Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 50 m long and 10 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with brownish hairs, with densely arranged or short rows of brown, flattened, to 6 (sometimes to 10 at sheath apices)-cm-long spines, these interspersed among very short spines; ocreas present, inconspicuous; knees present, inconspicuous; flagella present, to 13 m long; leaf rachis to 4 m long with 30–75 lanceolate leaflets per side, these irregularly arranged in clusters and spreading in different planes; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 10 m long, flagellate; bracts tubular, splitting and tattering at the apices; fruits ellipsoid, to 3.5 cm long and 2 cm diameter, the scales dark brown with paler brown, lacerated fringes.
Range and habitat. Andaman and Nicobar islands, Bangladesh, Myanmar (Bago, Kayin, Mon, Rakhine, Tanintharyi, Yangon), and Thailand (Peninsular, Southeast, Southwest) (also in Peninsular Malaysia); lowland rain forest or more open places, persisting in disturbed areas, at low elevations.
Uses. Provides a low-quality cane used in furniture making. The leaves are used for thatching and the fruits are eaten.
Synonyms. Calamus tigrinus Kurz, Palmijuncus long-isetus (Griff.) Kuntze, Palmijuncus trigrinus (Kurz) Kuntze
Calamus luridus Becc.
wai sai (Tha)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 20 m long and 2 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with brown hairs, with scattered to densely arranged, green, flattened, often downward-pointing, to 1-cm-long spines; ocreas present; knees present; flagella present, to 2.3m long; leaf rachis to 1.3 m long with 6–12 lanceolate leaflets per side, these regularly arranged and distantly spaced; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 2 m long, flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits ellipsoid, 1 cm long and 0.8 cm diameter, yellowish.
Range and habitat. Myanmar (Tanintharyi) and Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore); lowland or montane rain forest to 1400 m elevation.
Uses. Provides a medium-quality cane used in furniture making.
Notes. The few specimens from Myanmar and Thailand have 6–12 lanceolate leaflets per side of the rachis, although in Peninsular Malaysia the species is reported to have as many as 50 linear leaflets per side of the rachis (Dransfield 1979a).
Synonyms. Calamus belumutensis Furtado, Calamus distans Ridl., Calamus laxiflorus Becc.
Calamus macrorhynchus Burret
da hui sheng teng (Chi)
Field characters. Stems clustered, nonclimbing, to 3 m long and 4 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths brown with brown hairs, with short rows of yellowish, flattened, to 2.5-cm-long spines; ocreas present, to 15 cm long, spiny, elongate, fibrous and tattering; knees absent; flagella absent; leaf rachis to 1 m long with 30–45 linear leaflets per side, these regularly arranged but with gaps, whitish on lower surfaces; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 1 m long, not flagellate; bracts tattering from the base; fruits ovoid or pearshaped, to 2.7 cm long and 1.5 cm diameter, reddish brown, the scales fringed with dense, brown hairs.
Range and habitat. China (Guangdong, Guangxi); lowland or montane rain forest or bamboo forest, in hilly places usually near streams, 460–1350m elevation.
Uses. None recorded.
Notes. This species is similar to both C. oxycarpus and C. albidus, and the three have been confused (Guo Lixiu & Henderson 2007).
Calamus manan Miq. wai-bu-bo (Tha)
Field characters. Stems solitary, climbing, to 100 m long and 11 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths gray-green with white waxy hairs, with scattered or grouped, black, flattened, triangular, to 3-cm-long spines; ocreas very small or absent; knees present; flagella absent; leaf rachis to 5 m long with 45–60 linear-lanceolate leaflets per side, these regularly arranged, pendulous; cirri present, to 3 m long. Inflorescences to 2.5 m long, not flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits globose-ellipsoid, to 2.8 cm long and 2 cm diameter, yellowish.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Borneo, Sumatra, and Peninsular Malaysia); on steep slopes in lowland rain forest to 1000 m elevation.
Uses. Provides one of the highest-quality, largediameter canes for furniture making.
Synonyms. Calamus giganteus Becc., Palmijuncus manan (Miq.) Kuntze, Rotang manan (Miq.) Baill.
Calamus meghalayensis Henderson risigin, tairu, rita (Ind)
Field characters. Stems to 2 m long and 0.6 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with brown hairs, sparsely covered with brown, flattened, horizontally spreading spines to 1 cm long; knees present; ocreas present, densely bristly; flagella present, to 2 m long; rachis to 0.3 m long with 4 or 5 lanceolate leaflets per side, these arranged in distant groups or solitary, the apical pair free or briefly joined at their bases; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 1 m long, flagellate; bracts tubular, bristly at the apices; fruits globose, to 1 cm diameter, yellowish.
Range and habitat. Northeastern India (Meghalaya); lowland forest at low elevations in the Khasi Hills.
Uses. None recorded.
Synonym. Calamus floribundus var. depauperatus Becc.
Calamus melanacanthus Mart. medan (Mya)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 25 m long and 2.5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green, with dense, brown hairs, with scattered, light brown, hairy, flattened, upward-pointing, to 1-cm-long spines; ocreas present, very short; knees present; flagella present, to 4 m long; leaf rachis to 1 m long with 34–38 linear-lanceolate leaflets per side, these regularly arranged; cirri absent. Inflorescences elon-gate, flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits ovoid-ellipsoid, to 2.5 cm long and 1.5 cm diameter, yellowish, stalked.
Range and habitat. Myanmar (Tanintharyi); lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. None recorded.
Notes. A poorly known species, represented by only a few specimens.
Synonym. Palmijuncus melanacanthus (Mart.) Kuntze
Calamus melanochrous Burret
Field characters. Stems not known. Leaf sheaths not known; leaf rachis with to 36 linear leaflets per side, these clustered and spreading in different planes; cirri absent. Bracts tattering at the base; fruits ovoid, to 2.4 cm long and 1.8 cm diameter, black.
Range and habitat. China (Guangxi); lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. None recorded.
Notes. A poorly known species, based on a single, incomplete specimen.
Calamus metzianus Schltdl. odiyan-chural (Ind), ela wewel, kaha wewel (Srl)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing or forming thickets, to 15 m long and 2 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with dense red-brown or gray hairs, with scattered to densely arranged (sometimes in rings), yellowish or greenish triangular, to 3-cm-long spines, these hairy on the margins; ocreas present; knees present; petioles short; flagella present, to 2.5 m long; leaf rachis to 1.5 m long with 26–30 linear-lanceolate leaflets per side, these regularly arranged; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 2 m long, flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits ovoid, to 1.7 cm long and 1.1 cm diameter, yellow.
Range and habitat. Southwestern India (Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu) and Sri Lanka; lowland rain forest or deciduous forest, often in wet areas, river margins, marshes, or disturbed places, at low elevations.
Uses. Provides a medium-quality cane used in basketry.
Synonyms. Calamus rivalis Thwaites, Calamus rudentum Mart., Palmijuncus rivalis (Thwaites) Kuntze
Calamus minor Henderson wai deng, wai hangnou (Lao)
Field characters. Stems clustered, to 3 m long and 1 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths greenish yellow, sparsely covered with brown, black-tipped, flattened, horizontally or upward-spreading spines to 1.4 cm (sometimes to 2.5 cm at sheath apices) long; knees present; ocreas present, fibrous, disintegrating; flagella absent; rachis to 0.7 m long with 5 or 6 lanceolate leaflets per side, these regularly but distantly arranged, gray on the lower surfaces, the apical pair briefly joined at their bases; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 0.4 m long, briefly or not flagellate; inflorescences bracts open and not sheathing; fruits not known.
Range and habitat. Laos (Northern); scrub forest or bamboo forest at 140–160 m elevation.
Uses. The shoot is edible and the stems are used for handicrafts.
Notes. Evans et al. (2002) recognized a widespread C. hypoleucus occurring in both Laos and Myanmar. Henderson and Henderson (2007) separated the Laos population as C. minor.
Calamus modestus T. Evans & T. P. Anh heo da, song da (Vie)
Field characters. Stems clustered, to 1.5 m tall and 2 cm diameter, nonclimbing, free-standing, to 4 m long and 2.5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths greenish brown with whitish hairs, with rows of black, flattened, to 2.5-cm-long spines borne on ridges, interspersed with shorter spines; ocreas prominent; knees absent; flagella absent; leaf rachis to 0.8 m long with 23–34 linear leaflets per side, these regularly arranged but sometimes with gaps; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 0.5 m long, not flagellate; bracts splitting and tattering; fruits ovoid, to 1.5 cm long and 0.6 cm diameter, orange-brown.
Range and habitat. Vietnam (Central); montane rain forest at 1100–2000 m elevation.
Uses. The hearts are eaten.
Calamus multispicatus Burre lie bao shengteng (Chi)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 5 m long and 1.5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths with brown hairs, with scattered, brown, flattened, to 1.5 (sometimes to 3 at sheath apices)-cm-long spines; ocreas present, small; knees present; flagella present, to 2 m long; leaf rachis to 1.3 m long with 33–45 linear leaflets per side, these regularly arranged; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 2 m long, flagellate; bracts tattering; fruits globose, to 1 cm diameter, yellowish brown.
Range and habitat. China (Hainan); lowland rain forest to 600 m elevation.
Uses. Provides a cane used in furniture making.
Notes. Calamus multispicatus is similar to C. henry-anus, but differs in its partial inflorescences with short, terminal flowering branches.
Calamus nagbettai R. R. Fernandez & Dey nagbetta (Ind)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 25 m long and 10 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths yellowish green with brown hairs, with densely arranged, grouped, dark brown, flattened, triangular, to 4-cm-long spines, these in rows; ocreas not known; knees present; flagella absent; leaf rachis to 3 m long with to 75 linear leaflets per side, these regularly arranged and pendulous; cirri present, to 2.5 m long. Inflorescences to 0.7 m long, not flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits ovoid, to 1.6 cm long and 1 cm diameter, brown.
Range and habitat. Southwestern India (Karnataka, Kerala); lowland or montane rain forest, to 1500 m elevation.
Uses. Provides a good-quality, mottled cane used in basketry and for walking sticks.
Notes. Similar to the Sri Lankan C. zeylanicus and C. ovoideus.
Calamus nambariensis Becc.
korak bet, rong (Ban, Ind), da hong, wong t’ang (Chi), hoka-bhet (Ind), wai nwn (Lao), ya-ma-lha-kyaing, yama-ta (Mya), wai hok nam kao (Tha), song mat (Vie)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 30 m long and 6 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with light brown hairs, with scattered to densely arranged, yellowish brown, triangular, flattened, downward-pointing, to 3.5 (rarely to 9)-cm-long spines, often interspersed among shorter spines, or sometimes spines absent; ocreas present; knees present, prominent; flagella absent; leaf rachis to 4 m long with 36–40 lanceolate leaflets per side, these clustered or less often regularly arranged; cirri present, to 2.5 m long. Inflorescences to 2 m long, not flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits globose to ovoid or ellipsoid, to 2.4 cm long and 2.5 cm diameter (rarely to 3.4 cm long), whitish to yellowish brown, stalked, with grooved scales.
Range and habitat. Bangladesh, Bhutan, China (Yunnan), northeastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Sikkim, West Bengal, with an outlier in Andhra Pradesh), Laos (Central, Northern), Myanmar (Kachin, Sagaing), Nepal, Thailand (North), and Vietnam (Central, Northern); lowland or montane rain forest, to 2000 m elevation.
Uses. Provides a high-quality cane used in furniture making and binding. It has been introduced into other areas for trial plantings.
Notes. Calamus nambariensis is morphologically similar to C. palustris, and the two can be distinguished reliably only with the female inflorescences and fruits. Calamus nambariensis has longer leaflets (usually more than 40 cm long and sometimes regularly arranged), longer (to 10 cm long), zigzag female flowering branches, and larger (to 2.5 cm long, rarely to 3.4 cm long) fruits that are stalked and have grooved scales. Calamus palustris has shorter leaflets (usually less than 35 cm long and arranged in distant, alternate clusters of 2–4 leaflets), shorter (to 7 cm long), straight female flowering branches, and smaller (to 1.2 cm long, rarely longer) fruits that are not stalked and do not have grooved scales.
The habitat and distribution of the two species also differ, although there is some overlap. Calamus nambariensis occurs mostly in montane forests at higher elevations (to 2000 m, but sometimes below 1000 m) in the northern part of the Southern Asian region, in mountainous regions of Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, northeastern India (with an outlier in Andhra Pradesh), Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, and Vietnam. Calamus palustris occurs at lower elevations (to 1300 m, usually below 1000 m) in lowland forests in the southern parts of the region, in the Andaman Islands, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam.
Calamus nambariensis is very variable and difficult taxonomically. Indeed, it is probably the most variable species of Calamus in the Southern Asian region. It may be viewed as a species complex, that is, a widespread and variable species that may contain several distinct, local forms, appearing and apparently behaving as distinct species. However, at larger scales these local forms cannot be separated morphologically from one another because of intermediates.
Calamus nambariensis has been treated in local floras as consisting of several distinct species (e.g., Basu 1992; Evans et al. 2001; Hodel 1998; Pei et al. 1991). The characters used to separate these species are based mostly on leaf sheath spines or their absence, leaflet arrangement, and fruit size. The most distinctive local forms that have been recognized at the species level are C. inermis, without leaf sheath spines, from northeastern India and Yunnan; C. obovoideus, with fruits to 3.4 cm long, from Yunnan; C. platyacanthoides, with long spines on the leaf sheaths, from China, Laos, and Vietnam; and C. wailong, with regularly arranged leaflets, from Laos, Thailand, and Yunnan.
While these local flora treatments may work on a limited scale, they do not work throughout the range of the species. For this reason I recognize only one species, C. nambariensis, while at the same time pointing out that many local forms are likely to be encountered (at least where these economically important rattans have not been overharvested), and that the complex is greatly in need of a modern revision. There are also nomenclatural problems. The widely accepted name used here, C. nambariensis, is not the oldest name, which is C. inermis T. Anderson. However, I follow Evans et al. (2002) and continue to use this name pending a revision of the whole complex.
Synonyms. Calamus doriaei Becc., Calamus giganteus var. robustus S. J. Pei & S. Y. Chen, Calamus inermis T. Anderson, Calamus inermis var. menghaiensis S. Y. Chen, S. J. Pei & K. L. Wang, Calamus khasianus Becc., Calamus multinervis var. menglaensis S. Y. Chen, S. J. Pei & K. L. Wang, Calamus nambariensis var. alpinus S. J. Pei & S. Y. Chen, Calamus nambariensis var. furfuraceus S. J. Pei & S. Y. Chen, Calamus nambariensis var. menglongensis S. J. Pei & S. Y. Chen, Calamus nambariensis var. xishuangban naensis S. J. Pei & S. Y. Chen, Calamus nambariensis var. yingjiangensis S. J. Pei & S. Y. Chen, Calamus obovoideus S. J. Pei & S. Y. Chen, Calamus palustris var. longistachys S. J. Pei & S. Y. Chen, Calamus platyacanthoides Merr., Calamus platyacanthus Warb., Calamus platyacanthus var. longicarpus S. Y. Chen & K. L. Wang, Calamus platyacanthus var. mediostachys S. J. Pei & S. Y. Chen, Calamus polydesmus Becc., Calamus wailong S. J. Pei & S. Y. Chen, Palmijuncus inermis (T. Anderson) Kuntze
Calamus nicobaricus Renuka
Field characters. Stems solitary, climbing, to 25 m long and 5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green, without hairs, with scattered, green, bulbous-based, to 1-cm-long spines; ocreas present; knees present; flagella present, to 4 m long; leaf rachis to 1.8 m long with numerous linear-lanceolate leaflets per side, these regularly arranged and with long hairs on the veins above and below; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 2.5 m long, flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits depressed globose, to 1 cm long and 0.5 cm diameter, stalked, yellowish.
Range and habitat. Southwestern India (Kerala); montane rain forest at 1100 elevation.
Uses. Provides a good-quality cane used in furniture making.
Calamus nicobaricus Becc. dahya (Ncb)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 1.4 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with brown hairs, with densely arranged, brown, flattened, downwardpointing, to 2.5-cm-long spines, these interspersed among many shorter spines; ocreas present; knees present; flagella present; leaf rachis to 0.9 m long with numerous linear leaflets per side, these regularly arranged; cirri absent. Inflorescences not known.
Range and habitat. Nicobar Islands (Great Nicobar); scrub forest at low elevations.
Uses. None recorded.
Notes. A poorly known species that is not known from recent collections.
Calamus nuichuaensis Henderson, N. K. Ban & N. Q. Dung sui (Vie)
Field characters. Stems solitary, nonclimbing, to 5 m long and 3 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths brown with brown hairs, with densely arranged, yellowish brown, flat, to 6-cm-long spines; ocreas present; knees absent; flagella absent; leaf rachis to 1 m long with about 33 lanceolate leaflets per side, these regularly arranged and spreading in the same plane; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 1.5 m long, arching below the leaves, not flagellate; bracts open; fruits globose, 2 cm diameter, reddish brown.
Range and habitat. Vietnam (Southern); lowland rain forest at 800 m elevation.
Uses. None recorded.
Notes. Only known from higher elevations in Nui Chua National Park.
Calamus oligostachys T. Evans, K. Sengdala, O. Viengkham, B. Thammavong & J. Dransf. wai kating (Lao, Tha)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 7 m long and 1 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with scattered, brown, needlelike, to 0.7-cm-long spines; ocreas present; knees present; flagella present, to 1.8 m long; leaf rachis to 0.6 m long with 5–9 lanceolate leaflets per side, these clustered, the apical ones close together in a fan shape, the apical pair joined at their bases; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 2.2 m long, flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits globose, to 0.7 cm diameter, yellowish.
Range and habitat. Laos (Central) and Thailand (Northeast); lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. Provides a cane used in making handicraft making.
Synonym. Calamus pauciflorus T. Evans, K. Sengdala, O. Viengkham, B. Thammavong & J. Dransf.
Calamus ornatus Blume wai chaang, wai-khao-dom (Tha)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 60 m long and 8 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with brown hairs, with scattered, dark brown, flattened, triangular, downward-pointing, to 4-cm-long spines; ocreas present; knees present; flagella present, to 10 m long; leaf rachis to 4 m long with 20–30 lanceolate leaflets per side, these regularly arranged, the apical ones very small; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 8 m long, flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits ellipsoid, to 3 cm long and 2 cm diameter, black.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Borneo, Celebes, Java, Peninsular Malaysia, the Philippines, and Singapore); lowland rain forest or secondary forest, at low elevations.
Uses. Provides a poor-quality cane used in furniture making.
Notes. Two varieties are recognized: var. ornatus from Thailand, Borneo, Celebes, Java, Singapore, and Peninsular Malaysia; and var. pulverulentus Fernando, without spines on the leaf sheath and inflorescences with powdery hairs, from the Philippines.
Synonyms. Calamus aureus Reinw., Calamus ornatus var. celebicus Becc., Calamus ornatus var. horridus Becc., Calamus ornatus var. philippinensis Becc., Calamus ovatus Reinw., Palmijuncus aureus (Reinw.) Kuntze, Palmijuncus ornatus (Blume) Kuntze, Rotang ornatus (Blume) Baill.
Calamus ovoideus Thwaites sudu wewel, thudarena (Srl)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 100 m long and 8 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths brownish with brown hairs, with closely spaced, densely arranged rings of dark brown, flattened, to 4-cm-long spines; ocreas inconspicuous; knees present; flagella absent; leaf rachis to 4 m long with 50–65 linear leaflets per side, these regularly arranged, pendulous, and whitish on lower surfaces; cirri present, to 2.5 m long. Inflorescences to 2.5 m long, not flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits ovoid, to 1.6 cm long and 1 cm diameter, yellowish green.
