red in front and black behind; face is also red; otherwise thorax a dull dark blue, paler at the sides or maroon above in young individuals; abdomen a glossy brownish green, with last two segments bright blue. Size: Body 38mm in length. Biology: Restricted to flowing water with emergent rocks or floating aquatic vegetation, on which it settles; forages for long periods by flying back and forth low over open water.

3 Painted sprite

Pseudagrion hageni

Male (3) with red face, eyes and spots behind eyes, violet-tipped abdomen and green-and-black striped thorax (race P. h. tropicanum), or orange-and-black striped thorax (P. h. hageni in Eastern Cape). Size: Body 41mm in length. Biology: Frequents deeply shaded streams with overhanging vegetation.

4 Powder-faced sprite

Pseudagrion kersteni

Male (4) acquires a powdery coating with maturity, giving him an almost uniformly blue-grey appearance, except for black lines on dorsal surface of thorax; has conspicuous blue spots behind each eye, distinctive white (powdery) patch between eyes; eyes brown above, green below. Occurs widely across African savanna belt. Size: Body 37mm in length. Biology: Frequents grass- and sedge-lined margins of streams and rivers, often in large numbers.

5 Slate sprite

Pseudagrion salisburyense

Male (5) with dark blue-grey thorax, green ventrally, glossy bluish-green abdomen, last two segments light blue, black eyes with contrasting bright blue spots behind eyes and lime green face; female duller, with blue-tipped abdomen (5a). Size: Body 36mm in length. Biology: Frequents grass- and sedge-fringed streams, ponds and dams, perching on emergent stems close to water.

6 Upland sprite

Pseudagrion spernatum

From above, male’s (6) abdomen and thorax appear uniformly dark navy blue, the top of the head being black, with contrasting bright blue spots behind eyes; underside of abdomen, though, is apple green, as is lower front of face and underside of eyes; forehead develops a whitish patch. Size: Body 40mm in length. Biology: Frequents grass- and sedge-lined streams in upland grasslands.

7 Catshead sprite

Pseudagrion coeleste

Male (7) vivid blue with large blue spots behind eyes, black thoracic stripes and black upper surface of abdomen. Abundant in Okavango and on wetlands in the Zambezi Region, localised on Zululand and Mozambique coastal plains. Size: Body 33mm in length. Biology: Lives on floating aquatic vegetation, especially Nymphaea (p.304) leaves, on pools and slow-flowing verges of large rivers.

Dragonflies

Suborder Anisoptera

Large and more robust than damselflies, with hindwings broader than forewings and both pairs opening flat when at rest. Nymphs stout and lack gills at end of abdomen, breathing through internal rectal gills.

Hawkers and emperors

Family Aeshnidae

Family of large, colourful and conspicuous dragonflies. Of the 456 world species, 14 occur in southern Africa, four featured below. Given their large size and bright colouring and that much of their time is spent in flight, these are probably the most noticed of all dragonflies. When not flying, they perch by hanging vertically from a reed, tree stem or twig. Predatory, often taking other dragonflies.

1 Blue emperor

Anax imperator

Male is unmistakable, given large size and vivid green-and-blue coloration; female less extensively blue, but otherwise similar. Found in all but most arid parts of southern Africa, its range extending northwards across Africa into Europe and Asia. Nymph (1a) large (55mm), with flattened head and very large eyes. Labial mask long, reaching last pair of legs when folded. Size: Body 75mm in length. Biology: May hunt far from water, but male mostly encountered patrolling ponds, lakes or open sections of slow-flowing rivers, flying tirelessly back and forth, 1–2m above the water, and settling briefly at times before resuming flight. May join mixed-species dragonfly hunting swarms at dusk. Nymph feeds on large prey, including tadpoles and small fish.

2 Orange emperor

Anax speratus

Very large size and rich orange-brown head, thorax and abdomen in male (2) render this species unmistakable; female similar (2a), but thorax apple green, not orange. Very large nymph (2b) has black stripes along body. Size: Body 80mm in length. Biology: Restricted to perennial streams and rivers in open and wooded country; territorial males spend much of their time defending sections of river by patrolling up and down, flying close to the water, weaving in and out along its vegetated margins. RELATED SPECIES: Similar but smaller Swamp emperor (A. bangweuluensis) occurs in Okavango.

