6

Exploitation of Birds and Fish in Historic Ireland: A Brief Review of the Evidence

Sheila Hamilton-Dyer

Abstract

Documentary sources have often been used to examine the role of birds and fish in Ireland, but this evidence has been rarely backed up by archaeological data, until relatively recently. In recent years several major excavations have been undertaken which have produced animal bone assemblages of significant size. Bird and fish remains have formed a minor, but important, component and where sieving has been employed it has become clear that fish in particular have been under-represented in assemblages.

This brief survey of recent work on some major assemblages serves to indicate the potential for further work. There are consistent patterns beginning to emerge despite problems of sample size, preservation, and retrieval bias. The suggestion from early research that urban sites are mainly exploiting domestic poultry and large, offshore, fish in a similar manner to Britain and much of Europe is confirmed. Distinct differences between assemblages of Early Christian and Anglo-Norman sites are becoming evident. High status Anglo-Norman sites may also offer rarities from feasting and falconry. Early Christian sites on the west coast show an exploitation of a large variety of local marine fish and birds. There is, therefore, great potential for future analysis of well stratified and, preferably, sieved material and there are notable areas for which evidence is lacking, primarily the low status rural sites and inland sites in general. Research has already shown several discrepancies between the documentary and archaeological evidence for the Medieval period, while research on the introduction and past distribution of species is also a subject area of great potential within an Irish context.

Introduction

The analysis of faunal remains from early excavations of archaeological sites in Ireland was rarely undertaken. Excavations were often limited in research design and analysis of animal remains, if they were collected at all, was carried out without the benefit of recent work on stratigraphy, sampling, and taphonomy. Reports concentrated on mammal bones with scant regard to birds and fish, while collection policies did not take into account the special methodologies required for the successful collection of small and fragile bird and fish bones. It is clear that such bones are usually poorly represented in early reports although, it should be stated that the bird bone report produced for the excavation at Lagore Crannog, Co. Meath (Stelfox 1938), was extraordinarily good for its day. Reports on fish remains were almost non-existent, although the remains of cod and Ballan wrasse were recovered from excavations at Church Island, Valencia, Co. Kerry, during the 1950s (Roche 1958).

It has been difficult to assess the reasons for the paucity of bird and fish without reference to collections of good size and adequate phasing from more recent excavations; earlier work can be used with only limited confidence. This review of the current state of research has been restricted to the historic period, in part because this addresses most of the faunal assemblages studied in recent years. The largest bird and fish bone collections have been mainly recovered during excavations of Medieval and Post-Medieval urban centres; collections from Early Christian sites are rarer, although many coastal sites are now producing good samples.

Bird and fish bones are especially rare on Irish prehistoric sites. Newgrange, Co. Meath, for example, could offer only a few bones of goshawk from secure contexts (van Wijngaarden-Bakker 1986a). It has been difficult to assess whether this reflects a lack of exploitation or if the situation has arisen as a consequence of recovery bias. Major assemblages from prehistoric sites, especially in the south and west of Ireland, are now being excavated and analysed (McCarthy 2000), however, and must await future publication. Excavation of the Mesolithic sites at Mount Sandel, Co. Londonderry, and Lough Boora, Co. Offaly, provided an opportunity to analyse and compare remains of bird and fish in addition to those of mammals (van Wijngaarden-Bakker 1986b; 1989). Woodpigeon, salmonids and eels were found to have dominated these assemblages. At Ferriter’s Cove, Co. Kerry (McCarthy 1999), fish bones formed the major components of the vertebrate remains. The sampling and sieving strategy employed at the site was a crucial factor in the retrieval of this important assemblage, which included many remains of relatively small fish such as wrasse, whiting, and young of the larger Gadidae.