Range and habitat. Sri Lanka; lowland or montane rain forest in wet places, to 1500 m elevation.
Uses. Provides a high-quality, large-diameter cane used in furniture making and basketry.
Notes. Difficult to distinguish from C. zeylanicus, with which it occurs.
Synonym. Palmijuncus ovoideus (Thwaites) Kuntze
Calamus oxleyanus Teijsm. & Binn. kyein bya, kyein dan (Mya), wai dum, wai-lum-dio (Tha)
Field characters. Stems clustered or solitary, climbing to 15 m long and 3 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with brown hairs, with scattered, black or brown, flattened, to 5-cm-long spines; ocreas present; knees present; flagella absent; leaf rachis to 2.5 m long with 30–50 lanceolate leaflets per side, these borne in remote groups and spreading in slightly different planes, dark green with yellowish bases; cirri present, to 1.25 m long. Inflorescences to 1.3 m long, not flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits globose to ovoid, to 1.4 cm long and 1 cm diameter, yellowish brown.
Range and habitat. Myanmar (Tanintharyi) and Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Bangka Island, Peninsular Malaysia Singapore, and Sumatra); lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. The canes are used to make walking sticks.
Notes. Two varieties are recognized: var. montanus Furtado, with broader leaflets, from Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia; and var. oxleyanus from Bangka Island, Myanmar, Singapore, Sumatra, Thailand, and Peninsular Malaysia.
Synonyms. Calamus aggregatus Burret, Calamus diffusus Becc., Calamus helferianus Kurz, Calamus leiospathus Bartlett, Calamus fernandezii H. Wendl., Calamus oxleyanus var. diffusus Becc., Calamus oxleyanus var. obovatus Becc., Daemonorops fasciculata Mart., Palmijuncus fernandezii (H. Wendl.) Kuntze, Palmijuncus helferianus (Kurz) Kuntze, Palmijuncus oxleyanus (Teijsm. & Binn.) Kuntze
Calamus oxycarpus Becc. jian guo sheng teng (Chi)
Field characters. Stems clustered, nonclimbing, free-standing, to 3 m long and 2 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths not seen; ocreas not seen; knees absent; flagella absent; leaf rachis to 0.5 m long with 11–15 lanceolate or broadly lanceolate leaflets per side, these remotely clustered, whitish on the lower surfaces; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 1 m long, not flagellate; bracts tattering from the base; fruits ovoid to pear-shaped, to 3 cm long and 1.7 cm diameter, reddish brown, the scales fringed with dense, brown hairs.
Range and habitat. China (Guangxi, Guizhou); lowland or montane rain forest on steep slopes at 880–1100 m elevation.
Uses. None recorded.
Notes. See notes under C. macrorhynchus.
Calamus pachystemonus Thwaites kukulu wel (Srl)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 15 m long and 1 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green, without hairs, with scattered, dark brown, needlelike, to 0.8-cm-long spines (or spines absent), sometimes with ridges; ocreas present; knees present; flagella present; leaf rachis to 20 cm long with 3–6 broadly lanceolate leaflets per side, the apical pair joined at their bases; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 1 m long, flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits globose, to 0.5 cm diameter, brown.
Range and habitat. Sri Lanka; lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. Provides a good-quality cane used in basketry.
Notes. Very similar to both C. digitatus and C. radiatus.
Synonym. Palmijuncus pachystemonus (Thwaites) Kuntze
Calamus palustris Griff.
dunda beth (And), wai hangnou (Lao), la-me-kyein, ying kyein, ya-ma-lha-kyaing, ya-ma-ta (Mya), wai kot, wailing (Tha), may nuoc, may tau (Vie)
Field characters. Stems clustered or sometimes solitary, to 30 m long and 5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with whitish or brownish hairs, with scattered or sometimes in partial rows, brownish, to 5-cm-long spines, these often curving downwards; ocreas present; knees present, prominent; flagella absent; petioles short, flat and spiny on upper surfaces; leaf rachis to 2 m long with 12–25 broadly lanceolate leaflets per side, these irregularly arranged, usually in distant, alternate clusters of 2–4 leaflets; cirri present, to 2 m long. Inflorescences to 1.7 m long, not flagellate, erect; bracts tubular; fruits ellipsoid to ovoid, to 1.2 cm long (rarely more) and 1 cm diameter, yellowish, with a pronounced nipple at the tip and flattened perianth at the base, the scales not grooved.
Range and habitat. Andaman Islands (and possibly Nicobar Islands), Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar (Bago, Tanintharyi), Thailand, and Vietnam (also in Peninsular Malaysia); lowland or montane rain forest, disturbed areas, and sometimes by villages, to 1300 m elevation.
Uses. Provides a good-quality cane used in furniture making, and the palm hearts are eaten.
Notes. It has been reported from other Southern Asian countries—Bangladesh, China (Yunnan), northern Myanmar, and northeastern India—but I have seen no reliable, fertile specimens from these areas. Calamus palustris is closely related to C. nambariensis—see notes under that species. The widely accepted name C. palustris is used here, although it may not be the oldest name. However, I continue to use this name pending a revision of the whole complex.
Synonyms. Calamus dumetorum Ridl., Calamus extensus Roxb., Calamus gregisectus Burret, Calamus humilis Roxb., Calamus kerrianus Becc., Calamus latifolius Kurz, Calamus latifolius Roxb., Calamus latifolius var. marmoratus Becc., Calamus loiensis Hodel, Calamus macracanthus T. Anderson, Calamus palustris var. amplissimus Becc., Calamus palustris var. cochinchinensis Becc., Calamus palustris var. malaccensis Becc., Calamus quinquenervius Roxb., Palmijuncus extensus (Roxb.) Kuntze, Palmijuncus humilis (Roxb.) Kuntze, Palmijuncus latifolius (Roxb.) Kuntze, Palmijuncus macracanthus (T. Anderson) Kuntze, Palmijuncus palustris (Griff.) Kuntze, Palmijuncus quinquenervius (Roxb.) Kuntze
Calamus peregrinus Furtado wai-ngouy (Tha)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 15 m long and 1 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green, with scattered swellings, sometimes these with very small, black-tipped spines; ocreas absent; knees present; flagella present, to 0.8 m long; petioles short or absent; leaf rachis to 0.5 m long with 6–8 lanceolate leaflets per side, these irregularly arranged, the apical ones inserted close together in a fan shape, the apical pair joined at their bases; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 1 m long, not flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits globose, to 1.5 cm diameter, brownish.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) and probably Myanmar (Tanintharyi) (also in Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra); lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. Provides a cane used in furniture making.
Notes. The leaflets omit a fetid smell when crushed, hence the common name, meaning “smelly palm.”
Calamus peregrinus Furtado wai-ngouy (Tha)
Field characters. Stems solitary, climbing, to 40 m long and 9 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths mottled green and yellow, with scattered or short rows of yellowish, black-tipped, flattened, triangular, to 4-cm-long spines, these with hairy margins; ocreas present; knees present, swollen; flagella present, to 6 m long; leaf rachis to 3.5 m long with 45–60 linear-lanceolate leaflets per side, these regularly arranged; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 6 m long, flagellate, the 2 or 3 partial inflorescences borne close to the base of the inflorescence; bracts becoming tattered and splitting lengthwise; fruits globose to obovoid, to 2 cm long and 1.6 cm diameter, stalked, reddish brown.
Range and habitat. Myanmar (Tanintharyi) and Thailand (Peninsular, Southwest) (also in Peninsular Malaysia); lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. None recorded.
Calamus platyspathus Mart. kyein bok (Mya), wai ki kai (Tha)
Field characters. Stems clustered, to 25 m long and 1.2 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with brown hairs, with densely arranged, brown, flattened, upwardpointing spines to 2 (to 5 at sheath apices) cm long, these sometimes with spines on the margins; knees present; ocreas present, fibrous and soon disintegrating; flagella present, to 1.5 m long; rachis to 0.8 m long with 4–7 broadly lanceolate leaflets per side, these regularly but distantly arranged, gray on the lower surfaces, the apical pair free or joined for about half their length; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 2 m long, flagellate; bracts open, not sheathing; fruits globose, to 0.8 cm diameter, whitish.
Range and habitat. Myanmar (Kayin, Tanintharyi) and Thailand (Peninsular); lowland forest at low elevations.
Uses. None recorded. The common name in Myanmar means “bad cane” because it is of little use.
Synonyms. Calamus leucotes Becc., Calamus myrianthus Becc., Daemonorops platyspatha (Mart.) Mart., Palmijuncus platyspathus (Mart.) Kuntze
Calamus poilanei Conrard wai thoon (Lao), wai kruh (Tha), song bot (Vie)
Field characters. Stems solitary, climbing, to 150 m long and 7.5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green or yellowish with patches or stripes of brown hairs, with scattered, greenish, flattened, triangular, to 3.5-cm-long spines (sometimes spines absent); ocreas present; knees present; flagella present, to 6 m long; leaf rachis to 3.4 m long with 40–50 linear leaflets per side, these regularly arranged; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 6 m long, flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits ellipsoid, 2 cm long and 1.4 cm diameter, brown.
Range and habitat. Laos (Central, Northern), Thailand (North, Northeast), Vietnam (Central, Southern), and probably Cambodia; lowland or montane rain forest to 1300 m elevation.
Uses. Provides a high-quality, large-diameter cane used in furniture making.
Notes. It is distinguished from the similar C. lateralis by its homogeneous endosperm.
Calamus prasinus Lakshmana & Renuka ontibetha (Ind)
Field characters. Stems solitary, climbing, height not known, to 3 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths yellowish green, with densely arranged, to 1-cm-long spines; ocreas not known; knees present; flagella present; petioles and rachis exuding a milky latex when cut; leaf rachis to 2.2 m long with numerous leaflets per side, these regularly arranged and with long hairs on the veins above and below; cirri absent. Inflorescences length not known; bracts tubular; fruits glo-bose, stalked, yellow.
Range and habitat. Southwestern India (Karnataka); lowland rain forest to 500 m elevation.
Uses. Provides a good-quality cane used in furniture making.
Calamus pseudofeanus Basu
Field characters. Stem branching and height not known, to 1.5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths not known; leaf rachis with about 3 broadly lanceolate leaflets per side, these irregularly arranged, the apical pair joined at their bases; cirri absent. Inflorescences elongate, flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits ellipsoid, to 1.5 cm long and 1 cm diameter, yellow.
Range and habitat. Southwestern India (Tamil Nadu); lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. None recorded.
Calamus pseudorivalis Becc. china bet (Ncb)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 30 m long and 3 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with brown hairs, with densely arranged, dark brown, flattened, triangular, to 0.8 (to 2 at sheath apices)-cm-long spines; ocreas present, very short; knees present; flagella present, elongate; leaf rachis to 1 m long with numerous linear-lanceolate leaflets per side, these regularly arranged; cirri absent. Inflorescences elongate, flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits ovoid, to 1.5 cm long and 1 cm diameter, yellowish.
Range and habitat. Nicobar Islands (Great Nicobar); lowland rain forest in inland areas, at low elevations.
Uses. Provides a good-quality cane used in furniture making.
Calamus pseudotenuis Becc. perumperambu, koala hangala (Ind), heen wewel (Srl)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 15 m long and 5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths yellowish green with brown hairs, with scattered, greenish, needle-like to flattened, to 3.5 (to 12 at sheath apices)-cm-long spines, these densely hairy on the margins; ocreas present, well developed, to 10 cm long; knees present; flagella present, to 3 m long; leaf rachis to 1.5 m long with 25–40 linear-lanceolate leaflets per side, these regularly arranged; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 3 m long, flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits globose, to 1.5 cm diameter, yellow.
Range and habitat. Southwestern India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu) and Sri Lanka; lowland or montane rain forest to 1500 m elevation.
Uses. Provides a good-quality cane used in furniture making and basketry.
Calamus pulchellus Burret mao teng (Chi)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 6 m long and 1 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths brown with densely arranged, brown, needlelike, to 1 (to 1.5 at sheath apices)-cm-long spines; ocreas present; knees inconspicuous or absent; flagella present, to 1 m long; leaf rachis to 0.5 m long with 3–5 broadly lanceolate leaflets per side, these regularly but distantly arranged, the apical ones inserted close together in a fan shape; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 0.7 m long, flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits not known.
Range and habitat. China (Hainan); lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. None recorded.
Notes. A rare species, known from only one collection from Hainan.
Calamus radiatus Thwaites kukulu wel (Srl)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 5 m long and 0.7 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with scattered to densely arranged, greenish, flattened, to 0.8-cm-long spines; ocreas present; knees present; flagella present, to 1.5 m long; leaf rachis to 2 cm long with 3 or 4 linear leaflets per side, these inserted close together in a fan shape, the apical pair briefly joined at their bases; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 1 m long, flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits globose, to 1.2 cm diameter, yellow.
Range and habitat. Sri Lanka; lowland rain forest to 1000 m elevation.
Uses. Provides a good-quality cane used in basketry.
Notes. Very similar to C. pachystemonus and especially to C. digitatus.
Synonym. Palmijuncus radiatus (Thwaites) Kuntze
Calamus rhabdocladus Burret da guang teng, wong teng, zhang teng (Chi), wai wan (Lao), may thuan, r’sui (Vie)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing (sometimes only shortly climbing or erect), to 40 m long and 6 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with reddish brown hairs, with densely arranged, oblique rows of glossy, black or brown, flattened, to 4 (to 10 at sheath apices)-cm-long spines; ocreas present; knees inconspicuous or absent; flagella present, to 5 m long; petioles with rings of spines; leaf rachis to 1.5 m long with to 60 linear leaflets per side, these regularly arranged (young plants regularly arranged but with gaps); cirri absent. Inflorescences to 8 m long, flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits globose, ellipsoid, or ovoid, to 1.4 cm long and 0.8 cm diameter, reddish or yellowish.
Range and habitat. China (Fujian, Guangxi, Guangdong, Guizhou, Hainan, Yunnan), Laos (Central, Northern), and Vietnam (throughout); lowland or montane rain forest, to 1600 m elevation.
Uses. Provides a cane of medium quality for furniture making, and the palm hearts and fruits are eaten.
Notes. A very common and widespread species.
Synonyms. Calamus pseudoscutellaris Conrard, Calamus pseudoscutellaris var. cylindrocarpus Conrard, Calamus rhabdocladus var. globulosus S. J. Pei & S. Y. Chen
Calamus rheedei Griff. kattu chooral (Ind)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, height not known, to 1.3 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths with scattered, to 1.5-cm-long spines; ocreas not known; knees present; flagella present; leaf rachis to 0.7 m long with to 12 broadly lanceolate leaflet per side, these in distinct clusters, the apical ones inserted close together in a fan shape; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 1 m long, not flagellate; bracts tubular, funnel-shaped at the apices; fruits ovoid or ellipsoid, to 2.2 cm long and 1.5 cm diameter, stalked, brown, with spinelike scales.
Range and habitat. Southwestern India (Kerala, Tamil Nadu); lowland rain forest.
Uses. None recorded.
Notes. A poorly known species, not known from any precise locality, and no map is provided. Very similar to C. vattaliya.
Synonyms. Daemonorops rheedei (Griff.) Mart., Palmijuncus rheedei (Griff.) Kuntze
Calamus rotang L. betambu, perambu (Ind), polonnaru wewel, wewel (Srl)
Field characters. Stems clustered, forming thickets or climbing, to 30 m long and 2 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green, without hairs, with scattered, greenish to black, needlelike or flattened, to 1.5-cm-long spines; ocreas present, inconspicuous; knees present; flagella present, to 2.5 m long; petioles short or absent; leaf rachis to 0.8 m long with 30–40 linear-lanceolate leaflets per side, these regularly arranged, the apical ones very small; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 3 m long, flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits globose to ellipsoid, to 1.5 cm diameter, orange.
Range and habitat. Southern India (Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, possibly north to Orissa) and Sri Lanka; open places, river margins, and coastal swamps, usually in drier regions, at low elevations.
Uses. Provides a good-quality cane used in furniture making and basketry.
Synonyms. Calamus monoecus Roxb., Calamus roxburghii Griff., Palmijuncus monoecus (Roxb.) Kuntze, Rotang linnaei Baill., Rotanga calamus Crantz
Calamus rudentum Lour. wai boun (Lao), kyien ni (Mya), wai-pong (Tha), cay may song, may da (Vie)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 75 m long and 7 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths split open, not tubular, yellowish green with brown hairs, with densely arranged rows of yellowish to black, flattened, to 6 (to 15 at sheath apices)-cm-long spines, the rows borne on ridges interspersed with shorter, needlelike spines; ocreas present; knees inconspicuous or absent; flagella present, to 10 m long; upper surface of petioles without spines, deeply channeled; leaf rachis to 3 m long with 45–50 lanceolate leaflets per side, these regularly arranged; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 10 m long, flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits globose-ellipsoid, to 2 cm long and 1.5 cm diameter, yellowish, with grooved scales.
Range and habitat. Cambodia, Laos (Central, Southern), Myanmar (Tanintharyi), Thailand (Central, East, North, Peninsular, Southeast), and Vietnam (Southern); lowland rain forest and disturbed areas, at 100–500 m elevation.
Uses. Provides a high-quality cane used in furniture making.
Synonyms. Palmijuncus rudentum (Lour.) Kuntze, Rotang rudentum (Lour.) Baill.
Calamus salicifolius Becc. lopiek, ropiek (Cbd), may la lieu (Vie)
Field characters. Stems clustered, nonclimbing, free-standing or scrambling, to 2 m long and 0.8 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green, with scattered, bulbous-based, black, to 1-cm-long spines, occasionally without spines; ocreas present; knees present; flagella sometimes present but very short; petioles very short; leaf rachis to 0.3 m long with to 12 very small, lanceolate leaflets per side, these strongly clustered and spreading in different planes, the apical ones smaller still, light gray-green on the lower surfaces; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 0.3 m long, not flagellate; bracts split open and briefly spreading at the apices; fruits globose, to 1 cm diameter, yellowish brown.
Range and habitat. Cambodia and Vietnam (Southern); lowland rain forest, especially river margins, at low elevations.
Uses. Provides a cane used in basketry.
Synonym. Calamus salicifolius var. leiophyllus Becc.
Calamus scipionum Lour. wai-ba-mu, wai gum (Tha)
Field characters. Stems solitary, nonclimbing, usually short and subterranean or to 4 m long and 6 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with brown hairs, with densely arranged, green, flattened, to 4 (to 45 at sheath apices)-cm-long spines; ocreas present; knees absent; flagella absent; leaf rachis to 2 m long with 20–30 broadly lanceolate leaflets per side, these regularly arranged and strongly folded; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 1.5 m long, not flagellate; bracts not sheathing, split open and flat, soon decaying; fruits globose, to 0.8 cm diameter, red-brown.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Peninsular Malaysia); lowland or montane rain forest to 1100 m elevation.
Uses. Provides a good-quality cane used in furniture making and also for malacca canes.
Synonyms. Palmijuncus scipionum (Lour.) Kuntze, Rotang scipionum (Lour.) Baill.