3 Stream hawker

Pinheyschna subpupillata

Large green, yellow and brown dragonfly (3) with yellow face and diagnostic ‘bull’s eye’ marking on forehead, most similar to Friendly hawker (see 4, below) and the two often occur together – they are most easily distinguished by absence of a blue saddle in P. subpupillata. Endemic to South Africa. Size: Length 63mm. Biology: Typically encountered along streams and rivers in mountainous grassland or fynbos, where males patrol by flying low over the water, defending sections of the watercourse. RELATED SPECIES: Closely related to Riley’s hawker (P. rileyi) in eastern Zimbabwe, but have non-overlapping ranges.

4 Friendly hawker

Zosteraeschna minuscula

Large chestnut brown dragonfly with greenish-yellow thorax stripes and abdomen markings and, in male (4), conspicuous blue saddle; forehead has T-shaped black marking. Endemic to South Africa and Namibia. Size: Body 60mm in length. Biology: Frequents slow-flowing rivers, streams and ponds in open country, where males are typically encountered patrolling back and forth along sections of the river. RELATED SPECIES: Closely similar to Forest hawker, Z. usambarica (not illustrated), differing from it in preferred habitat (the latter is forest-living), forehead marking and shape of thorax stripes.

Cruisers

Family Macromiidae

Large strikingly patterned dark brown-and-yellow dragonflies with long wings and long slender abdomens, the terminal segments of which are greatly enlarged and resemble a club. Sexes alike. Nymphs have extremely long legs and a rounded abdomen, resembing spiders in appearance. Four genera and 125 species globally, with six species in southern Africa, one featured here.

5 Darting cruiser

Phyllomacromia picta

Large, with bright yellow rings along dark brown abdomen and three diagonal yellow stripes on each side of dark brown thorax (5, male shown). Size: Body 55mm in length. Biology: Mostly encountered on the wing and often away from water, coursing back and forth while hawking for prey; perches by hanging vertically from a twig; breeds on streams and rivers.

Clubtails

Family Gomphidae

A diverse family of nearly 1,000 species, 27 in southern Africa and five featured here. Distinguished by transversely elongated head with eyes that do not join (as in damselflies), unusually short fore- and midlegs, drab coloration (mostly yellow or green with brown or black markings), little or no sexual differences in colour, clear unmarked wings, and, in many species, pronounced lobes on terminal segments of abdomen (hence the name clubtails). Nymphs (1) highly variable, from slender to broadly oval, some with tubular extension to abdomen, allowing them to breath while buried in bottom sediments.

2 Common tigertail

Ictinogomphus ferox

Largest clubtail (2, male shown) in region; it is olive, with conspicuous diagonal black stripes on thorax, black rings on abdomen and large lobes on terminal segments. Abdomen of larva broadly rounded. Size: Body 80mm in length. Biology: Savanna species, found mostly along reed- and sedge-fringed margins of large open water bodies or slow-flowing rivers, where territorial males perch at intervals on emergent plants or branches over water. Swift-flying, characteristically returning to same perch after hunting sorties. RELATED SPECIES: Similar to Swamp tigertail (I. dundoensis) (occurring together in the Okavango) and Quarre’s tiger (Gomphidia quarrei), but distinguished from these by larger size and different body markings.

3 Common thorntail

Ceratogomphus pictus

Fairly large green-eyed, but otherwise mainly yellow, clubtail with fine wavy black lines on sides of thorax and black flashing at each segment junction of abdomen; male (3) has small abdominal lobes, virtually absent in female (3a). In nymph, abdomen elongate, bearing dorsal spines. Endemic to region. Size: Body 50mm in length. Biology: Occurs on margins of streams, rivers, lakes and pans, especially where there is a bare or rocky substrate; characteristically perches on rocks or flat ground.