Calamus sedens J. Dransf.
waai nang yong (Tha)
Field characters. Stems solitary, nonclimbing, usually short and subterranean or to 4 m long and 6 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with brown hairs, with densely arranged, green, flattened, to 4 (to 45 at sheath apices)-cm-long spines; ocreas present; knees absent; flagella absent; leaf rachis to 2 m long with 20–30 broadly lanceolate leaflets per side, these regularly arranged and strongly folded; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 1.5 m long, not flagellate; bracts not sheathing, split open and flat, soon decaying; fruits globose, to 0.8 cm diameter, red-brown.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Peninsular Malaysia); lowland or montane rain forest to 1100 m elevation.
Uses. The canes are used to make walking sticks.
Calamus semierectus Renuka & Vijayakumaran
Field characters. Stems solitary, basal part erect, upper part flexible and climbing, to 15 m long and 5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths yellowish with brown hairs, with oblique, low ridges, these with black, needlelike, to 0.3-cm-long spines, the apices of sheath with denser spines to 1.2 cm long; ocreas inconspicuous; knees present; flagella absent; leaf rachis elongate with numerous linear leaflets per side, these regularly arranged; cirri present. Inflorescences elongate, flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits ellipsoid, to 1.5 cm long and 1 cm diameter, brown.
Range and habitat. Nicobar Islands (Car Nicobar); lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. The stems are used in house construction.
Calamus setulosus J. Dransf.
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, height not known, to 1.1 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green, with scattered, to 1 (to 3 at sheath apices)-cm-long spines; ocreas present; knees present; flagella present, to 0.6 cm long; leaf rachis to 0.8 m long with about 60 linear leaflets per side, these regularly arranged; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 1 m long, flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits not known.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Peninsular Malaysia); lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. None recorded.
Calamus shendurunii Anto, Renuka & Sreek.
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 20 m long and 2 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with very few, black-tipped, bulbous-based, to 1-cm-long spines; ocreas not known; knees present; flagella present, to 2 m long; leaf rachis to 1 m long with numerous linear-lanceolate leaflets per side, these regularly arranged and with long hairs on the veins above and below, the apical pair briefly joined at their bases; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 2 m long, flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits globose, to 1.8 cm diameter, stalked, greenish.
Range and habitat. Southwestern India (Kerala); lowland rain forest at 300 m elevation.
Uses. None recorded.
Calamus siamensis Becc. wai khom (Lao)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 25 m long and 2 cm diameter, or often forming thickets. Leaf sheaths green, with brown hairs, with scattered, brown, flattened, to 4.5 (sometimes a few spines to 7 at sheath apices)-cm-long spines, interspersed among shorter spines; ocreas present, inconspicuous; knees present; flagella present, to 3 m long; leaf rachis to 1.5 m long with 30–50 linear leaflets per side, these regularly arranged, sometimes with gaps; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 2.5 m long, flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits globose, 0.8 cm diameter, whitish or yellowish, sometimes borne in pairs.
Range and habitat. Cambodia, Laos (Southern), Thailand (Central, North, Northeast, Peninsular), and probably Myanmar (also in Peninsular Malaysia); lowland rain forest, scrub forest, or disturbed areas, at low elevations.
Uses. Provides a cane for use in furniture making; planted for its palm heart.
Notes. Similar to C. viminalis but differing in its regularly arranged leaflets.
Synonym. Calamus siamensis var. malaianus Furtado
Calamus simplicifolius C. F. Wei danye shengteng (Chi)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 50 m long and to 6 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with brown hairs, with densely arranged, yellowish, flattened, triangular, downward-pointing, to 4-cm-long spines; ocreas absent; knees present; flagella absent; leaf rachis to 2 m long with 14–22 broadly lanceolate leaflets per side, these regularly arranged, tending to be irregular on younger leaves; cirri present, to 1.5 m long. Inflorescences to 1 m long, not flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits globose, to 3 cm long and 2.3 cm diameter, yellowish.
Range and habitat. China (Hainan); lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. Provides a high-quality cane used in furniture making and binding. It has been introduced into other areas of China for trial plantings.
Calamus siphonospathus Mart. lanyu sheng-teng (Tai)
Field characters. Stems solitary, climbing, to 30 m long and 6 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths yellowish, without hairs, with rows of brown, triangular, to 1-cm-long spines; ocreas present, elongate; knees present; flagella absent; leaf rachis to 1.5 m long with to 50 lanceolate leaflets per side, these regularly arranged; cirri present, to 1 m long. Inflorescences to 0.6 m long, flagellate or not flagellate; bracts tubular, open and inflated near the apices; fruits ellipsoid, to 0.6 cm long and 0.4 cm diameter, yellowish brown.
Range and habitat. Taiwan (Lanyu Island) (also in the Philippines and Sulawesi); scrub forest to 400 m elevation.
Uses. None recorded.
Notes. Six varieties are recognized, all from the Philippines and Sulawesi; var. siphonospathus just reaches Taiwan, on Lanyu Island.
Synonyms. Calamus inflatus Warb., Palmijuncus siphonospathus (Mart.) Kuntze
Calamus solitarius T. Evans, K. Sengdala, O. Viengkham, B. Thammavong & J. Dransf. wai thork (Lao, Tha)
Field characters. Stems solitary, climbing, to 50 m long and 1.5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with gray hairs, with scattered to densely arranged, green, needlelike, to 2-cm-long spines; ocreas present; knees present; flagella present, to 1 m long; leaf rachis to 0.9 m long with 9–14 lanceolate leaflets per side, these distinctly clustered, the apical ones close together in a fan shape, the apical pair joined at their bases; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 5 m long, flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits globose, to 0.8 cm diameter, yellowish.
Range and habitat. Laos (Central) and Thailand (Northeast); lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. Provides a high-quality cane used in furniture making and basketry.
Calamus speciosissimus Furtado wai-tieng (Tha)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 25 m long and 4 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green, without spines or with scattered to densely arranged, green, flattened, to 2-cm-long spines; ocreas present; knees present; flagella present, to 4 m long; leaf rachis to 1.5 m long with 10–14 broadly lanceolate leaflets per side, these regularly arranged; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 4 m long, not flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits globose, 1 cm diameter, greenish.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Peninsular Malaysia); lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. Produces a good-quality cane used in furniture making.
Calamus spectatissimus Furtado wai ng woi (Tha)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 20 m long and 1.7 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with brown hairs, with sparsely to densely arranged, green, flattened, to 1.5-cm-long spines; ocreas present; knees present; flagella present, to 1.5 m long; leaf rachis to 0.7 m long with about 40 linear leaflets per side, these regularly arranged with dense, short bristles on the lower surfaces; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 1 m long with 3–6 partial inflorescences, flagellate; bracts loose and open at the apices; fruits globose, to 2 cm diameter, dark brown.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra); lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. None recorded.
Calamus spicatus Henderson kyetu kyein (Mya)
Field characters. Stems clustered, to 4 m long and 1 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with reddish brown hairs, sparsely to densely covered with brown or black, flattened, horizontally spreading spines to 1 cm long; knees present; ocreas present, spiny; flagella not seen, possibly absent; rachis to 0.7 m long with 4–10 lanceolate leaflets per side, these solitary or arranged in distant groups, the apical pair free or briefly joined at their bases; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 2 m long, flagellate; bracts closely sheathing, becoming split; fruits not seen.
Range and habitat. Myanmar (Kachin, Sagaing); lowland forest at 500–1040 m elevation.
Uses. None recorded.
Calamus spiralis Henderson, N. K. Ban & N. Q. Dung may cam mo (Vie)
Field characters. Stems clustered, to 15 m long and 0.7 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with gray hairs, sparsely covered with bulbous-based groups of 3 black spines to 0.3 cm long, these longer at sheath apices; knees present; ocreas present, bristly; flagella absent; petioles absent; rachis to 0.2 m long with 3 linear-lanceolate leaflets per side, the basal pair swept back across the sheath; cirri present, to 0.6 m long. Inflorescences to 0.4 m long, not flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits ellipsoid, 2.3 cm long and 1.4 cm diameter, reddish brown.
Range and habitat. Vietnam (Central); lowland forest at 400 m elevation.
Uses. The canes are used for tying.
Calamus stoloniferus Renuka jeddubetha (Ind)
Field characters. Stems clustered, spreading by stolons, climbing, height not known, to 3 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green, with scattered, to 2-cm-long spines; ocreas present; knees present; flagella present; leaf rachis to 1 m long with few lanceolate leaflets per side, these in distinct clusters, the apical ones inserted close together in a fan shape, the apical pair joined at their bases; cirri absent. Inflorescence length not known, flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits globose, to 1 cm diameter, yellow.
Range and habitat. Southwestern India (Karnataka); lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. Provides a good-quality cane used in furniture making.
Calamus temii T. Evans wai ton (Tha)
Field characters. Stems clustered or solitary, non-climbing, free-standing, to 5 m long and to 5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths brown with oblique rows of black, flattened, to 3-cm-long spines; ocreas not known; knees absent; flagella absent; leaf rachis to 2 m long with numerous linear leaflets per side, these regularly arranged but with gaps and spreading in different planes; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 1 m long, not flagellate; bracts tattering at the base; fruits ellipsoid, to 2 cm long and 1.5 cm diameter, dark brown.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Northeast); montane rain forest at 1300–1550 m elevation.
Uses. None recorded.
Calamus tenuis Roxb. bet (Ban), jati bet (Ind), wai nyair (Lao), htan-ye-likyiang, kyien dui, ye kyein (Mya), pani bet (Nep), wai kaerae, wai khom (Tha), may dang (Vie)
Field characters. Stems clustered, often forming thickets, climbing, to 20 m long and 2.5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with brownish white hairs, often with ridges, with scattered or rows of greenish brown or black, flattened, to 2-cm-long spines, with oblique, crescent-shaped bases and hairy margins; ocreas present, very small and papery; knees present; flagella present, to 2.5 m long; leaf rachis to 1 m long with 31–42 linear or linear-lanceolate leaflets per side, these regularly and closely arranged; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 2.5 m long, flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits globose to ellipsoid, to 1.6 cm long and 1.2 cm diameter, whitish or yellowish brown.
Range and habitat. Bangladesh, Bhutan, northern and northeastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, possibly farther south in Madhya Pradesh), Laos (Central), Nepal, Myanmar (Kachin, Rakhine, Sagaing, Tanintharyi, Yangon), Thailand (North, Peninsular), Vietnam (Northern), and probably Cambodia (also in Java and Sumatra); lowland rain forest, in swampy or flooded areas, often cultivated or persisting near villages, to 300 m elevation.
Uses. Provides a medium-quality cane used in basketry and weaving. The palm heart is eaten in some areas.
Notes. One of the most widespread species of Calamus. A few specimens from Peninsular Thailand have been identified as C. radulosus Becc., but appear to belong to C. tenuis. Beccari (1913; see also Evans & Sengdala 2002) considered that C. delessertianus Becc. from southwestern India may be conspecific with C. tenuis, a view not shared by Renuka (1999b).
Synonyms. Calamus amarus Lour., Calamus royleanus Griff., Calamus heliotropium Buch.-Ham., Calamus horrens Blume, Calamus stoloniferus Teijsm. & Binn., Palmijuncus amarus (Lour.) Kuntze, Palmijuncus heliotropium (Buch.-Ham.) Kuntze, Palmijuncus horrens (Blume) Kuntze, Palmijuncus royleanus (Griff.) Kuntze, Palmijuncus tenuis (Roxb.) Kuntze, Rotang royleanus (Griff.) Baill.
Calamus tetradactyloides duo ci ji teng (Chi)
Calamus tetradactyloides Burret
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 5 m long and 1 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths greenish brown with brown hairs, with densely arranged, brown, needlelike, to 1 (to 2 at sheath apices)-cm-long spines; ocreas present, short and densely bristly; knees present; flagella present, to 1 m long; leaf rachis to 0.4 m long with 4–6 (to 12 on young plants) linear-lanceolate leaflets per side, these irregularly arranged, the apical ones close together in a fan shape; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 0.7 m long, not flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits subglobose, to 1.5 cm long and 1 cm diameter, whitish.
Range and habitat. China (Hainan); lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. None recorded.
Calamus tetradactylus Hance phdau-dan (Cbd), kai t’ang, paak t’ang (Chi), wai hang-nou (Lao), wai krit (Tha), cay mai, may tat (Vie)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 6 m long and 1.8 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green, without hairs, with scattered, yellowish brown, triangular, to 1.5-cm-long spines, or spines absent; ocreas present, prominent, membranous; knees present; flagella present, to 1 m long; leaf rachis to 0.6 m long with 8–13 lanceolate leaflets per side, these clustered, the apical ones close together in a fan shape, the apical pair joined at their bases, sometimes grayish on the lower surfaces; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 1.8 m long, usually flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits globose, to 0.9 cm diameter, yellowish, borne on short stalks.
Range and habitat. Cambodia, China (Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Hong Kong, possibly Fujian and Yunnan), Laos (Central, Southern), Thailand (East, Southeast), and Vietnam; lowland rain forest, scrub forest, disturbed places, and often planted in small-holdings, to 1000 m elevation.
Uses. The stems provide a cane commonly used in weaving and basketry.
Notes. A widespread, common, and variable species, widely planted for its useful cane.
Synonyms. Calamus bonianus Becc., Calamus cambojensis Becc., Calamus tetradactylus var. bonianus (Becc.) Conrard, Palmijuncus tetradactylus (Hance) Kuntze
Calamus thwaitesii Becc. handibetha, pannichural (Ind), ma wewel, periya pirambu (Srl)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 50 m long and 6 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths yellow-green with brown hairs, with ridges of black, strongly flattened, to 4-cm-long spines, interspersed among many short spines; ocreas absent; knees absent; flagella present, to 9 m long; leaf rachis to 3 m long with to 30 lanceolate leaflets per side, these irregularly arranged; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 7 m long, flagellate; bracts tattering at the apices; fruits ovoid, to 2.5 cm long and 1.5 cm diameter, dull orange or yellowish brown.
Range and habitat. Southwestern India (Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharastra, Tamil Nadu) and central and southern Sri Lanka; lowland or montane rain forest or deciduous forest, persisting in disturbed places, to 1500 m elevation.
Uses. Provides a medium-quality, large-diameter cane used in furniture making and basketry.
Synonym. Calamus thwaitesii var. canaranus Becc.
Calamus thysanolepis Hance paak t’ang, qi linxue teng, yeh chung shu (Chi), may tua (Vie)
Field characters. Stems clustered, nonclimbing, short and subterranean or free-standing, to 5 m long and 5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths greenish brown with brown hairs, with densely arranged, black, needlelike, to 2-cm-long spines; ocreas present, to 40 cm long, spiny, fibrous and soon disintegrating; knees absent; flagella absent; leaf rachis to 1.5 m long with 28–49 lanceolate leaflets per side, these strongly clustered and spreading in different planes; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 1 m long, erect, not flagellate; bracts split open and tattering; fruits ovoid or ellipsoid, to 1.5 cm long and 1 cm diameter, reddish brown.
Range and habitat. China (Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hong Kong, Hunan, Jiangxi, Zhejiang) and Vietnam (Northern); lowland rain forest to 800 m elevation.
Uses. The fruits are eaten.
Notes. The record from Vietnam is doubtful, and is based on fruits only, which came from a local market.
Synonyms. Calamus hoplites Dunn, Calamus sculletaris Becc., Calamus thysanolepis var. polylepis C. F. Wei, Palmijuncus thysanolepis (Hance) Kuntze
Calamus tomentosus Becc. wai tao (Tha)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 20 m long and 2.5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with silvery hairs, with scattered, black, swollen-based, upward-pointing, to 0.2-cm-long spines; ocreas present; knees present; flagella present, to 1.8 m long; leaf rachis to 1 m long with 5–7 rhomboidal leaflets per side, these regularly arranged; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 0.8 m long, flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits globose-ellipsoid, to 2.5 cm long and 2.2 cm diameter, brown.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Borneo and Peninsular Malaysia); lowland rain forest to 800 m elevation.
Uses. None recorded.
Notes. Reported to occur in Peninsular Thailand (Dransfield et al. 2004), but no specimens from there have been seen and no map is provided.
Synonyms. Calamus tomentosus var. intermedius Becc., Calamus tomentosus var. korthalsiaefolius Becc.
Calamus travancoricus Bedd. kiribetha (Ind)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 15 m long and 1 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with brown hairs, with scattered, black, needlelike, to 2 (to 5 at sheath apices)-cm-long spines; ocreas present; knees absent; flagella present, to 1.3 m long; leaf rachis to 0.5 m long with to 15 lanceolate leaflets per side, these in distant clusters, the apical ones inserted close together in a fan shape; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 1.1 m long, flagellate; bracts split and open at the apices; fruits globose, to 1 cm diameter, stalked, yellowish brown.
Range and habitat. Southwestern India (Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu); lowland rain forest at 200–500 m elevation.
Uses. Provides a good-quality cane used in basketry and furniture making.
Calamus unifarius H. Wendl. hara beth (Ncb)
Field characters. Stems solitary, climbing, to 20 m long and 5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with rusty brown hairs, with scattered, brown, bulbous-based, to 0.5-cm-long spines; ocreas present; knees present; flagella absent; leaf rachis to 2 m long with 15–20 broadly lanceolate leaflets per side, these regularly arranged; cirri present. Inflorescences elongate, flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits ellipsoid, 1.5 cm long and 1 cm diameter, whitish.
Range and habitat. Nicobar Islands (Camorta, Great Nicobar); lowland rain forest, often near the sea, at low elevations.
Uses. Provides a cane used in furniture making.
Notes. Two varieties are recognized: var. pentong Becc., with regularly arranged leaflets, from the Nicobar Islands; and var. unifarius, with somewhat irregularly arranged leaflets, from Java and Sumatra.
Synonym. Palmijuncus unifarius (H. Wendl.) Kuntze
Calamus vattayila Renuka vattayilayan (Ind)
Field characters. Stems solitary, climbing, to 30 m long and 2.5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths dark green, without hairs, with scattered, green, to 2-cm-long spines; ocreas present; knees present; flagella present, to 4 m long; leaf rachis to 0.8 m long with to 12 broadly lanceolate leaflets per side, these irregularly arranged, the apical pair joined for about half their length; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 1 m long, flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits ellipsoid, to 2.5 cm long and 0.8 cm diameter, brown.
Range and habitat. Southwestern India (Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu); lowland rain forest at 200–750 m elevation.
Uses. Provides a good-quality cane used in furniture making.
Calamus viminalis Willd. jungli beth (And), bara bet (Ban), phdau, phdau kree (Cbd), huang ci teng, wai-chi-ling (Chi), boro bet, golla bet (Ind), wai ton (Lao), kyaing-kha, taung kyein (Mya), wai komm (Tha), may cat (Vie)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing or often forming thickets, to 35 m long and 4 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with dense covering of grayish or brownish hairs, with scattered, greenish or brownish, triangular, flattened, to 4.5-cm-long spines; ocreas present; knees present; flagella present, to 5 m long; leaf rachis to 1.3 m long with 32–55 lanceolate leaflets per side, these gray-green, distinctly clustered and spreading in different planes, the apical ones usually smaller than the others; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 3 m long, flagellate, bracts tubular; fruits globose, to 1 cm diameter, whitish or yellowish, sometimes borne in pairs.
Range and habitat. Andaman Islands, Bangladesh, Cambodia, China (Yunnan), India (Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, Sikkim, Tripura, West Bengal), Laos, Myanmar (Ayeyarwady, Bago, Kachin, Kayin, Mon, Tanintharyi, Yangon), Thailand, and Vietnam (Central, Southern) (also in Bali, Java, and Peninsular Malaysia); lowland rain forest or deciduous forest, persisting in cleared areas and often present near villages, sometimes planted, to 600 m elevation.