4 Rock hooktail

Paragomphus cognatus

Most frequently encountered clubtail across eastern half of southern Africa; medium-sized, yellowish olive, variably marked with black on thorax and abdomen; male (shown) has large abdominal lobes (absent in female) and upper claspers at tip of the abdomen curl outwards, distinguishing it from the Common (see 5, below) and other hooktails in the region. Size: Body 43mm in length. Biology: Territorial males frequent rocky streams and rivers in open or wooded country, favouring those with emergent rocks or sandy shores, which provide their preferred perch sites.

5 Common hooktail

Paragomphus genei

Much like Rock hooktail (see 4, above) in size and habits, but greener, less tied to rocky or sandy habitats and, in males (5), upper pair of claspers at tip of the abdomen do not diverge at their tips. Given its greenish-coloured thorax, can be mistaken for other green hooktails, especially Corkscrew hooktail (P. elpidius), but smaller size and shape of male claspers distinguish it. Range extends across Africa into southern Europe, the Middle East and Asia. Size: Body 45mm in length. Biology: Frequents large and small rivers and streams, lakes, pans and dams, territorial males perching on emergent plant stems.

6 Yellowjack

Notogomphus praetorius

Fairly large, bright yellow-green clubtail that, in contrast to other clubtails in the region (which have black rings), has two broad black lines running down length of its abdomen. Male (6) shown. Hindlegs are unusually long and neither sex has lobes on the abdomen. Abdomen of nymph elongate, lacking dorsal spines. Confined to areas of higher rainfall in east of the region. Size: Body 50mm in length. Biology: Frequents verges of streams in both open grassland and wooded country, including forest, perching on grass stems or low bushes; a reluctant flier and consequently easy to overlook.

Skimmers and their kin

Family Libellulidae

The largest and most diverse dragonfly family, with 1,037 species and 142 genera worldwide. The 17 species that follow provide a fairly representative cross section of the many southern African species within this diverse group. Nymphs have expanded palps that cover the lower part of the head and leave only the eyes visible (1).

2 Broad scarlet

Crocothemis erythraea

Most common and widespread of four Crocothemis species occurring in the region, its range extending across Africa into southern Europe and western Asia. Both sexes have distinctively broad thoraxes; males (2) are uniformly vivid red, females (2a) mustard with a pale cream line between the wings. Size: Length 40mm. Biology: One of the most familiar ‘red’ dragonflies, territorial males perch on rocks and emergent stems around streams, rivers, floodplains, ponds and lakes. RELATED SPECIES: The Little scarlet (C. sanguinolenta, 2b) is smaller (length 35mm) and has shorter red, not yellow, pterostigmas. Its nymphs are squat and robust, lacking dorsal and lateral spines.

3 Nomad (Red-veined darter)

Sympetrum fonscolombii

Widespread ‘red’ dragonfly, its range extending across Africa into Europe, the Middle East and India. Males (red) and females (mustard) have diagnostic wing venation with only 6–7 short cross-veins before the indent (nodus) of the leading edge of the wings (other red species have nine or more), and both sexes also have a distinctive pale diagonal line on sides of thorax. Size: Body 36mm in length. Biology: A common widespread species of standing waters, occurring in even the most arid areas, colonising ephemeral pans when they become inundated; favours still water, with territorial males perching on emergent plant stems or on the ground. Nomadic and perhaps migratory.

4 Violet dropwing

Trithemis annulata

A common dropwing of hot savanna areas, its range extending across Africa into southern Europe, the Middle East and western Asia; male (4) recognised by its vivid plum-coloured body and red wing veins; female drab and brownish, similar to other Trithemis females, but distinguished by thorax pattern. Size: Body 37mm in length. Biology: Territorial males perch at intervals along margins of rivers, lakes, pans and dams, mostly in bushveld country in southern Africa.