Uses. Provides a widely used cane for basketry and furniture making, and the palm heart and fruits are eaten.
Notes. Evans et al. (2002) reported this species from Uttar Pradesh in India, but no specimens from there have been seen. A variable and widespread species, similar to C. siamensis.
Synonyms. Calamus extensus Mart., Calamus fasciculatus Roxb., Calamus litoralis Blume, Calamus pseudorotang Mart., Calamus viminalis var. fasciculatus (Roxb.) Becc., Calamus viminalis var. fasciculatus subvar. andamanicus Becc., Calamus viminalis var. fasciculatus subvar. bengalensis Becc., Calamus viminalis var. fasciculatus subvar. cochinchinensis Becc., Calamus viminalis var. fasciculatus subvar. pinangianus Becc., Palmijuncus fasciculatus (Roxb.) Kuntze, Palmijuncus litoralis (Blume) Kuntze, Palmijuncus pseudorotang (Mart.) Kuntze, Palmijuncus viminalis (Willd.) Kuntze, Rotang viminalis (Willd.) Baill.
Calamus viridispinus Becc. whai (Tha)
Field characters. Stems clustered, erect and non-climbing or climbing, to 15 m long and 1.5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with gray hairs, with scattered to densely arranged, yellow-based, black, flattened, to 3-cm-long spines; ocreas present; knees present in climbing plants; flagella absent; leaf rachis to 0.8 m long with 5–40 lanceolate leaflets per side, these arranged in groups of 2–5 leaflets on alternate sides of the rachis; cirri present in climbing plants, sometimes vestigial in nonclimbing plants. Inflorescences to 1 m long, not flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits ovoid, to 1 cm long and 0.6 cm diameter, brown.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra); montane rain forest, 800–1500 m elevation.
Uses. Produces a good-quality cane used in tying.
Notes. Two varieties are recognized: var. sumatranus Becc., with less-pointed leaflets, from Sumatra; and var. viridispinus from Thailand (Peninsular) and Peninsular Malaysia. Calamus viridispinus var. viridispinus is variable; the Thai plants have only 5–15 leaflets per side of the rachis.
Synonyms. Calamus benomensis Furtado, Calamus brevispadix Ridl., Calamus bubuensis Becc., Calamus distichoideus Furtado, Calamus distichus Ridl., Calamus elegans Becc., Calamus koribanus Furtado, Calamus oreophilus Furtado
Calamus walkeri Hance ku-teng, wong teng (Chi), may dang (Vie)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 15 m long and 3 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with gray-brown hairs, with scattered, yellowish, black-tipped, flattened, to 2.5-cm-long spines; ocreas present, densely bristly; knees present; flagella present, to 5 m long; leaf rachis to 1.5 m long with to 40 linear-lanceolate leaflets per side, these regularly arranged; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 5.5 m long, flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits ovoid, to 1.2 cm long and 1 cm diameter, yellowish.
Range and habitat. China (Guangdong, Hainan, Hong Kong) and Vietnam (throughout); lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. The fruits are eaten.
Synonyms. Calamus faberi Becc., Calamus faberi var. brevispicatus (C. F. Wei) S. J. Pei & S. Y. Chen, Calamus tonkinensis Becc., Calamus tonkinensis var. brevispicatus C. F. Wei, Palmijuncus walkeri (Hance) Kuntze
Calamus wightii Griff. soojibetha (Ind)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 30 m long and 3 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths brownish green with brown hairs, with scattered or short rows of brownish, triangular, to 1.5-cm-long spines; ocreas present; knees present; flagella present; leaf rachis to 1.7 m long with numerous linear-lanceolate leaflets per side, these regularly arranged; cirri absent. Inflorescences elongate, flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits glo-bose, to 1.8 cm diameter, stalked, brown or black with black-fringed scales.
Range and habitat. Southwestern India (Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu); montane rain forest at 1300–2000 m elevation.
Uses. Provides a cane used in furniture making and basketry.
Notes. Previously known as C. huegelianus.
Synonyms. Calamus huegelianus Mart., Calamus melanolepis (Mart.) H. Wendl., Daemonorops melanolepis Mart., Palmijuncus huegelianus (Mart.) Kuntze, Palmijuncus melanolepis (Mart.) Kuntze, Palmijuncus wightii (Griff.) Kuntze
Calamus wuliangshanensis S. Y. Chen, K. L. Wang & S. J. Pei waqu (Chi)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 15 m long and 3.5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths gray or brown, with gray hairs, with scattered or densely arranged, yellowish brown, flattened, to 2.5-cm-long spines; ocreas present, to 35 cm long, soon tattering; knees absent; flagella present; leaf rachis to 2.8 m long with 45–70 lanceolate leaflets per side, these in distant clusters and spreading in different planes; cirri absent. Inflorescences to 5 m long, flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits ellipsoid to globose, to 2.7 cm long and 2.5 cm diameter, brownish, with densely hairy scale margins.
Range and habitat. China (Yunnan); montane rain forest at 2000–2400 m elevation.
Uses. None recorded.
Notes. Two varieties are recognized: var. sphaerocarpus S. Y. Chen & K. L. Wang, with larger, rounder fruits; and var. wuliangshanensis, with smaller fruits, both from Yunnan.
Calamus zeylanicus Becc. thambotu wel (Srl)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 50 m long and 5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths copper-colored with brown hairs, with well-spaced ridges of dark brown, flattened, to 1-cm-long spines; ocreas absent; knees present; flagella absent; leaf rachis to 2 m long with 35–50 linear leaflets per side, these regularly arranged and pendulous; cirri present, to 1.7 m long. Inflorescences to 1.8 m long, not flagellate; bracts tubular; fruits globose, to 2 cm diameter, brownish.
Range and habitat. Sri Lanka; lowland rain forest to 1000 m elevation.
Uses. Provides a high-quality, large-diameter cane used in furniture making and basketry.
Notes. Difficult to distinguish from C. ovoideus, with which it occurs.
(Schunda-Pana Adans., Thuessinkia Korth.)
Stems are small to very large, solitary or clustered, columnar or swollen, and usually ringed with conspicuous leaf scars. Leaves are 4–20 in number and are usually spread out along the stem, although in a few species they are borne in a compact crown at the top of the stem. Leaf sheaths are closed but do not form a crownshaft. Petioles are short or elongate and then rounded in cross section. They are usually covered with whitish or brownish hairs, and in some species they are attractively striped. The leaves of Caryota are unique among palms in being bipinnate—any palm with a bipinnate leaf must be a Caryota. Each primary leaflet is made up of several secondary leaflets borne on a secondary rachis, and this rachis is terminated by a leaflet. Individual secondary leaflets are triangular and have jagged outer margins—hence the common English name, fishtail palm. The leaflets often spread in different planes, giving the leaves a three-dimensional appearance.
Caryota is semelparous. Stems will grow vegetatively for many years, but not flower. Then, over a short period of time (usually less than five years), leaf production stops and flowering and fruiting begin. The first inflorescence to develop and flower is the topmost one, and flowering (and fruiting) proceeds toward the base of the stem. In a reproductive plant a whole series of inflorescences at different stages may be visible along the stem. After the final fruits have formed the whole stem dies. This means that in solitary-stemmed plants the whole plant dies, but in clustered-stemmed plants only the flowering stem dies after flowering. Inflorescences are usually branched to one order, rarely spicate. They are borne either among or below the leaves, and are covered in numerous, persistent bracts. The peduncle bears a prophyll and several peduncular bracts. Flowering branches are usually numerous, long, and pendulous (although in one species there are only a few branches). Flowers are unisexual, and are borne in threes of one central female and two lateral males. Male flowers have either yellow or purplish petals, and this is a useful character in species identification. There are 6–150 stamens. Fruits are medium-sized; usually more or less globose; orange, red, or purple; and one-to two-seeded. The genus gets its name from the Greek word caryon, meaning nutlike, in reference to the fruits. The meso-carp of the fruits contains crystals of calcium oxalate. Although highly irritant to humans, the fruits are eaten by palm civets, birds, and other animals. The endosperm is ruminate (homogeneous in one species), germination is remote, and the seedling leaf is bifid (pinnate in one species) with jagged margins.
Figure 4. Leaflet shapes of caryota species
Key to the Species of Caryota |
|
1a. Stems clustered; leaves borne along half or more of the stems; flowers purple to maroon; fruits purple, purple-black, or brownish purple |
2. |
1b. Stems solitary; leaves borne along the upper half or third of the stem, or in a compact crown at the top of the stems; flowers yellowish, rarely reddish brown to purple; fruits reddish, orange, or rarely purple |
4. |
2a. Inflorescences with to 60 flowering branches; Andaman and Nicobar islands, Cambodia, China, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam |
C. mitis. |
2b. Inflorescences with 1–20 flowering branches; China, Laos, and Vietnam |
3. |
3a. Inflorescences with 1–3 flowering branches; China and Vietnam |
C. monostachya. |
3b. Inflorescences with 5–20 flowering branches; Laos and Vietnam |
C. sympetala. |
4a. Flowers reddish brown to purple; fruits purple; southern India and Sri Lanka |
C. urens. |
4b. Flowers yellowish; fruits reddish to orange; all other areas |
5. |
5a. Leaves borne along the upper half of the stems; primary leaflets pendulous |
C. maxima. |
5b. Leaves borne in a compact crown at the top of the stems; primary leaflets spreading |
6. |
6a. Inflorescences to 2.5 m long; seedling leaves pinnate; Thailand (Peninsular) |
C. kiriwongensis. |
6b. Inflorescences to 6 m long; seedling leaves bifid; China, India, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand (North), and Vietnam |
C. obtusa. |
Caryota contains 13 species, widely distributed from India throughout Southeast Asia and the western Pacific to Vanuatu. Seven species occur in our area (Hahn 1993, 1999; Hodel 1998). Secondary leaflet shape and size are useful in identification, and these are illustrated in Figure 4. Leaflet shape of C. kiriwongensis (not illustrated) is very similar to that of C. obtusa.
Caryota kiriwongensis Hodel tao rang yak (Tha)
Field characters. Stems solitary, to 35 m tall and 85 cm diameter, slightly swollen. Leaves borne in a compact crown at the top of the stems; primary leaflets to 25 per side of rachis, secondary leaflets with scarcely jagged margins and blunt apices. Inflorescences borne below the leaves, to 2.5 m long, with numerous flowering branches; flowers yellowish; fruits globose, to 3.3 cm diameter, reddish, with homogeneous endosperm.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular); montane rain forest at 1000–1200 m elevation.
Notes. Unusual in having pinnate seedling leaves.
Caryota maxima Blume
rungbong (Bhu), qing zong (Chi), siwa, tamak (Ind), kyauk minbaw, min-baw (Mya), taou-rung-yak (Tha), cay moc (Vie)
Field characters. Stems solitary, to 30 m tall and 65 cm diameter, columnar. Leaves borne along the upper half of the stems; primary leaflets to 27 per side of rachis, pendulous, secondary leaflets with deeply jagged margins. Inflorescences borne among the leaves, to 3.5 m or more long, with to 170 flowering branches; flowers yellowish; fruits globose, to 2.5 cm diameter, dull reddish or orange.
Range and habitat. Bhutan, China (Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Hong Kong, Yunnan), India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Sikkim), Laos (Northern), Myanmar (Bago, Chin, Kachin, Mon, Rakhine, Sagaing), Thailand (North), and Vietnam (throughout) (also in Java, Sumatra, and Peninsular Malaysia); lowland to montane rain forest or disturbed places, often planted or naturalized, 200–1800 m elevation.
Uses. The palm heart is eaten, the stems are used to make implements, and the sheath fibers are used for tinder.
Notes. The tall, solitary stems and pendulous leaflets are distinctive, as are the very long inflorescences. Smaller plants, from limestone areas in Thailand and elsewhere, may represent a distinct species, and have been identified as C. bacsonensis.
Synonyms. Caryota aequatorialis (Becc.) Ridl., Caryota bacsonensis Magalon, Caryota furfuracea var. caudata Blume, Caryota furfuracea var. furcata Blume, Caryota macrantha Burret, Caryota obtusa var. aequatorialis Becc., Caryota ochlandra Hance, Caryota rumphiana var. javanica Becc., Caryota rumphiana var. oxydonta Becc., Caryota rumphiana var. philippinensis Becc.
Caryota mitis Lour.
minbaw (Mya), taou-rung-dang (Tha), dung dinh (Vie)
Field characters. Stems clustered, to 10 m tall and 20 cm diameter, columnar. Leaves usually borne along upper half of the stems; primary leaflets to 23 per side of rachis, secondary leaflets with jagged margins and elongate apices. Inflorescences borne among or below the leaves, to 1.5 m long, with to 60 flowering branches; flowers purple to maroon; fruits globose, to 2 cm diameter, purple-black or reddish.
Range and habitat. Andaman and Nicobar islands, Cambodia, China (Hainan, Guangdong, Guangxi), Myanmar (Bago, Magway, Mon, Rakhine, Tanintharyi), Thailand, and Vietnam (also in Borneo, Java, Peninsular Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Sulawesi, and Sumatra); lowland rain forest, secondary forest, disturbed places, and often cultivated, below 1000 m elevation.
Uses. Widely planted as an ornamental.
Synonyms. Caryota furfuracea Blume, Caryota griffithii Becc., Caryota griffithii var. selebica Becc., Caryotajavanica Zipp., Caryota minor Wall., Caryota nana Linden, Caryota propinqua Blume, Caryota sobolifera Wall., Caryota speciosa Linden, Drymophloeus zippellii Hassk., Thuessinkia speciosa Korth.
Caryota monostachya Becc
danshui yuweiqui (Chi), cay dong dinh, mot buong (Vie)
Field characters. Stems clustered, to 3 m tall and 4 cm diameter, not swollen. Leaves borne almost all along the stems; primary leaflets to 9 per side of rachis, secondary leaflets with scarcely jagged margins and short apices. Inflorescences borne among the leaves, to 1 m long, with 1–3 flowering branches; flowers purple or maroon; fruits globose, to 3.5 cm diameter, brownish purple.
Range and habitat. China (Guangxi, Guizhou, Yunnan), Vietnam (Northern), and probably Laos (Northern); lowland to montane rain forest, often on limestone soils, to 1400 m elevation.
Uses. None recorded.
Caryota obtusa Griff.
dong zong (Chi), tao raang yak (Tha), moc (Vie)
Field characters. Stems solitary, to 40 m tall and 90 cm diameter, swollen. Leaves borne in a compact crown at the top of the stems; primary leaflets to 22 per side of rachis, secondary leaflets with scarcely jagged margins and blunt apices. Inflorescences borne below the leaves, to 6 m long, with to 200 flowering branches; flowers yellowish; fruits globose, to 3.5 cm diameter, reddish.
Range and habitat. Southern China (Yunnan), India (Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur), Laos (Northern), Myanmar (Rakhine), Thailand (North), Vietnam (throughout), and probably Cambodia; scattered localities in montane rain forest, usually on limestone soils, at 1400–1800 m elevation.
Uses. None reported.
Synonyms. Caryota gigas Hahn, Caryota obtusidentata Griff., Caryota rumphiana var. indica Becc.
Caryota sympetala Gagnep.
dung dinh, canh dinh (Vie)
Field characters. Stems clustered, to 6 m tall and 6 cm diameter, not swollen. Leaves borne almost all along the stems; primary leaflets about 10 per side of rachis, secondary leaflets with jagged margins and elongate apices. Inflorescences borne among the leaves, to 0.5 m long, with 5–20 flowering branches; flowers purple to maroon; fruits globose, to 3 cm diameter, purple.
Range and habitat. Laos (Central) and Vietnam (Central); lowland rain forest at low elevations, rarely to 1400 m.
Uses. None recorded.
Notes. Plants usually consist of large clumps of stemless shoots, with few, short flowering stems emerging from the center of the clump.
Caryota urens L.
choonda pana, toddy (Ind), kitul (Srl)
Field characters. Stems solitary, to 20 m tall and 65 cm diameter, columnar. Leaves borne along the upper third of the stems; primary leaflets to 20 per side of rachis, secondary leaflets with jagged margins and elongate apices. Inflorescences borne among and below the leaves, to 3 m long, with to 190 flowering branches; flowers reddish brown to purple; fruits globose, to 2 cm diameter, purple.
Range and habitat. Southern India (Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu) and Sri Lanka; widely cultivated.
Uses. Planted in gardens and smallholdings for a wide variety of products made from the sap, which is tapped, including syrup, sugar, palm wine, and vinegar. Fibers from the leaf sheaths are also important for weaving various items, the leaves are used for thatching and elephant fodder, and the stems are used in construction.
Notes. Almost indistinguishable from the Southeast Asian C. rumphiana, and possibly only an introduced, naturalized form of that species (Hahn 1993).
The stems of this rattan genus are always clustered and usually slender and seldom reach great heights in the forest. Leaves are pinnate, numerous, and spirally arranged. Leaf sheaths are closed, spiny, and have knees and small ocreas. The leaf rachis, at least in adult leaves, terminates in a long cirrus, lacking leaflets but with grapnel-like spines, and this serves as a climbing organ. There is great variation in leaflets, especially for such a small genus. Some species have linear or lanceolate leaflets, others have rhomboidal leaflets with jagged margins. The latter can be whitish gray on the lower surface.
Individual plants bear either male or female flowers (i.e., dioecious). Inflorescences are branched to three orders, and are either short and erect or borne on a long peduncle and then pendulous. The whole inflorescence is covered by one large bract, and at flowering time this opens only by two narrow, lateral slits. The bract is finally split completely open by the developing fruits. The generic name is derived from the form of this bract, from the Greek words keras, meaning horn, and lobos, meaning pod. Male flowers are borne singly along the short flowering branches. Female flowers are borne in pairs with a sterile male flower, and these pairs are borne rather loosely along the flowering branches. Fruits are globose to ellipsoid, brown, usually one-seeded, and are covered with overlapping scales. The endosperm is homogeneous or ruminate, germination is adjacent, and the seedling leaf is palmate.
Ceratolobus contains six species, distributed in Borneo, Java, Sumatra, Thailand, and Peninsular Malaysia. They are not as economically important as other rattans because of their weak stems. The genus differs from other closely related rattan genera, such as Calamus and Daemonorops, by its unusual, single inflorescence bract with a small opening.
One species occurs in our area (Dransfield 1979b; Hodel 1998). Hodel (1998) recorded C. glaucescens for Peninsular Thailand, but Dransfield et al. (2004) considered this unlikely.
Ceratolobus subangulatus (Miq.) Becc
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 15 m long and 1.7 cm diameter (including leaf sheaths). Leaf sheaths green with brown scales, with scattered, green, flattened, to 1.1-cm-long spines; knees present; leaf rachis to 0.6 m long with to 16 lanceolate leaflets per side of rachis, these clustered, the lower ones swept back across the sheaths; cirri to 0.5 m long. Inflorescences to 0.3 m long, erect; fruits globose, to 1.5 cm diameter, brown.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, and Sumatra); lowland rain forest in well-drained places, to 1000 m elevation.
Uses. None recorded.