5 Red-veined dropwing

Trithemis arteriosa

Generally the most frequently encountered dragonfly in the region, its range extending across Africa into the Middle East. Male identified by its red abdomen, red wing veins and dark reddish-purple thorax and eyes; female dull yellow and black, distinguished from other Trithemis females by black pattern on abdomen. Size: Body 33mm in length. Biology: Territorial males frequent margins of streams, rivers, dams and lakes, perching within a metre of the water on sedges and other emergent plant stems.

6 Orange-winged dropwing

Trithemis kirbyi

Very widespread ‘red’ dragonfly occurring throughout the region and across Africa into the Middle East and Asia. Male (6) bright orange-red, with broad orange patches on inner third of both fore- and hindwings. Female yellow and black, similar to other female dropwings, but distinguished by thorax and abdomen pattern. Size: Body 33mm in length. Biology: Territorial males characteristically perch on rocks in and alongside lakes, dams and pans and in pools along streams and rivers; often settles on edges of swimming pools and on aprons of farm reservoirs and drinking troughs. RELATED SPECIES: Easily mistaken for male Red groundling (Brachythemis lacustris), which also has orange wing panels, but is squatter, and has bicoloured pterostigmas.

1 Navy dropwing

Trithemis furva

The most widespread of several dark blue dropwing species in the region; male (1) uniformly deep blue, female (1a) patterned yellow and black, with a broad black dorsal line along abdomen. Size: Body 37mm in length. Biology: Confined to grass- and sedge-lined margins of streams and rivers in wooded or open country; territorial males perch on stems overhanging water; in places the most numerous dragonfly present. RELATED SPECIES: Closely similar to Highland dropwing (T. dorsalis); males of these species only conclusively distinguished by differences in external genitalia.

2 Jaunty dropwing

Trithemis stictica

Distinctive coloration of male (2) – powder blue thorax, turquoise eyes and black-and-yellow abdomen – unmistakable; female patterned yellow and black, much like other female Trithemis species. Size: Body 36mm in length. Biology: Occurs along grass- and sedge-lined margins of streams, rivers and open ponds, where territorial males perch at intervals on stems overhanging water. Range extends to East and West Africa. RELATED SPECIES: Replaced by the closely similar Marsh dropwing (T. palustris) in the Okavango.

3 Epaulet skimmer

Orthetrum chrysostigma

Most widespread skimmer in the region; non-adult males and females tawny, with diagnostic single pale line (the ‘epaulet’) on either side of thorax; identifying mature males (4) requires examination of external genitalia. Size: Body 42mm in length. Biology: Occurs in all but the most arid areas, frequenting margins of streams, rivers, ponds and dams, especially where the verges are rocky and provide territorial males with their preferred perch sites. RELATED SPECIES: Fourteen Orthetrum species occur in the region; males have a very tapered ‘waist’ at the base of the abdomen and are notoriously difficult to distinguish on account of their acquiring, at maturity, a uniformly bluish-grey coloration (referred to as pruinosity), which masks the colouring and pattern they initially had as non-adults. Non-adult males and females have similar markings and these are mostly distinctive enough to identify to species level in the field. However, in most species mature males only distinguishable by differences in their external genitalia. Nymphs (3a) hairy, with small rectangular head, and lack dorsal spines on abdomen.

4 Julia skimmer

Orthetrum julia

Represented by two races: O. j. falsum (5) occurs widely across Africa, while O. j. capicola is confined to the Western Cape; the former is distinguishable from other skimmers by its black pterostigmas, but the latter has pale brown pterostigmas, and distinguishing mature males from other Orthetrum species requires examination of external genitalia. Non-adult males and females have two pale diagonal lines on each side of the thorax. Size: Body 44mm in length. Biology: The widespread northern form (O. j. falsum) characteristically occurs along wooded or forested streams and rivers, where territorial males perch on emergent rocks, or on twigs and branches overhanging water; by contrast, O. j. capicola commonly frequents more open riparian habitats in the Western Cape.

5 Long skimmer

Orthetrum trinacria

The largest and, in males, darkest, skimmer in the region; males (5) uniformly blackish blue, females distinctively patterned in yellow and black; both sexes have unusually long straw-coloured pterostigmas and long, slender, tapering abdomen. Size: Body 56mm in length. Biology: Frequents bare margins of large open water bodies, territorial males commonly settling on flat ground; strong fliers.