Synonyms. Calamus subangulatus Miq., Ceratolobus laevigatus (Mart.) Becc., Ceratolobus laevigatus var. angustifolius Becc., Ceratolobus laevigatus var. borneensis Becc., Ceratolobus laevigatus var. divaricatus Becc., Ceratolobus laevigatus var. major Becc., Ceratolobus laevigatus var. regularis Becc., Ceratolobus laevigatus var. subangulatus (Miq.) Becc., Palmijuncus subangulatus (Miq.) Kuntze
This small genus was named after Woon-Young Chun (1890–1971), a Chinese scientist who established the South China Institute of Botany in 1929. Stems are small to moderate and clustered. Leaves are briefly costapalmate, 15–20 in number, and are borne on slender, elongate, smooth-margined, deeply channeled petioles. These channeled petioles are characteristic of the genus. Leaf sheaths are open and on older plants may split at the base to give a central triangular cleft. There is no hastula at the apex of the petiole, as there is in most other coryphoid palms. Blades are irregularly divided into few to numerous leaflets of varying widths, and these are green on both surfaces.
Inflorescences are spicate or branched to three orders, and are borne among the leaves. There are several persistent, tubular bracts covering the peduncle and rachis. Flowers are bisexual and usually occur in small groups, their bases covered by small, tubular bracts. Fruits are small; globose, obovoid, or pear-shaped; red; orange, or purple; and oneseeded. The endosperm is ruminate or homogeneous, germination is remote, and the seedling leaf is undivided.
Two species of Chuniophoenix are usually recognized (Zona 1998), but here three species are accepted, occurring in southern China and northern Vietnam.
Chuniophoenix hainanensis Burret qiong zong (Chi)
Field characters. Stems clustered, to 5 m tall and 6 cm diameter. Leaf blades divided into 36–45 leaflets. Inflorescences to 2 m long, with many flowering branches; fruits obovoid to pear-shaped, to 2.5 cm long and 2.2 cm diameter, red, orange, or purple, borne on short stalks.
Range and habitat. China (Hainan); lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. None recorded.
Chuniophoenix humilis C. Z. Tang & T. L. Wu
ai qiong zong, xiao qiong zong (Chi)
Field characters. Stems clustered, to 2 m tall and 2 cm diameter. Leaf blades divided into 4–6 leaflets, these broad and hooded. Inflorescences to 0.4 m long with 1–4 flowering branches; fruits globose, to 1.6 cm diameter, red.
Key to the Species of Chuniophoenix |
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1a. Stems to 4 m tall and 10 cm diameter; leaf blades divided into 36–45 leaflets; inflorescences with many flowering branches; China (Hainan) |
C. hainanensis. |
1b. Stems to 2 m tall and 2 cm diameter; leaf blades divided into 4–6 leaflets; inflorescences with 1–4 flowering branches; China (Hainan) and Vietnam (Northern) |
2. |
2a. Leaflets broad and hooded; China (Hainan) |
C. humilis. |
2b. Leaflets narrow, not hooded; Vietnam |
C. nana. |
Range and habitat. China (Hainan); lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. None recorded.
Chuniophoenix nana Burret cha (Vie)
Field characters. Stems clustered, to 2 m tall and 2 cm diameter. Leaf blades divided into 4–7 leaflets, these narrow, not hooded. Inflorescences to 0.4 m long with 1–4 flowering branches; fruits globose, to 1.6 cm diameter, red.
Range and habitat. Vietnam (Northern); lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. None recorded.
Notes. Usually included in C. humilis, but here recognized as a separate species, based on its distinctive leaves.
Stems are tall, solitary, columnar, and ringed with conspicuous leaf scars. These scars are not parallel as a result of uneven internode expansion. Occasionally stems are supported by stilt roots. Leaves are pinnate and 8–16 in number. Leaf sheaths are closed and form a prominent, grayish green crownshaft. Petioles are short. Leaflets are regularly and closely arranged along the rachis and spread in the same plane. They can be arched or pendulous, and are linear or lanceolate and one-veined. Often they have prominent, brown scales on the lower surface.
Inflorescences are borne below the crownshaft and are branched to three orders. They are covered with two bracts, and these fall before flowering. The peduncle is short and flat, and the flowering branches are long and slender. Flowers are unisexual and are borne in threes of a central female and two lateral males. Fruits are small, ovoid to ellipsoid, red or black, and one-seeded. This genus gets its name from the Greek words klenein, meaning to bend, and stigma, meaning a spot or mark, in reference to the position of the stigmatic remains on the fruit. The endosperm is homogeneous, germination is adjacent, and the seedling leaf is bifid or undivided.
Clinostigma contains 11 species, widely distributed on islands across the western Pacific, from the Bonin Islands to Micronesia, Fiji, Samoa, and the Solomon Islands. One species occurs in our area, on the Bonin Islands (Moore & Fosberg 1956).
Clinostigma savoryanum (Rheder & E. H. Wilson) H. E. Moore & Fosberg noyashi (Jap)
Field characters. Stems solitary, to 16 m tall and 15 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths forming a grayish green crownshaft; rachis to 3 m long with to 60 pendulous, linear leaflets per side. Inflorescences borne below the leaves, to 0.7 m long; fruits globose to ellipsoid, to 1.5 cm long and 1 cm diameter, black.
Range and habitat. Bonin Islands (Ogasawara Islands—Mukojima, Chichijima, and Hahajima chains); deciduous forest on steep, rocky slopes in coastal areas, at low elevations.
Uses. The palm heart is edible.
Synonyms. Bentinckiopsis savoryana (Rehder & E. H. Wilson) Becc., Cyphokentia savoryana Rehder & E. H. Wilson, Exorrhiza savoryana (Rehder & E. H. Wilson) Burret
(Calappa Steck, Coccos Gaertn., Coccus Mill.)
Stems are large and solitary, gray, and often leaning. Leaves are pinnate, 25–30 in number, and form a graceful crown. Leaf sheaths are open and very fibrous. Leaflets are linear, one-veined, numerous, regularly arranged along the rachis, and spread in the same plane.
Inflorescences are branched to one order, and are borne among the leaves. They are covered by two persistent bracts, the second of which is somewhat woody. Flowers are unisexual and are borne in threes of one central female and two lateral males at the base of the flowering branches, where the large female flowers are easily visible. The one-seeded fruits are very distinctive, mostly because of their large size. The origin of the name is from the Portuguese or Spanish word coco, meaning a nut or a seed. The outer layer is green, orange, or yellow, depending on the variety. Inside is a fibrous layer and this gives coconuts their ability to float. A thick bony endocarp protects the inner layer of endosperm. The inside of the seed is hollow and contains liquid endosperm. Germination is adjacent, and the seedling leaf is undivided.
A genus of one species, which is widely cultivated throughout tropical areas of the world, especially along sandy coasts. The origin of the coconut palm is not known.
Cocos nucifera L. doeum dong (Cbd), kok p’haou (Lao), own pan, thai (Mya), coco, ma-prow (Tha), cay dua (Vie)
Field characters. Stems solitary, often leaning, to 20 m tall and 30 cm or more diameter. Leaflets to 100 per side, regularly arranged and stiffly spreading in the same plane. Inflorescences borne among the leaves; fruits ovoid to irregularly globose, to 30 cm long and 20 cm diameter, green, yellowish, or reddish brown.
Range and habitat. Commonly planted throughout our area (and in other tropical regions), usually at low elevations but occasionally seen up to 1000 m elevation (no map provided).
Uses. The coconut is an important commercial crop, producing coconut oil, coir, and toddy. Coconut oil is obtained from the dried endosperm (known as copra) and has been used in the manufacture of soap and margarine. Coir is obtained from the fibrous mesocarp and is used to weave mats and rugs. Toddy is sugar-containing sap that is tapped from unopened inflorescences and often fermented into an alcoholic drink. Apart from these major uses, the coconut has a host of minor uses, especially as an ornamental plant.
Synonyms. Cocos indica Royle, Cocos nana Griff.
(Bessia Raf., Codda-pana Adans., Dendrema Raf., Gembanga Blume, Taliera Mart.)
Stems are massive, solitary, and are covered, at least when young, with persistent leaf bases. After the leaves fall, some species have a distinctive spiral pattern of leaf scars around the stem. Leaves are palmate and very large (probably the largest of any palmate-leafed palm), and 15–35 in number. Leaf sheaths are open and split at the base to give a central triangular cleft. Petioles are elongate and are covered on their margins with stout, black thorns. Sometimes the petioles are covered with dense, white hairs. At the base of the petiole, where it joins the leaf sheath, there is sometimes a pair of earlike flaps. At the apex of the petiole there is a prominent hastula. The blade is divided to about half its length into numerous, stiff leaflets.
Corypha is semelparous—all inflorescences are produced together at the apex of the stem after a period of vegetative growth, and after flowering and fruiting the stem dies. At first glance, these inflorescences appear as one gigantic inflorescence emerging from above the leaves, but in reality they are separate inflorescences, just as in other palms, each one emerging from the axil of a reduced leaf. The genus gets its name from the position of the inflorescences above the leaves, and comes from the Greek work koryphe, meaning a summit or peak. Inflorescences are branched to four orders, and have numerous, long flowering branches. Flowers are small and bisexual, and are borne in small groups. Fruits are globose, usually brownish, and one-seeded. The endosperm is homogeneous, germination is remote, and the seedling leaf is undivided.
There is no recent revision of Corypha, and the genus remains poorly known. Six species are recognized, four of which occur in our area (Basu 1987; Beccari 1933; Hodel 1998). Corypha is commonly seen in the Southern Asian region, especially in towns or villages, but most are planted or naturalized.
Corypha lecomtei Becc. ex Lecomte treang (Cbd), lan (Tha), la buong (Vie)
Field characters. Stems solitary, to 5 m tall and 100 cm diameter, smooth or often covered with persis tent leaf bases, without spiral furrows. Petioles green with black margins, the bases without conspicuous earlike flaps; blades spherical in outline, divided into about 140 stiff leaflets. Inflorescences to 12 m long; individual inflorescences emerging from the mouths of the subtending leaf sheaths, not splitting them; fruits globose, to 7 cm diameter, brownish.
Key to the Species of Corypha |
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1a. Petioles green, the bases with 2, conspicuous earlike flaps |
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2. |
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1b. Petioles green or with white hairs, the bases without conspicuous earlike flaps |
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3. |
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2a. Individual inflorescences emerging through splits in the subtending leaf sheaths; India | |
(Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu) and Sri Lanka |
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C. umbraculifera. |
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2b. Individual inflorescences emerging from the mouths of the subtending leaf sheaths; Bangladesh and India (West Bengal) |
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C. taliera. |
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3a. Petioles green, with black margins; stems without a spiral furrow; Cambodia, Laos, Thailand (East, Southeast), and Vietnam (Southern) |
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C. lecomtei. |
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3b. Petioles with whitish hairs, without black margins; stems with a faint, spiral furrow; Andaman and Nicobar islands, Myanmar (Tanintharyi), and Thailand (Peninsular) |
C. utan. |
Range and habitat. Cambodia, Laos, Thailand (East, Southeast), and Vietnam (Southern); dry forest or open areas along rivers, commonly persisting in disturbed places, at low elevations.
Uses. None recorded.
Corypha taliera Roxb. talier (Ban), tali, tara (Ind)
Field characters. Stems solitary, to 10 m tall and 70 cm diameter, without spiral furrows. Petioles green, the bases with 2 conspicuous earlike flaps; blades spherical in outline, divided into about 100 stiff leaflets. Inflorescences to 10 m long; individual inflorescences emerging from the mouths of the subtending leaf sheaths, not splitting them; fruits globose, to 4 cm diameter, brown or yellowish.
Range and habitat. Bangladesh and India (West Bengal); not known with certainty from the wild, usually found in disturbed places or planted as an ornamental, at low elevations.
Uses. The leaves are used as paper for writing.
Notes. Similar to, and perhaps not distinct from, C. umbraculifera.
Synonyms. Corypha careyana Becc., Corypha martiana Becc. ex Hook. f., Taliera bengalensis Spreng., Taliera tali Mart. ex Blume in J. J. Roemer & J. A. Schultes
Corypha umbraculifera L. conda pani, talipot (Ind, Srl), tala (Srl)
Field characters. Stems solitary, to 25 m tall and 100 cm diameter, without spiral furrows. Petioles green, without white hairs, the bases with 2 conspicuous earlike flaps; blades spherical in outline, divided into 80–110 stiff leaflets. Inflorescences to 6 m long; individual inflorescences emerging through splits in the subtending leaf sheaths; fruits globose, to 4 cm diameter, greenish brown.
Range and habitat. India (Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu) and Sri Lanka; low-lying areas, often near the sea and in disturbed places.
Uses. There are many local uses, notably the leaves as umbrellas and as writing paper. Starch is extracted from the stems. Widely cultivated as an ornamental.
Notes. The range of this species has been greatly influenced by humans, and possibly it is always cultivated in India and Sri Lanka. It is widely planted in other parts of our area.
Synonyms. Bessia sanguinolenta Raf., Corypha guineensis L.
Corypha utan Lam dondah (And, Ncb), pae (Mya), lan pru (Tha)
Field characters. Stems solitary, to 30 m tall and 90 cm diameter, with faint, spiral furrows. Petioles green, with whitish hairs, the bases without conspicuous earlike flaps; blades hemispherical in outline, divided into 100 or more stiff leaflets. Inflorescences to 3.5 m long; individual inflorescences emerging from the mouths of the subtending leaf sheaths, not splitting them; fruits globose, to 2.5 cm diameter, greenish brown.
Range and habitat. Andaman and Nicobar islands, Myanmar (Tanintharyi), and Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Australia, Indonesia, Malaysia [Sabah], Papua New Guinea, and the Philippines); low-lying places, savannas, floodplains, often in disturbed areas, usually near the sea, seldom to 500 m elevation.
Uses. This is a very important species. Leaves are used for thatching and for weaving into various items such as mats and baskets; the sap from the base of the inflorescence is tapped and used to make sugar or fermented into an alcoholic drink; and there are many other uses.
Synonyms. Corypha elata Roxb., Corypha gebang Mart., Corypha gembanga (Blume) Blume, Corypha griffithiana Becc., Corypha macrophylla Roster, Corypha macropoda Kurz ex Linden, Corypha macropoda Linden ex Kurz, Corypha macropoda Kurz ex Linden, Corypha sylvestris (Blume) Mart., Gembanga rotundifolia Blume, Livistona vidalii Becc., Taliera elata (Roxb.) Wall., Taliera gembanga Blume in J. J. Roemer & J. A. Schultes, Taliera sylvestris Blume in J. J. Roemer & J. A. Schultes
Stems are solitary or clustered, moderate to tall, and ringed with conspicuous leaf scars. There is often a prominent mass of roots at the base. Leaves are pinnate and four to seven in number. Leaf sheaths are closed and form prominent crownshafts, and in one species these are red or orange. Leaflets are regularly arranged along the rachis and spread in the same plane. They are linear and one-veined.
Inflorescences are branched to three orders and are borne below the crownshaft. They are covered with two bracts, and these fall before flowering. Flowers are unisexual and are borne in threes of a central female and two lateral males. These groups of flowers are usually sunken in slight depressions in the flowering branches. The name of the genus is apparently derived from the male flowers, from the Greek word cyrtos, meaning curved, and stachys, meaning a grain. Fruits are usually rather small, ellipsoid, black, and one-seeded. The endosperm is homogeneous, germination is adjacent, and the seedling leaf if bifid.
Cyrtostachys contains 11 species, naturally occurring from Thailand to New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. One species occurs in our area (Hodel 1998).
PLANT 30
Cyrtostachys renda Blume kap deng, mark-dang (Tha)
Field characters. Stems clustered, to 20 m tall and 10 cm diameter. Leaves stiffly erect; leaf sheaths red or orange; leaflets regularly arranged and spreading in the same plane, 35–40 per side of rachis. Inflorescences borne below the leaves; fruits ellipsoid to ovoid, to 1 cm long and 0.6 cm diameter, black.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra); low-lying swamp forest to 125 m elevation.
Uses. Widely cultivated as an ornamental.
Synonyms. Areca erythrocarpa H. Wendl., Areca erythropoda Miq., Bentinckia renda (Blume) Mart., Cyrtostachys lakka Becc., Pinanga purpurea Miq., Pinanga rubricaulis Linden, Ptychosperma coccinea Teijsm. & Binn.
Stems of the majority of species are slender and climbing, and can be clustered or less often solitary. Sometimes stems are nonclimbing or even short and subterranean. Leaves are pinnate, spiny, and 13–30 in number. The generic name is based on the spines, and comes from the Greek words daimon, a devil or demon, and rhops, a bush. Leaf sheaths are closed in climbing species and open in nonclimbing ones. Sheaths are covered in various hairs and spines, and this covering is characteristic for each species. Spines may be scattered (rarely absent) to densely arranged, or arranged in rows, and are variously shaped and colored. Sometimes, and most remarkably, spines are arranged in overlapping, interlocking rings, and these form chambers where ants make their homes. The apex of the sheath is rarely extended above the point of insertion of the petiole into a tubular structure known as an ocrea. Just below the petiole is the knee, a swollen projection of the sheath. Most species have knees, a few, especially nonclimbers, do not. The climbing organ is termed the cirrus. This long, whip-like structure, present in all except the nonclimbing species (and juvenile leaves), is a continuation of the leaf rachis, without leaflets but with grapnel-like spines. Leaflets are variously arranged and shaped.
Species of Daemonorops are dioecious. Some species are semelparous; all inflorescences are produced and flower together over a short period of time, and after fruiting the stem dies. Most species, however, are iteroparous and reproduce over long periods. Inflorescences are branched to three orders, and male inflorescences tend to be more branched than female ones. The branches of the inflorescences are covered with overlapping bracts, and the form of these bracts is important in identification. In some species, inflorescence bracts are persistent, swollen, and split lengthwise to reveal the flowering branches. At flowering time, the apices of all bracts are included within the first bract, or prophyll. In other species, the inflorescence bracts fall from the elongating inflorescence, and only the basal bract persists. Male flowers are usually arranged distichously along the flowering branches. The female flowers are paired, each pair consisting of a female flower and a sterile male flower. Fruits are variously shaped and colored and are usually one-seeded. They are always covered with overlapping scales and are usually borne on short stalks. In some species, a red resin, called “dragon’s blood,” is exuded from the scales and is used medicinally. The endosperm is ruminate, germination is adjacent, and the seedling leaf is pinnate, rarely palmate.
Daemonorops contains approximately 100 species, widely distributed from northeastern India through Indochina, the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, and just reaching New Guinea. Twenty-two species occur in our area (Beccari 1911; Dransfield 1979a, 2001; Evans et al. 2001, 2002; Hodel 1998).
Species of Daemonorops are very similar to the closely related Calamus, and the two genera are difficult to tell apart. All Daemonorops, except for a few nonclimbing species, have cirri, whereas cirri are present in rather few species of Calamus. Most Calamus with cirri also have fruits with homogeneous endosperm, at least in our area. A rattan with a cirrus and fruits with ruminate endosperm is very likely to be a Daemonorops. Inflorescences of Daemonorops are usually shorter than the leaves and are not elongate, as in many Calamus. They do not have sheathing bracts and do not have grapnel-like spines on the bracts, nor the flagellate extension that is so common in Calamus.
Daemonorops can be divided into two groups of species; one has persistent inflorescence bracts (although on infructescences with well-developed fruits the bracts tend to fall). This is known as section Daemonorops and in our area includes D. angustifolia, D. aurea, D. grandis, D. jenkinsiana, D. kurziana, D. lewisiana, D. manii, D. melanochaetes, D. monticola, D. rarispinosa, D. sepal, and D. wrightmyoensis. In the other group of species, section Piptospatha, the inflorescence bracts fall from the elongating infructescences, and only the basal bract persists. In our area this section includes D. didymophylla, D. geniculata, D. kunstleri, D. leptopus, D. macrophylla, D. mollispina, D. poilanei, D. propinqua, D. sabut, and D. verticillaris.
In the species descriptions, stem diameters include the leaf sheaths. Note that many climbing species of Daemonorops often form dense thickets before they begin to climb or if longer canes are constantly harvested.
Daemonorops angustifolia (Griff.) Mart.
wai-nam, waai som (Tha)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 40 m long and 4 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths yellowish green with brown or reddish black hairs, with black, flattened, triangular, to 2.5-cm-long spines; ocreas obscure; knees present, conspicuous; leaf rachis to 2 m long with 80–100 linear leaflets per side, these regularly and closely arranged; cirri present, to 1.3 m long; inflorescences to 0.5 m long, erect; bracts persis tent, swollen, splitting lengthwise to reveal the flowering branches; fruits globose, to 1.8 cm diameter, brownish.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Peninsular Malaysia); lowland rain forest especially along streams and other wet places, or more open areas, to 1000 m elevation.
Uses. Provides a cane used in furniture making.
Notes. This species, together with D. grandis, D. jenkinsiana, D. kurziana, D. manii, D. melanochaetes, and D. sepal, form a closely related group, perhaps better treated as a single, complex species. Three species from the Andaman Islands (D. aurea, D. rarispinosa, and D. wrightmyoensis) may also be part of this complex, but tend to have less-spiny leaf sheaths.
Synonyms. Calamus angustifolius Griff., Calamus hygrophilus Griff., Daemonorops angustispatha Furtado, Daemonorops carcharodon Ridl., Daemonorops hygrophila (Griff.) Mart., Palmijuncus hygrophilus (Griff.) Kuntze
Daemonorops aurea Renuka & Vijayak.
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 20 m long and 3.5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths yellowish green without hairs, with very few, scattered, brownish, flattened, to 3-cm-long spines; ocreas obscure; knees present; leaf rachis to 1.7 m long with numerous, linear leaflets per side, these regularly arranged; cirri present, to 1.5 m long. Inflorescences to 0.3 m long, erect; bracts persistent, swollen, splitting lengthwise to reveal the flowering branches; fruits globose, to 1.5 cm diameter, yellow.
Range and habitat. Andaman Islands (South Andaman); lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. Provides a cane used in furniture making.
Daemonorops didymophylla Becc. wai-ki-ped (Tha)
Field characters. Stems clustered, sometimes solitary, climbing, to 20 m long and 3.5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green to yellowish green, without hairs, with scattered or rows of black, yellow-based, flattened, triangular, to 3.5-cm-long spines; ocreas obscure; knees present, conspicuous; leaf rachis to 2.3 m long with 12–20 lanceolate to broadly lanceolate leaflets per side, these irregularly arranged in diverging pairs; cirri present, to 1 m long. Inflorescences to 0.5 m long, pendulous; bracts falling from the elongating infructescence, only the basal bract persistent; fruits ovoid, to 2.5 cm long and 2 cm diameter, brown, with dragon’s blood.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, and Sumatra); lowland rain forest to 1000 m elevation.
Uses. Provides a cane used in furniture making, and the fruits are a source of dye and used medicinally.
Synonyms. Calamus cochleatus Miq., Calamus didymophyllus (Becc.) Ridl., Daemonorops cochleata Teijsm. & Binn., Daemonorops mattanensis Becc., Daemonorops motleyi Becc., Palmijuncus cochleatus (Miq.) Kuntze
Daemonorops geniculata (Griff.) Mart. wai ta no (Tha)
Field characters. Stems usually solitary, climbing, to 20 m long and 4.5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with gray-brown hairs, with rows of black, flattened or needlelike, to 4 (to 10 at sheath apices)-cm-long spines, borne on ridges; ocreas absent; knees obscure; petioles with paler, to 10-cm-long spines along the margins; leaf rachis to 3 m long with 35–40 lanceolate leaflets per side, these irregularly arranged in groups of 3–10 leaflets, or sometimes regularly arranged; cirri present, to 1 m long. Inflorescences to 0.8 m long, pendulous; bracts falling from the elon-gating infructescence, only the basal bract persistent; fruits globose, to 2.2 cm diameter, yellowish brown.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore); lowland rain forest to 1000 m elevation.
Uses. None recorded.
Synonyms. Calamus geniculatus Griff., Palmijuncus geniculatus (Griff.) Kuntze
Daemonorops grandis (Griff.) Mart. wai-jark (Tha)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 20 m long and 5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with brown hairs, with scattered or rows of black, triangular, to 5-cm-long spines, mixed with some needlelike spines; ocreas obscure; knees present, conspicuous; leaf rachis to 3.5 m long with 18–60 lanceolate leaflets per side, these regularly or slightly irregularly and distantly arranged; cirri present, to 1.75 m long. Inflorescences erect, to 0.7 m long; bracts persistent, swollen, splitting lengthwise to reveal the flowering branches; fruits globose, to 2.5 cm diameter, yellowish brown.
Plate 33. Daemonorops verticillaris; leaf sheath; Thailand (top left). Eleiodoxa conferta; leaf bases; Thailand (top right). Eleiodoxa conferta; fruits; Thailand (bottom left). Eugeissona tristis; fruits; Thailand (bottom right).
Plate 34. Guihaia argyrata; habit; China (top left). Guihaia grossifibrosa; habit; Vietnam (top right). Hyphaene dichotoma; habit; cultivation, Florida (bottom left). Iguanura bicornis; fruits; Thailand (bottom right).
Plate 35. Iguanura thalangensis; infructescence; Thailand (top left). Iguanura wallichiana var. wallichiana; habit; Thailand (top right). Johannesteijsmannia altifrons; habit; Thailand (bottom left). Johannesteijsmannia altifrons; inflorescence; Thailand (bottom right).
Plate 36. Kerriodoxa elegans; habit; Thailand (top left). Kerriodoxa elegans; inflorescences; Thailand (top right). Korthalsia flagellaris; lower surface of leaflets; Thailand (bottom left). Korthalsia laciniosa; habit; Thailand (bottom right).
Plate 37. Korthalsia laciniosa; lower surface of leaflets; Thailand (top left). Korthalsia laciniosa; leaf sheath; Thailand (top right). Korthalsia laciniosa; fruits; Vietnam (bottom left). Licuala acaulis; female flowers; Vietnam (bottom right).
Plate 38. Licuala atroviridis; habit; Vietnam (top left). Licuala bachmaensis; habit; Vietnam (top right). Licuala bidoupensis; leaves; Vietnam (bottom left). Licuala calciphila; habit; Vietnam (bottom right).
Plate 39. Licuala cattienensis; habit; Vietnam (top left). Licuala cattiensis; fruits; Vietnam (top right). Licuala centralis; habit; Vietnam (bottom left). Licuala dasyantha; habit; Vietnam (bottom right).
Plate 40. Licuala dasyantha; inflorescences; Vietnam (top left). Licuala distans; habit; Thailand (top right). Licuala fordiana; habit; China (bottom left). Licuala fordiana; inflorescences; China (bottom right).
Plate 41. Licuala hainanensis; habit; China (top left). Licuala hexasepala; habit; Vietnam (top right). Licuala magalonii; habit; Vietnam (bottom left). Licuala merguensis; habit; Thailand (bottom right).
Plate 42. Licuala peltata var. peltata; habit; Myanmar (top left). Licuala peltata var. peltata; flowers; Thailand (top right). Licuala robinsoniana; habit; Vietnam (bottom left). Licuala robinsoniana; inflorescences; Vietnam (bottom right).
Plate 43. Livistona chinensis; leaves; cultivated, Vietnam (top left). Livistona halongensis; habit; Vietnam (top right). Livistona jenkinsiana; inflorescences; Myanmar (bottom left). Livistona jenkinsiana; infructescence; India (bottom right).
Plate 44. Loxococcus rupicola; habit; Sri Lanka (top left). Maxburretia furtadoana; habit; Thailand (top right). Maxburretia furtadoana; leaf bases; Thailand (bottom left). Myrialepis paradoxa; fruits; Vietnam (bottom right).
Plate 45. Nannorrhops ritchiana; habit; Oman (top left). Nenga banaensis; habit; Vietnam (top right). Nenga banaensis; inflorescence; Vietnam (bottom left). Nenga pumila var. pachystachya; habit; Thailand (bottom right).
Plate 46. Nenga pumila var. pachystachya; infructescences; Thailand (top left). Nypa fruticans; habit; Vietnam (top right). Nypa fruitcans; inflorescence; Myanmar (bottom left). Oncosperma fasciculatum; habit; Sri Lanka (bottom right).
Plate 47. Oncosperma tigillarium, with Nypa fruticans in foreground; habit; Thailand (top left). Orania sylvicola; habit; Thailand (top right). Phoenix loureiroi var. loureiroi; habit; Vietnam (bottom left). Phoenix paludosa; habit; Thailand (bottom right).
Plate 48. Phoenix pusilla; habit; Sri Lanka (top left). Phoenix roebelinii; habit; Vietnam (top right). Phoenix rupicola; habit; India (bottom left). Phoenix sylvestris; habit; India (bottom right).
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Singapore and Peninsular Malaysia); lowland rain forest to 800 m elevation.
Uses. Provides a poor-quality cane, which is seldom used; the palm hearts are used medicinally.
Notes. See notes under D. angustifolia.
Synonyms. Calamus acanthopis Griff., Calamus grandis Griff., Calamus intermedius Griff., Daemonorops grandis var. megacarpus Furtado, Daemonorops intermedia (Griff.) Mart., Daemonorops intermedia var. nudinervis Becc., Daemonorops kirtong Griff., Daemonorops laciniata Furtado, Daemonorops malaccensis Mart., Palmijuncus grandis (Griff.) Kuntze, Palmijuncus intermedius (Griff.) Kuntze, Palmijuncus malaccensis (Mart.) Kuntze
Daemonorops jenkinsiana (Griff.) Mart. gola (Ban), huang teng, paak t’ang (Chi), cheka bet, golak bet (Ind), boun (Lao), kyien-yea taung (Mya), dhangru (Nep), wai-somm (Tha), may rut (Vie)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing or often forming thickets, to 25 m long and 6 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths yellowish green with gray, brown, or reddish black hairs, with scattered or rows of black, flattened, triangular, to 4-cm-long spines, mixed with some needlelike spines; ocreas obscure; knees present, conspicuous; leaf rachis to 3 m long with 55–100 linear or lanceolate leaflets per side, these regularly arranged; cirri present, to 2 m long. Inflorescences to 0.8 m long, erect; bracts persistent, swollen, splitting lengthwise to reveal the flowering branches; fruits globose to ellipsoid, to 2 cm long and 2 cm diameter, yellowish brown.
Range and habitat. Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China (Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Hong Kong), northeastern India (Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Sikkim, West Bengal), Laos (Central, Northern, Southern), Myanmar (Bago, Rakhine, Tanintharyi, Yangon), Nepal, Thailand (East, North, Northeast, Southeast, Southwest), and Vietnam; lowland rain forest, often persisting in disturbed areas, to 1000 m elevation.
Uses. Provides a cane used in furniture making, and leaves for thatching.
Notes. A widespread, common, and extremely variable species. See notes under D. angustifolia.
Synonyms. Calamus jenkinsianus Griff., Calamus margaritae Hance, Calamus nutantiflorus Griff., Daemonorops jenkinsiana var. tenasserimica Becc., Daemonorops margaritae (Hance) Becc., Daemonorops margaritae var. palawanica Becc., Daemonorops nutantiflora (Griff.) Mart., Daemonorops pierreana Becc., Daemonorops schmidtiana Becc., Palmijuncus jenkinsianus (Griff.) Kuntze, Palmijuncus margaritae (Hance) Kuntze, Palmijuncus nutantiflorus (Griff.) Kuntze
Daemonorops Kunstleri Becc. wai hang sûa, wai-ki-lay (Tha)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing or non-climbing and then short and erect, to 15 m long and 4 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths brownish green with brown hairs, with densely arranged rows of dark brown, flattened, to 4 (to 15 at sheath apex)-cm-long spines; ocreas obscure; knees present, absent in non-climbing plants; petioles with paler, to 10-cm-long spines along the margins; leaf rachis to 2 m long with about 65 linear leaflets per side, these regularly arranged; cirri present, to 1 m long, very short in non-climbing forms. Inflorescences to 0.7 m long, arching; bracts falling from the elongating infructescence, only the basal bract persistent; fruits globose, to 1.8 cm diameter, brown.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular, Southwest) (also in Singapore and Peninsular Malaysia, and possibly Sumatra); lowland or montane rain forest, 50–1000 m, rarely to 1400 m elevation.
Uses. None recorded.
Synonym. Daemonorops vagans Becc.
Daemonorops kurziana Hook. f. ex Becc. sanda beth (And), kyien kalah (Mya)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 25 m long and 6 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths yellowish green without hairs, with partial rows of black, triangular, to 4 (to 6 at sheath apex)-cm-long spines; ocreas obscure; knees present; leaf rachis to 2.5 m long with to 45 lanceolate leaflets per side, these regularly arranged; cirri present, to 1 m long. Inflorescences to 0.6 m long, erect; bracts persistent, swollen, splitting lengthwise to reveal the flowering branches; fruits globose, to 2 cm diameter, brown.
Range and habitat. Andaman Islands (South Andamans), Myanmar (Tanintharyi), and probably Thailand (Southwest); lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. Provides a cane used in furniture making.
Notes. See notes under D. angustifolia.
Daemonorops leptopus (Griff.) Mart.
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 20 m long and 6 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green, mottled with black, yellow, or purple patches, with scattered, dark brown, triangular, to 4-cm-long spines; ocreas obscure; knees present, conspicuous; petiole mottled as the sheath; leaf rachis mottled as the petiole, to 2.5 m long with about 40 linear leaflets per side, these regularly arranged and pendulous; cirri present, to 2.5 m long. Inflorescences to 1 m long, pendulous; bracts falling from the elongating infructescence, only the basal bract persistent; fruits ovoid, to 1.8 cm long and 1 cm diameter, brown.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Singapore and Peninsular Malaysia); lowland rain forest to 1000 m elevation.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Singapore, and Peninsular Malaysia); lowland rain forest to 1000 m elevations.
Uses. None recorded.
Notes. Reported to occur in Peninsular Thailand (Dransfield et al. 2004), but no specimens from there have been seen and no map is provided.
Synonyms. Calamus leptopus Griff., Daemonorops congesta Ridl., Palmijuncus leptopus (Griff.) Kuntze
Daemonorops lewisiana (Griff.) Mart.
Field characters. Stems clustered, rarely solitary, nonclimbing, forming thickets, to 3 m long and 7 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with brown hairs, with scattered, black, triangular, to 3-cm-long spines; ocreas obscure; knees absent or obscure; leaf rachis to 2.5 m long with about 80 linear leaflets per side, these regularly arranged; leaves subtending inflorescences much smaller than others; cirri absent or short, to 0.2 m long on older leaves. Inflorescences to 0.2 m long, produced at the same time, the stem dying after flowering; bracts persistent, swollen, splitting lengthwise to reveal the flowering branches; fruits globose, to 2 cm diameter, brown.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, and Sumatra); lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. None recorded.
Notes. Close to, and perhaps not distinct from, D. monticola (Dransfield 1979a; Hodel 1998).
Synonyms. Calamus lewisianus Griff., Daemonorops bakauensis Becc., Daemonorops curtisii Furtado, Daemonorops pseudosepal Becc., Daemonorops tabacina Becc., Palmijuncus lewisianus (Griff.) Kuntze
Daemonorops macrophylla Becc. wai loe bae lek (Tha)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 20 m long and 3 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with brown hairs, with rows of dark brown, needlelike, to 5-cm-long spines, borne on ridges, spines from some rows pointing either upwards or downwards, the overlap forming ant chambers; ocreas obscure; knees present, obscure; leaf rachis to 1 m long with 8–10 lanceolate leaflets per side, these clustered, the basal ones much longer and wider than the others; cirri present, to 1.3 m long. Inflorescences to 1 m long, pendulous; bracts falling from the elongating infructescence, only the basal bract persistent; fruits ovoid, to 2.1 cm long and 1.5 cm diameter, yellowish brown.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Peninsular Malaysia); lowland rain forest to 800 m elevation.
Uses. Provides a medium-quality cane used in furniture making.
Notes. Reported to occur in Peninsular Thailand (Dransfield et al. 2004), but no specimens from there have been seen and no map is provided. Close to, and perhaps not distinct from, D. sabut (Dransfield 1979a).
Daemonorops manii Becc. châng bet (And)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 20 m long and 3 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths yellowish with brown hairs, with scattered, black, flattened, triangular, to 3-cm-long spines; ocreas obscure; knees present; leaf rachis to 2 m long with numerous linear leaflets per side, these regularly arranged; cirri present, to 1.5 m long. Inflorescences to 0.3 m long, erect; bracts persistent, swollen, splitting lengthwise to reveal the flowering branches; fruits globose, to 1.8 cm diameter, brown.
Range and habitat. Andaman Islands (South Andaman) and possibly Nicobars; lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. The leaves are used for thatching.
Notes. See notes under D. angustifolia. Beccari (1911) considered this species to be a geographic form of D. jenkinsiana.
Daemonorops melanochaetes Blume wai jark (Tha)
Field characters. Stems clustered, forming thickets, climbing, to 30 m long and 7 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths brownish green with light brown hairs, with densely arranged, black, needlelike or flattened, to 7-cm-long spines; ocreas obscure; knees present, conspicuous; leaf rachis to 3 m long with 65–80 linear leaflets per side, these regularly and closely arranged; cirri present, to 1.25 m long. Inflorescences to 0.4 m long, erect; bracts persistent, swollen, splitting lengthwise to reveal the flowering branches; outer inflorescence bract with densely arranged, needlelike spines; fruits globose, 0.7–1 cm diameter, reddish brown.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Java, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra); lowland rain forest, often near the sea, at low elevations.
Uses. None recorded.
Notes. Reported to occur in Peninsular Thailand (Dransfield et al. 2004), but no specimens from there have been seen and no map is provided. See notes under D. angustifolia.
Synonyms. Calamus melanochaetes (Blume) Miq., Daemonorops javanica Furtado, Daemonorops melanochaetes var. depresseglobus Teijsm., Daemonorops melanochaetes var. macrocarpus Becc., Daemonorops melanochaetes var. macrocymbus Becc., Daemonorops melanochaetes var. microcarpus Teijsm., Daemonorops melanochaetes var. padangensis Becc.
Daemonorops mollispina J. Dransf. may heo (Vie)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 8 m long and 5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths brownish, with densely arranged, yellowish, black-tipped, triangular, to 4.5 (to 18 at sheath apex)-cm-long spines, with gray or brown hairs; ocreas obscure; knees absent; leaf rachis to 2 m long with about 60 linear leaflets per side, these regularly arranged; cirri present, to 1.5 m long. Inflorescences to 1 m long, arching; bracts falling from the elongating infructescence, only the basal bract persistent; fruits globose, to 1.5 cm diameter, brown.
Range and habitat. Vietnam (Central); lowland or montane rain forest, to 1900 m elevation.
Uses. None recorded.
Daemonorops monticola (Griff.) Mart.