6 Eastern blacktail

Nesciothemis farinosa

Male (6) easily identified by contrasting black eyes, pale blue thorax and upper half of abdomen, and pointed black-and-yellow lower half of abdomen; female (6a) has ochre-and-black patterning, buffy wing tips and a diagnostic cream line that runs between wings to the head. Size: Body 43mm in length. Biology: A mainly savanna species that frequents margins of streams, rivers and ponds, mostly in wooded country. Territorial males perch on emergent stems over water.

1 Pantala (Wandering glider)

Pantala flavescens

Fairly large mustard-coloured dragonfly with yellow face; sexes similar, male differs from female (1) by reddish wash on upper abdomen. In both sexes very broad base of hindwing and difference in sizes of pterostigmas on forewings and hindwings are diagnostic. Fast-growing and voracious nymphs have a squat broad abdomen with large curved spines on its margin. Size: Length 48mm. Biology: Common and familiar species across the region in summer, mostly encountered on the wing and usually found in numbers together; often far from water, hunting, for example, over recently mowed grass or among grazing cattle. Lays eggs in temporary pools, even in rain puddles, and frequently attempts to lay on shiny roofs and bonnets of cars! One of the world’s most widespread dragonflies, occurring in North America, Europe, Asia and Australia; a known migrant, arriving in southern Africa from the north, October–November.

2 Banded groundling

Brachythemis leucosticta

Male (2) has all-black body and diagnostic black bands across outer third of both fore- and hindwings; female lacks wing bars and has strikingly patterned yellow-and-black thorax and abdomen; both sexes have distinctively bicoloured pterostigmas. Behaviour (see below) diagnostic. Size: Length 30mm. Biology: A mainly savanna species, gregarious and common in hot areas, occurring along the bare margins of lakes, pans and dams, especially on exposed dry mud. Typically perches on the ground, flying up and resettling when disturbed; takes prey flushed by passing animals or people.

3 Phantom flutterer

Rhyothemis semihyalina

Conspicuous and distinctive small dragonfly. Sexes alike (3, male), with entirely black head, legs and body; inner third of hindwing has an iridescent purplish-black panel. Size: Body 32mm in length. Biology: Although capable of rapid sustained flight, typically flutters in the manner of a small butterfly. Frequents vleis and ponds with emergent sedges; restricted to still water, where it usually perches on plant stems within a metre of the water. Sometimes gathers in numbers on treetops.

4 Skylight flutterer

Rhyothemis fenestrina

Unmistakable, dark, strikingly patterned and conspicuous dragonfly with metallic purple bases to hindwings; male and female (4) alike. In southern Africa confined to the Okavango, Kwando and Chobe wetlands of northern Botswana and the Zambezi Region. Size: Body 32mm in length. Biology: Gregarious, sometimes occurring in hundreds, either perching on treetops on fringes of wetlands, or gliding, soaring and fluttering above the canopy – its profile reminiscent of a biplane.

5 Yellow-veined widow

Palpopleura jucunda

One of the smallest dragonflies in the region, easily identified by tiny size and attractively patterned wings; mature male (5) has powder blue abdomen, female (5a) has black-and-yellow patterned abdomen. Size: Body 25mm in length. Biology: Found along marshy and boggy verges of many water bodies, where it perches low in the vegetation; occurs patchily, locally abundant and often gregarious.

6 Lucia widow

Palpopleura lucia

Easily recognised by its two-toned pterostigmas and striking black patches on the wings – these being much more pronounced in male (6) than in female (6a). In male the black patches cover most of the wing and their rear edges are relatively smooth. Male also develops powder blue abdomen, while female has black-and-yellow patterned abdomen. Size: Body 30mm in length. Biology: A savanna species, frequenting grassy or sedge-lined verges of shallow pools and streams, perching on low plant stems; locally common. RELATED SPECIES: In the closely related Portia widow (P. portia) the rear edges of the black patches in male are scalloped, not smooth.