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 5 m long and 3.5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with brown hairs, with rows of black, triangular, to 1-cm-long spines; ocreas obscure; knees present, obscure; leaf rachis to 1.7 m long with 30–60 linear leaflets per side, these regularly arranged; leaves subtending inflorescences much smaller than others; cirri present, to 0.75 m long. Inflorescences to 0.75 m long, produced at the same time, the stem dying after flowering; bracts persistent, swollen, splitting lengthwise to reveal the flowering branches; fruits globose, to 1.5 cm diameter, reddish brown.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Peninsular Malaysia); lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. None recorded.
Notes. See notes under D. lewisiana.
Synonyms. Calamus monticola Griff., Palmijuncus monticula (Griff.) Kuntze
Daemonorops poilanei J. Dransf. may nuoc (Vie)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 10 m long and 2.5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths yellowish green with brown hairs, with densely arranged, brown, triangular, flattened, to 4.5-cm-long spines; knees present, obscure; ocrea prominent; leaf rachis to 3 m long with to 36 linear-lanceolate leaflets per side, these irregularly arranged in groups, sometimes appearing almost regularly arranged; cirri present, to 1.5 m long. Inflorescences to 0.7 m long, arching; bracts falling from the elongating infructescence, only the basal bract persistent; fruits globose, to 2.5 cm diameter, brown.
Range and habitat. Vietnam (Central, Southern); lowland rain forest, usually along streams and rivers, to 600 m elevation.
Uses. Provides a cane used in furniture making.
Daemonorops propinqua Becc.
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing or thicket forming, to 5 m long and 4 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green without hairs, with scattered or arranged in short rows, black-tipped, flattened, to 3-cm-long spines; ocreas obscure; knees present, obscure; leaf rachis to 1.6 m long with 13–20 lanceolate leaflets per side, these well spaced, regularly or slightly irregularly arranged; cirri present, to 1 m long. Inflorescences to 0.6 m long, pendulous; bracts falling from the elongating infructescence, only the basal bract persistent; fruits ellipsoid, to 2.5 cm long and 2 cm diameter, reddish, with dragon’s blood.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia); lowland rain forest, usually in wet places, at low elevations.
Uses. The fruits are a source of dye.
Notes. Reported to occur in Peninsular Thailand (Dransfield et al. 2004), but no specimens from there have been seen and no map is provided.
Daemonorops rarispinosa Renuka & Vijayak.
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 20 m long and 2.5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths yellowish without hairs, with scattered, flattened, triangular, to 1.5-cm-long spines; ocreas obscure; knees present; leaf rachis to 1 m long with numerous linear leaflets per side, these regularly arranged; cirri present, to 1.5 m long. Inflorescences to 0.4 m long, erect; bracts persistent, swollen, splitting lengthwise to reveal the flowering branches; fruits globose, to 1.3 cm diameter, yellow.
Range and habitat. Andaman Islands (Little Andaman Island); lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. Provides a cane used in furniture making.
Daemonorops sabut Becc. wai pon, wai-pun-kun-nom (Tha)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 20 m long and 3 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with dark brown hairs, with rows of dark brown, needlelike, to 6-cm-long spines, borne on ridges, spines from some rows pointing either upwards or downwards, the overlap forming ant chambers; knees present, conspicuous; leaf rachis to 1.5 m long with 5–17 lanceolate leaflets per side, these arranged in distant clusters; cirri present, to 1.3 m long. Inflorescences to 1 m long, pendulous; bracts falling from the elongating infructescence, only the basal bract persistent; fruits globose to ovoid, to 1.6 cm long and 1.2 cm diameter, yellowish.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, and possibly Sumatra); lowland rain forest, often near rivers or in other wet places, at low elevations.
Uses. Provides a moderate-quality cane used in furniture making.
Notes. See notes under D. macrophylla.
Synonyms. Daemonorops annulata Becc., Daemonorops pseudomirabilis Becc., Daemonorops turbinata Becc.
Daemonorops sepal Becc. chak nam (Tha)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 15 m long and 6 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with light brown hairs, with densely arranged, brown, needle-like, to 3-cm-long spines; ocreas obscure; knees present, conspicuous; leaf rachis to 2 m long with to 80 linear leaflets per side, these regularly and closely arranged; cirri present, to 1.3 m long. Inflorescences to 0.4 m long, erect; bracts persistent, swollen, splitting lengthwise to reveal the flowering branches; outer inflorescence bract with densely arranged, needlelike spines; fruits globose, to 3 cm diameter, brown.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Peninsular Malaysia); lowland or montane rain forest, at low to medium elevations.
Uses. None recorded.
Notes. Although sometimes reported to occur at higher elevations, the few specimens from Peninsular Thailand have been collected at low elevations. See notes under D. angustifolia.
Synonyms. Daemonorops aciculata Ridl., Daemonorops imbellis Becc., Daemonorops kiahii Furtado, Daemonorops nurii Furtado, Daemonorops scortechinii Becc.
Daemonorops verticillaris (Griff.) Mart.
wai taplu (Tha)
Field characters. Stems usually solitary, climbing, to 15 m long and 5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with brown hairs, with rows of dark brown, needlelike or flattened, to 2-cm-long spines, borne on ridges, spines from some rows pointing either upwards or downwards, the overlap forming ant chambers, some spines at sheath apex flattened, to 11 cm long; ocreas obscure; knees present, obscure; leaf rachis to 1.5 m long with 40–60 lanceolate leaflets per side, these closely spaced and regularly arranged; cirri present, to 1 m long. Inflorescences to 2 m long, pendulous; bracts falling from the elongating infructescence, only the basal bract persistent; fruits globose, to 1.5 cm diameter, brownish.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra); lowland rain forest to 1000 m elevation.
Uses. Provides a low-quality cane.
Synonyms. Calamus verticillaris Griff., Daemonorops setigera Ridl., Daemonorops stipitata Furtado, Daemonorops verticillaris var. stramineus Furtado, Palmijuncus verticillaris (Griff.) Kuntze
Daemonorops wrightmyoensis Renuka & Vijayak. sanka beth (And)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 20 m long and 4.5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths yellowish without hairs, with scattered, black or brown, flattened, triangular, to 4 (to 6 at sheath apex)-cm-long spines; knees present; leaf rachis to 2 m long with numerous linear leaflets per side, these regularly arranged and whitish on the lower surface; cirri present, to 1.5 m long. Inflorescences to 0.8 m long, erect; bracts persistent, swollen, splitting lengthwise to reveal the flowering branches; fruits ellipsoid, to 1.5 cm long and 1 cm diameter, brownish.
Range and habitat. Andaman Islands (South Andaman); lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. Provides a cane used in furniture making.
Notes. See notes under D. angustifolia.
The genus name is derived from the swampy habitat of this palm, from the Greek words eleio, meaning wet, and doxa, meaning at home in. Stems are clustered, short and subterranean, and mostly obscured by the persistent leaf bases. Short breathing roots are produced from the stems, and these protrude above the soil level. Leaves are pinnate, spiny, and five to eight per stem in number. Leaf sheaths are open and do not form crownshafts. Sheaths and petioles are elongate and are covered with short rows of stout, brown or black, needlelike spines, and these spread in different directions. Leaflets are lanceolate and are regularly arranged and spread in the same plane. The leaflets at the apex of the leaf are not joined together, unlike those of the closely related genus Salacca.
Eleiodoxa is semelparous and also dioecious. Inflorescences are branched to two orders and are covered in numerous, persistent, sheathing bracts. Unlike the leaves, inflorescences are not spiny. Male and female inflorescences are congested. In male inflorescences, flowers are borne in densely arranged pairs on short, thick flowering branches. In female inflorescences, flowers are borne in pairs, also densely arranged, consisting of one female flower and one sterile male flower. Fruits are obovoid, brown or reddish brown, one-to three-seeded, and are covered in numerous scales. The endosperm is homogeneous, germination is adjacent, and the seedling leaf is bifid.
Eleiodoxa contains one species occurring in Peninsular Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo (Hodel 1998). It is not easily distinguished from Salacca, and the two genera need reassessing (Henderson 2008).
Eleiodoxa conferta (Griff.) Burret lumpee (Tha)
Field characters. Stems short and subterranean, clustered, forming large thickets. Sheaths and petioles with short rows of black or brown (becoming lighter with age), needlelike, to 8-cm-long spines; leaf rachis to 4 m long, with 25–35 lanceolate leaflets per side, these regularly arranged and spreading in the same plane. Inflorescences congested among leaf bases, the males and females similar; fruits obovoid, 1-seeded, to 2.5 cm long and 2.5 cm diameter, reddish brown, not spiny.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) and probably adjacent Myanmar (also in Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra); lowland rain forest in swamps, often near the coast, at low elevations.
Uses. The fruits are edible.
Synonyms. Eleiodoxa microcarpa Burret, Eleiodoxa orthoschista Burret, Eleiodoxa scortechinii (Becc.) Burret, Eleiodoxa xantholepis Burret, Salacca conferta Griff., Salacca scortechinii Becc.
Stems are clustered, short and subterranean and then either erect or creeping, or taller and aerial. Roots are often conspicuous. In one species stems are borne on the top of long stilt roots, and in another modified roots occur as spines on the stem. Leaves are pinnate, spiny, 6–25 in number, and are spirally arranged or borne in three series. The leaves are used for thatching, hence the name of the genus, from the Greek words eu, meaning good, and geisson, meaning a roof cornice. Leaf sheaths are open and do not form crownshafts, and petioles are usually very long; both are covered in flat, black spines. Leaflets are linear to broadly lanceolate and are regularly arranged or clustered along the rachis.
Eugeissona is semelparous. After a relatively short period of vegetative growth, the stem greatly elongates and several inflorescences are produced simultaneously along this stem in the axils of much reduced leaves. The whole structure appears as a large, terminal inflorescence. After flowering and fruiting the stem dies. Inflorescences are branched to four orders and are covered in sheathing bracts. Flowers are borne in pairs of a male flower and a bisexual flower. Flowers are unusual among palms in having large, woody petals, and male flowers have colored anthers and pollen. Fruits are ovoid, brownish, one-seeded, and are covered in numerous, small scales. Unlike all other scaly-fruited palms, fruits have a hard, stony inner layer. The endosperm is homogeneous (although penetrated by the stony layer), germination is remote, and the seedling leaf is pinnate.
Eugeissona contains six species, distributed in Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, and Peninsular Thailand. Only one species occurs in our area (Dransfield 1970; Hodel 1998).
Eugeissona tristis Griff.
jark-khao (Tha)
Field characters. Stems short and subterranean (but elongating at flowering time), creeping, clustered, forming large thickets, often with dense stilt roots at the base. Leaf rachis to 3 m long, with to 100 regularly arranged, linear leaflets per side, these with soft spines on upper surface. Inflorescences stout, erect, to 3 m long, with no apparent branches; male flowers brown with purple-brown anthers and pollen; fruits obovoid, fruits ovoid to almost oblong, to 9 cm long and 5 cm diameter, dark brown.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Peninsular Malaysia); lowland rain forest on ridges and slopes, rarely in swamps, to 900 m elevation. It thrives in logged areas and is regarded as a weed by foresters.
Uses. The leaves are occasionally used for thatching, and the fruits are edible.
This genus is closely related to both Maxburretia and Rhapis, and is somewhat intermediate in flower and fruit structure. It gets its name from the old Chinese word for the area in which one species grows, Guilin in Guangxi Province. Stems are short or subterranean, clustered, sometimes creeping, and form small clumps. Leaves are palmate, 6–14 in number, and form a rather open crown. Leaf sheaths are open and consist of coarse, black or brown fibers. These are either free and spinelike, or remain joined at their apices, forming a distinct point. Petioles have smooth, sharp margins. At the apex of the petiole there is a hastula. The blade is more or less silvery white on the lower surface, and is divided to three-quarters or more of its length into numerous leaflets. These leaflets are very unusual among coryphoid palms in that their folding is roof-shaped (reduplicate or Λ-shaped in cross section), rather than the more usual gutter-shaped (induplicate or V-shaped in cross section). Rarely the blade is undivided. The margins of the leaves have minute “thorns,” almost like saw teeth, although these are not so pronounced as in Rhapis.
Inflorescences are branched to four orders, and are borne among the leaves. Inflorescences have only two bracts, again unusual among coryphoid palms. Individual plants bear either male or female flowers, and these are very small and arranged spirally along the flowering branches. Fruits are small, globose to almost ellipsoid, blue-black, and one-seeded. The endosperm is homogeneous (although penetrated by an irregular intrusion of the seed coat), germination is remote, and the seedling leaf is narrow and undivided.
Guihaia contains two species distributed in southern China and northern Vietnam (Dransfield et al. 1985; Dransfield & Zona 1997). However, variation in the genus is complex. A few specimens are intermediate, with leaf sheath fibers as in G. grossifibrosa and leaves as in G. argyrata (see also Dransfield & Zona 1997). Other specimens have undivided leaves or leaves with only two leaflets. The two species have overlapping distributions along the border between China and Vietnam.
Guihaia argyrata (S. K. Lee & F. N. Wei) S. K. Lee, F. N. Wei & J. Dransf.
shishankui (Chi)
Field characters. Stems clustered, to 0.5m tall and 5 cm diameter, erect or creeping, obscured by old leaf bases. Leaf sheath fibers stiff, erect, separating and becoming spinelike; leaf blades divided into 14–26 leaflets, these densely silvery white on the lower surface. Inflorescences to 0.8m long; fruits almost globose, to 0.6 cm diameter, blue-black.
Range and habitat. China (Guangxi, Guangdong, Guizhou) and Vietnam (Northern); seasonal forest on steep slopes of karst limestone hills to 1000 m elevation.
Uses. None recorded.
Synonym. Trachycarpus argyratus S. K. Lee & F. N. Wei
Guihaia grossifibrosa (Gagnep.)
J. Dransf., S. K. Lee & F. N. Wei
lui (Vie)
Key to the Species of Guihaia |
|
1a. Leaf sheath fibers stiff, erect, separating and becoming spinelike; leaf blades densely silvery white on the lower surface; stems to 0.5m tall and 5 cm diameter |
G. argyrata. |
1b. Leaf sheath fibers curved, remaining joined, not separating into stiff spines; leaf blades scarcely silvery white on the lower surface; stems to 2.5m tall and 8 cm diameter |
G. grossifibrosa. |
Field characters. Stems solitary or clustered, to 2.5m tall and 8 cm diameter, erect or leaning, densely covered with persistent leaf bases. Leaf sheath fibers united at their apices, forming a distinct point; leaf blades sometimes undivided, usually divided into 2–21 leaflets, these scarcely silvery white on the lower surface. Inflorescences to 0.7m long; fruits ellipsoid to ovoid, to 1 cm long and 1 cm diameter, blue-black.
Range and habitat. China (Guangxi, Guangdong) and Vietnam (Northern); seasonal forest on steep slopes of karst limestone hills at 500–1100m elevation.
Uses. None recorded.
Notes. See Averyanov et al. (2005) for an account of this species in Vietnam.
Synonyms. Rhapis filiformis Burret, Rhapis grossifibrosa Gagnep.
(Chamaeriphes Dill., Cucifera Delile, Doma Lam., Douma Poir.)
Stems are remarkable in that those of some species are often branched several times by equal forking. Other species either have short and subterranean or swollen stems, and these can be either solitary or clustered. Stems of younger plants are often covered by the persistent remains of the leaf bases. Leaves are costapalmate, numerous, rather large, and form an open crown. Leaf sheaths are open and are split at the base to give a central triangular cleft. Sheaths and petioles are densely hairy. Petioles are elongate and the margins are covered with curved or straight, stout thorns. At the apex of the petiole there is a prominent hastula. The blade is divided into numerous leaflets, and these are briefly split at the apex. Leaflets are frequently waxy.
Inflorescences are borne among the leaves and are usually pendulous, and individual trees bear either male or female inflorescences. Male inflorescences are branched to two orders and are covered by several bracts. Flowering branches are borne in groups of 1–6(–13) and are rather thick. They are covered with small overlapping bracts, each covering a pit. Each pit contains three male flowers. Female inflorescences are rather similar to the males. Each pit of the flowering branch contains only one female flower, and these are very large, with leathery sepals and petals. Fruits are large, irregularly shaped and often lobed, brownish, one-to three-seeded, and borne on a short stalk. The mesocarp is fibrous, and the name of the genus comes from a Greek word hyphaino, alluding to these fibers. The seeds are covered in a thick, bony endocarp. Endosperm is homogeneous, germination is remote, and the seedling leaf is undivided.
Hyphaene contains about eight species, most of them in Africa, but there are others in Arabia. One African species also occurs in Madagascar. They usually occur in arid areas. One species just reaches our area on the west coast of India.
Hyphaene dichotoma (White)
Furtado
doum palm, ravan tad (Ind)
Field characters. Stems branched at several places by equal forking, to 15 m tall and 30 cm diameter. Leaf blade divided into about 40 leaflets. Male inflorescences with about 6 flowering branches; fruits irregularly ovoid or oblong, to 7 cm long and 6 cm diameter, brownish.
Range and habitat. India (Guyjarat, Maharashtra); sand dunes or open, seasonally dry areas, at low elevations.
Uses. None recorded.
Notes. Possibly occurring farther south in India, perhaps to Goa. There are reports (e.g., Furtado 1970; Govaerts & Dransfield 2005) of its occurrence in Sri Lanka. It is possibly introduced from Africa.
Synonyms. Borassus dichotomus White, Hyphaene indica Becc., Hyphaene taprobanica Furtado
(Slackia Griff.)
Stems are clustered or less often solitary and seldom reach more than a few meters in height. They are ringed with prominent leaf scars, and stems of some species have stilt roots at the base. Rarely stems are short and subterranean. Leaves are pinnate or occasionally undivided and 5–12 in number. Leaf sheaths are closed and form crownshafts in some species, whereas in others sheaths persist and disintegrate on the stem and do not form crownshafts. In some species, two short earlike flaps are present at the apices of the leaf sheaths, although these soon fall from older leaves. Leaflets are regularly arranged along the rachis. They are linear to broad, and the margins (and veins) can diverge giving an almost triangular shape to the leaflet. Leaflets are always jagged at the apices.
Key to the Species of Iguanura |
|
1a. Leaflets linear to broad, with parallel margins and veins (if leaf undivided, then blade more than 1 m long); crownshaft absent |
2. |
1b. Leaflets broad, with diverging margins and veins (if leaf undivided, then blade less than 1 m long); crownshaft present or absent |
3. |
2a. Inflorescences with 1 or 2 (rarely to 7) flowering branches |
I. geonomiformis. |
2b. Inflorescences with 3–15 flowering branches |
I. wallichiana. |
3a. Leaf sheaths without earlike flaps at the apices; peduncles short, to 4 cm long; fruits with 2 lobes at the apices |
I. bicornis. |
3b. Leaf sheaths with 2 short, earlike flaps at the apices; peduncles elongate, to 30 cm long; fruits rounded at the apices |
4. |
4a. Flowering branches 1–6 |
5. |
4b. Flowering branches 9–15 |
6. |
5a. Stems solitary; flowering branches 1 or 2 (rarely to 4), erect |
I. thalangensis. |
5b. Stems clustered, rarely solitary; flowering branches 3–6, spreading |
I. polymorpha. |
6a. Stems to 3 m tall and 3.5 cm diameter; leaf rachis to 1.3m long; flowering branches spreading and intertwining |
I. divergens. |
6b. Stems to 1.5m tall and 2 cm diameter; leaf rachis to 0.5m long; flowering branches wiry |
I. tenuis. |
Inflorescences are spicate or branched to two orders and are borne below or among the leaves. The peduncle is often slender and elongate, and it and the slender flowering branches are covered with scales—hence the generic name, from the supposed resemblance of these to the tail of an iguana. Inflorescences are covered initially with two bracts. Flowers are unisexual and are borne in threes of a central female and two lateral males. These groups of flowers are usually sunken slightly into the flowering branches. Fruits are small, ovoid to ellipsoid and ridged or lobed, and one-seeded. Often fruits ripen through a series of colors, from green to white to pink or red. The endosperm is homogeneous or ruminate, germination is adjacent, and the seedling leaf is bifid or undivided.
Iguanura contains 32 species, occurring from Peninsular Thailand to Sumatra and Borneo. Seven species occur in our area (Hodel 1998; Kiew 1976, 1979; Lim 1996, 1998).
Iguanura bicornis Becc.
mak faet (Tha)
Field characters. Stems clustered, to 3 m tall, rarely more, and 2.2 cm diameter. Crownshafts present, without earlike flaps at the apices; leaf rachis to 0.8m long; leaflets broad, with diverging margins and veins, 5–10 per side of rachis, rarely the blade undivided. Inflorescences borne below the leaves; peduncle to 4 cm long, with 4–8 spreading flowering branches; fruits oblong-ovoid, with 2 lobes at the apices, to 2 cm long and 1.8 cm diameter, reddish.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Peninsular Malaysia); lowland or montane rain forest to 1500 m elevation.
Uses. None recorded.
Iguanura divergens Hodel
mak tok (Tha)
Field characters. Stems clustered, to 3 m tall and 3.5 cm diameter. Crownshafts absent, the old leaf sheaths persisting, with earlike flaps at the apices; leaf rachis to 1.3m long; leaflets broad, with diverging margins and veins, 4 or 5 per side of rachis. Inflorescences borne below the leaves; peduncle to 25 cm long, with 9–13 spreading and intertwining flowering branches; fruits not known.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular); lowland rain forest to 800 m elevation.
Uses. None recorded.
Notes. Collected only once in Peninsular Thailand. Similar to some forms of the variable I. polymorpha. Hodel (1998) described the leaf sheaths as persistent; Lim (1998) described them as deciduous, perhaps based on cultivated plants.
Iguanura geonomiformis Mart.
mak pinae (Tha)
Field characters. Stems clustered or solitary, to 4 m tall and 2.5 cm diameter. Crownshafts absent, the old leaf sheaths persisting, with earlike flaps at the apices; leaf rachis to 1 m long; leaflets linear to broad, with parallel margins and veins, to 5 per side of rachis, or leaves undivided and briefly bifid. Inflorescences borne among the leaves; peduncles to 25 cm long, with 1 or 2 (rarely to 7) erect flowering branches; fruits ellipsoid, to 2 cm long and 1 cm diameter, maturing white to red.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Peninsular Malaysia); lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. None recorded.
Notes. Although included by Dransfield et al. (2004) in the checklist of Thai palms, no specimens from there have been seen and no map is provided. Similar to and formerly included in I. wallichiana.
Synonyms. Iguanura malaccensis Becc., Iguanura geonomiformis var. malaccensis (Becc.) Ridl., Iguanura geonomiformis var. ramosa Ridl., Iguanura wallichiana var. elatior Kiew, Iguanura wallichiana var. malaccensis (Becc.) Kiew, Slackia geonomiformis (Mart.) Griff.
Iguanura tenuis Becc
mark-jay (Tha)
Field characters. Stems clustered, rarely solitary, to 4 m tall and 2 cm diameter. Crownshafts present, with earlike flaps at the apices; leaf rachis to 1 m long; leaflets broad, with diverging margins and veins, 4–11 per side of rachis, or leaf undivided and briefly bifid, with wavy margins. Inflorescences borne below, sometimes among the leaves; peduncles to 20 cm long, with 3–6 spreading flowering branches; fruits ellipsoid, to 2 cm long and 0.8 cm diameter, red.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) and probably adjacent Myanmar (also in Peninsular Malaysia); lowland rain forest to 700 m elevation.
Uses. None recorded.
Synonyms. Iguanura arakudensis Furtado, Iguanura brevipes Hook. f., Iguanura ferruginea Ridl., Iguanura polymorpha var. canina Becc., Iguanura polymorpha var. integra C. K. Lim, Iguanura speciosa Hodel
Iguanura tenuis Hodel
maag lung saeng (Tha)
Field characters. Stems solitary or clustered, to 1.5m tall and 2 cm diameter. Crownshafts absent, the old leaf sheaths persisting, with earlike flaps at the apices; leaf rachis to 0.5m long; leaflets broad, with diverging margins and veins, 4 or 5 per side of rachis. Inflorescences borne below the leaves; peduncles to 30 cm long, with 9–15 spreading, wiry flowering branches; fruits narrowly ovoid, to 1.2 cm long and 0.6 cm diameter, pinkish.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular); lowland rain forest to 600 m elevation.
Uses. None recorded.
Notes. Endemic to the central part of Peninsular Thailand. Similar to some forms of the variable I. polymorpha. Two varieties are recognized: var. tenuis, with clustered stems; and var. khaosokensis C. K. Lim, with solitary stems.
Iguanura thalangensis C. K. Lim
Field characters. Stems solitary, to 2 m tall and 1.5 cm diameter. Crownshafts absent or occasionally present, with earlike flaps at the apices; leaf rachis to 0.6m long; leaflets broad, with diverging margins and veins, 4 or 5 per side of rachis. Inflorescences borne among the leaves; peduncles to 20 cm long, with 1 or 2 (rarely to 4) erect flowering branches; fruits ovoid, to 1.5 cm long and 1 cm diameter, pinkish.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular); lowland rain forest to 200 m elevation.
Uses. None recorded.
Iguanura wallichiana (Mart.) Becc.
mrang (Tha)
Field characters. Stems clustered, to 3 m tall and 3.5 cm diameter. Crownshafts absent, the old leaf sheaths persisting, with earlike flaps at the apices; leaf rachis to 2 m long; leaflets linear to broad, with parallel margins and veins, 5–30 per side of rachis, occasionally leaf undivided and deeply bifid. Inflorescences borne among the leaves; peduncles to 75 cm long, with 3–15 spreading and intertwining flowering branches; fruits ovoid, to 2 cm long and 1 cm diameter, pink or red.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) and probably adjacent Myanmar (also in Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra); lowland rain forest to 800 m elevation.
Uses. None recorded.
Notes. Three varieties are recognized: var. major Becc., with large, undivided leaves, from Peninsular Malaysia; var. rosea C. K. Lim, with pinnate leaves and fruits ripening pink to red, from Peninsular Malaysia; and var. wallichiana, with pinnate leaves and fruits ripening pink, from Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra.
Synonyms. Areca wallichiana Mart., Geonoma pynaertiana Sander, Iguanura multifida Hodel, Iguanura spectabilis Ridl., Iguanura wallichiana var. minor Becc., Slackia insignis Griff.
H. E. Moore
(Teysmannia Reichb. f. & Zoll.)
The name of this genus comes from a Dutch horticulturalist who worked at Bogor Gardens in Java, Johannes Teijsmann (1808–1882). Stems are solitary, short and stout, and sometimes creeping or subterranean. Leaves are costapalmate and 20–30 in number. Leaf sheaths are open and eventually disintegrate into a mass of fibers. Petioles are elongate and have small, sharp thorns along the margins. There is no hastula at the apices of the petiole. The leaf blades are the most distinctive feature of the genus—they are large, undivided, strongly folded, and diamondshaped. The basal margins often have small thorns, similar to those of the petiole, and the apical margins are notched.
Inflorescences are branched to five orders, and are borne among the leaves and are often partially hidden by accumulated leaf litter. They are covered by several bracts. Flowers are small and are bisexual. Fruits are also distinctive. They are large, globose with warty protuberances, brownish, and one-seeded (sometimes two-or three-seeded). The endosperm is homogeneous (although penetrated by an irregular intrusion of the seed coat), germination is remote, and the seedling leaf is undivided.
Johannesteijsmannia contains four species, occurring in Peninsular Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo. One species occurs in our area (Dransfield 1972b; Hodel 1998).
Johannesteijsmannia altifrons
(Reichb. f. & Zoll.) H. E. Moore
bang sun, lipe (Tha)
Field characters. Stems solitary, short and subterranean. Leaf blades undivided, diamond-shaped, to 3.5m long. Inflorescences borne at leaf bases, to 1 m long; fruits globose, to 5 cm diameter, warty, brownish.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra); lowland rain forest to 900 m elevation.
Uses. Much sought after as an ornamental plant.
Synonym. Teysmannia altifrons Reichb. f. & Zoll.
The name of this genus comes from an Irish botanist, Arthur Francis George Kerr (1877–1942), who collected over 20,000 plant specimens in Thailand between 1902 and 1932, including this palm. Stems are solitary, short and stout, sometimes subterranean, and are usually covered with persistent leaf bases. Leaves are palmate and 25–35 in number. Leaf sheaths are open and not fibrous. Petioles are elongate, black, and have very sharp margins. At the apices of the petiole there is a prominent hastula. The large leaf blades are circular in outline and are shortly split into numerous leaflets. The blade is grayish white on the lower surface.
Inflorescences are branched to five orders and are borne among the leaves. They are covered by several large, swollen, persistent bracts. Flowers are small and unisexual, and the plants are dioecious. Fruits are large, globose, yellowish brown, one-seeded, and are borne on short stalks. The endosperm is ruminate, germination is remote, and the seedling leaf is undivided and lobed at the apex.
Kerriodoxa contains one species, occurring in Peninsular Thailand (Dransfield 1983; Hodel 1998).
PLATE 36
Kerriodoxa elegans
J. Dransf. praya thalang (Tha)
Field characters. Stems solitary, to 7 m tall and 20 cm diameter, or sometimes short and subterranean. Leaf blades circular in outline, grayish white on the lower surface, split into as many as 100 leaflets. Inflorescences borne among the leaves, to 0.5 m long; fruits globose, to 5 cm diameter, yellowish brown.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular); lowland rain forest to 300 m elevation.
Uses. Used as an ornamental plant.
Notes. Known from only two localities in Peninsular Thailand—Phuket and Khao Sok National Park.
(Calamosagus Griff.)
This rattan genus was named after Pieter Willem Korthals (1807–1892), a Dutch botanist who explored Indonesia and collected specimens of these palms. The genus is distinctive in several respects. Stem branching commonly takes place not only at the base, but also high up on the stem, and a vast network of stems can build up in the forest canopy. Leaves are pinnate, numerous, and are spirally arranged. Leaf sheaths are closed, lack knees and flagella, but have conspicuous ocreas. These can take various forms—sheathing, netlike, or swollen and forming ant chambers. These chambers usually have a small hole made by the ants. Sheaths and other parts of the leaf are spiny. The leaf rachis, at least in adult leaves, terminates in a long cirrus, lacking leaflets but with grapnel-like spines, and this serves as a climbing organ. Leaflets are regularly arranged along the rachis, and are unmistakable in their jagged apices and narrowly to broadly rhomboidal shape. Leaflets are usually silvery gray on the lower surface, and some species have stalked leaflets.
Korthalsia is semelparous; all inflorescences, 1–12 at a time at the stem apex, are produced and flower together over a short period of time, and after fruiting the stem dies. Inflorescences are subtended by much reduced leaves, are usually branched to two orders, and are covered in overlapping bracts. The flowering branches are also distinctive in their thick, brown,
Key to the Species of Korthalsia |
|
1a. Ocreas swollen and forming ant chambers |
2 |
1b. Ocreas not swollen, sheathing |
3 |
2a. Ocreas to 4 cm long, with to 0.2-cm-long spines |
K. rostrata. |
2b. Ocreas to 20 cm long, with to 0.8-cm-long spines |
K. scortechinii. |
3a. Leaflets 14–20 per side of rachis, narrowly rhomboidal, silvery brown on the lower surfaces |
K. flagellaris. |
3b. Leaflets 4–11 per side of rachis, rhomboidal, gray or whitish on the lower surfaces |
4 |
4a. Stems 1 cm diameter; Andaman Islands |
K. rogersii. |
4b. Stems to 7 cm diameter; all other areas, including Andaman and Nicobar islands |
5 |
5a. Ocreas to 20 cm long |
K. laciniosa. |
5b. Ocreas to 5 cm long |
6 |
6a. leaflets gray on lower surfaces; Thailand (Peninsular) |
K. rigida. |
6b. Leaflets green on lower surfaces; Cambodia |
K. bejaudii. |
densely hairy appearance. Flowers are bisexual, again unusual among the scaly-fruited palms, and are borne in dense spirals along the flowering branches. Fruits are globose, ellipsoid, or obovoid; brownish; usually one-seeded; and are covered with overlapping scales. The endosperm is homogeneous or ruminate, germination is adjacent, and the seedling leaf is undivided or bifid with jagged margins.
Korthalsia contains 27 species, widely distributed from the Andaman and Nicobar islands to New Guinea. Seven species occur in our area (Basu 1992; Dransfield 1979a, 1981; Evans et al. 2001, 2002; Hodel 1998; Renuka 1995).
Korthalsia species are not so important economically as species of Calamus. Even though the canes are strong and durable, they are covered at the nodes with persistent leaf bases, and removal of these disfigures the cane. Nevertheless, they are widely used at a local scale. In the following descriptions, stem diameter includes the leaf sheaths.
Korthalsia bejaudii Gagnep. kompong-cham (Cbd)
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 10 m long and 3 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths greenish brown with brown hairs, with scattered, brown, triangular, to 1-cm-long spines; ocreas open, to 4 cm long, spiny or without spines; leaf rachis to 1 m long with to 8 rhomboidal leaflets per side, these green on lower surfaces; cirrus to 0.5 m long. Inflorescences to 0.6 m long; fruits globose, to 1 cm diameter, brown.
Range and habitat. Cambodia; lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. None recorded.
Notes. Very close to, and perhaps not distinct from, K. laciniosa (Evans et al. 2002)—see notes under that species.
Korthalsia flagellaris Miq.
wai sasao nam (Tha)
Field characters. Stems clustered, branching in the canopy, climbing, to 40 m long and 5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with brown scales, with scattered, brown, flattened, to 1-cm-long spines (often in a line below the petiole); ocreas sheathing, to 15 cm long; leaf rachis to 1.5 m long with 14-20 narrowly rhomboidal leaflets per side, these silvery brown on the lower surfaces; cirri to 1.1 m long. Inflorescences to 0.8 m long; fruits obovoid, to 2 cm long and 1.1 cm diameter, yellowish brown.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra); lowland rain forest in peat swamps at low elevations.
Uses. Provides a large-diameter cane used in furniture making and basketry.
Synonym. Korthalsia rubiginosa Becc.
Korthalsia laciniosa
(Griff.) Mart. bordah, lal bet (And, Ncb), wai taleuk (Lao), sakan kyein (Mya), wai sadao (Tha), may da, may tamvong (Vie)
Field characters. Stems clustered, branching above ground level, climbing, to 75 m long and 7 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with brown hairs and brown scales, with scattered, black, triangular, to 1.9-cm-long spines; ocreas sheathing, becoming loose and netlike in older leaves, to 20 cm long; leaf rachis to 2 m long with 9-11 rhomboidal leaflets per side, these gray on the lower surfaces; cirri to 1.2 m long. Inflorescences to 0.8 m long; fruits globose to ellipsoid, to 2 cm long and 1.5 cm diameter, brown.
Range and habitat. Andaman and Nicobar islands, Cambodia, Laos (Southern), Myanmar (Tanintharyi), Thailand (Peninsular, Southeast), and Vietnam (Central, Southern) (also in Java, Peninsular Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Sumatra); lowland or montane rain forest or dryer forest, to 1100 m elevation.
Uses. Produces a cane used in furniture making and basketry.
Notes. A widespread and variable species. Specimens from central Laos, included here, may represent a new species characterized by a short, open ocrea (Evans et al. 2002). In this respect they approach K. bejaudii.
Synonyms. Calamosagus harinifolius Griff., Calamosagus laciniosus Griff., Calamosagus wallichiifolius Griff., Korthalsia andamanensis Becc., Korthalsia grandis Ridl., Korthalsia scaphigera Kurz, Korthalsia teysmannii Miq., Korthalsia wallichiifolia (Griff.) H. Wendl.
Korthalsia rigida
Blume wai-dao-nu (Tha)
Field characters. Stems clustered, branching in the canopy, climbing, to 75 m long and 2.5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with gray hairs and brown scales, with scattered, dark brown, flattened, triangular, to 1-cm-long spines, often spines in vertical rows along the sheath opposite the petiole; ocreas sheathing, to 5 cm long; leaf rachis to 1.8 m long with 4-8 rhom-boidal leaflets per side, these gray on the lower surfaces; cirri to 0.9 m long. Inflorescences to 0.8 m long; fruits globose, to 1 cm diameter, greenish brown.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Sumatra); lowland or montane rain forest, to 1100 m elevation.
Uses. Provides a cane used in basketry.
Notes. A widespread and variable species.
Synonyms. Calamosagus ochriger Griff., Calamosa-gus polystachys (Mart.) H. Wendl., Korthalsia ferox Becc. var. malayana Becc., Korhtalsia hallieriana Becc., Korthalsia paludosa Furtado, Korthalsia polystachya Mart.
Korthalsia rogersii Becc.
Field characters. Stems clustered, climbing, to 45 m long and 1 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with brown hairs, with scattered, brown, triangular, to 0.5-cm-long spines; ocreas sheathing, to 10 cm long; leaf rachis to 0.7 m long with 5-8 rhomboidal leaflets per side, these whitish on the lower surfaces; cirri to 0.3 m long. Inflorescences to 0.5 m long; fruits obovoid, to 2 cm long and 1.8 cm diameter, yellowish.
Range and habitat. Andaman Islands (Diglipur, Havlock, Radhanger, South Andaman); lowland rain forest at low elevations.
Uses. None recorded.
Notes. Mathew et al. (2007) give a recent account of this species.
Korthalsia rostrata Blume
Field characters. Stems clustered, branching in the canopy, climbing, to 25 m long and 1.5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with brown hairs, with scattered, black-tipped, to 0.2-cm-long spines; ocreas swollen and forming ant chambers, brown, to 4 cm long; leaf rachis to 0.5 m long with 3-7 narrowly rhomboidal leaflets per side, these gray on the lower surfaces; cirri to 0.6 m long. Inflorescences to 0.7 m long; fruits ellipsoid, to 2 cm long and 1.2 cm diameter, orange-brown.
Range and habitat. Thailand (Peninsular) (also in Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, and Sumatra); lowland rain forest to 800 m elevation.
Uses. Provides a cane used in basketry.
Notes. Reported to occur in Peninsular Thailand (Dransfield et al. 2004), but no specimens from there have been seen and no map is provided.
Synonyms. Calamosagus scaphigera (Mart.) Griff., Ceratolobus rostratus (Blume) Becc., Korthalsia lob-biana H. Wendl., Korthalsia machadonis Ridl., Korthalsia scaphigera Mart.
Korthalsia scortechinii
Becc. wai kung (Tha)
Field characters. Stems clustered, branching in the canopy, climbing, to 35 m long and 2.5 cm diameter. Leaf sheaths green with brown hairs, with scattered, dark brown, triangular, to 0.8-cm-long spines; ocreas swollen and forming ant chambers, brown, to 20 cm long; leaf rachis to 1.3 m long with to 11 narrowly rhomboidal leaflets per side, these gray on the lower surfaces; cirri to 1.25 m long. Inflorescences to 0.4 m long; fruits ellipsoid, to 2 cm long and 1.1 cm diameter, brown.