Documentary evidence, such as that summarised in the seminal work by Kelly (1997), is often selective, biased in favour of status and legal matters, and rarely representative of the archaeological situation, which mainly relates to the daily routine of the bulk of the populace. References to fish, for example, mostly concern salmon and the use of weirs (Kelly 1997, 287, 291) yet most archaeological assemblages are dominated by marine fish. It is important not to ignore documentary evidence, however, since an interpretation of domestic fowl bones as having been purely a source of food, for example, is misleading. In the past these birds were frequently held in high regard for divination and other symbolic reasons and analysts should be aware of possible alternative interpretations when such remains are recovered during an excavation. Written sources may also provide information about material that is not normally preserved in the ground, such as bird feathers (Kelly 1997, 362). Documents and illustrations may also provide information relating to the method of capture of fish and wild birds by nets and snares, for example, where direct evidence is lacking.

The original design of this paper had been to produce a gazetteer of Medieval and Post-Medieval sites in Ireland that had produced bird and fish remains, but it soon became apparent that many sites had produced only very small collections of such bones. These small assemblages are inadequate for the provision of more than an unrepresentative species list and fish remains, in particular, are rarely recovered without sieving, a practice which has become routine on many Irish excavations only very recently. Fortunately, several of the more recent excavations have produced sieved bone collections comprising thousands of specimens and these, and other significant assemblages, are discussed below.

Methodological and Taphonomic Considerations

Retrieval bias is probably the one single major factor affecting archaeological bird and, especially, fish bone assemblages. The question of sampling policies for the retrieval of small bones is crucial; although many bird bones can be hand collected the smaller skeletal elements and bones of the smaller species are usually missed. In the case of fish bone this situation includes many of the more important species–herring and eel bones rarely exceed a few millimetres and even large fish have relatively small elements. The cartilaginous sharks and rays are often represented on archaeological sites only by teeth and dermal denticles, which are generally of extremely small size. As such, it is only possible to suggest that certain species were probably unimportant when extensive sieving has been carried out on a site. Even then absence is never certain, however, and allowance must be made for factors which may have resulted in differential survival. Salmon, for example, have a reduced level of calcium in the skeleton of breeding fish making the run upriver–just at the most favourable time for capture–and as a consequence their bones tend to decay easily. The structure of fish bones in general can also mitigate against their survival as they have a laminar, even filigree, construction that easily allows percolation of destructive chemicals and mechanical damage (Wheeler and Jones 1989, 62; Jones 1999). In addition, where aggressive soil conditions (e.g. acidic sands) are present all bones will be adversely affected to some degree, but bird and fish bones will suffer proportionally greater loss, simply on account of their small size. Sample size is also of great importance; the major mammals exploited usually dominate the assemblage and are of a small number of taxa. In contrast, fish and bird bones are usually a minor component of assemblages, with just a few bones each of a wide range of taxa. As a result the smaller the sample the less likely any particular species will be encountered. The problems discussed by Maltby (1997), who undertook a comparative survey of domestic fowl remains from Romano-British sites in England, are equally relevant here. The recovery method, sample size, and the variations between workers concerning identification criteria, recording and quantification methods must all be taken into consideration when attempting inter-site comparisons. Retrieval bias in bird bones can be illustrated, for example, by plotting the relative proportions of small and large skeletal elements recovered.

Standardisation of analytical procedures can also help with inter-site comparisons; the methodology should state, for example, whether or not unidentified material has been included or excluded, and if all skeletal elements are recorded. Problems arising from differences in identification and recording techniques can be eliminated for many of the fish assemblages listed in the current account since the remains have been analysed by just two specialists who employed similar methodologies. When dealing with a large number of possible species in conjunction with the necessity for time-consuming microscope work it can be tempting to restrict the recording process. Unlike the situation for mammals and, to a certain extent birds, it is difficult to reduce the amount of essential recording for fish remains. It is not usually appropriate to record a limited set of elements since fish vary enormously in skeletal conformation and number of bones; this can also lead to differential preservation of the same element in different species. Furthermore, certain elements are family or even species exclusive–dermal denticles in rays and pharyngeal bones in wrasse and cyprinids–while some fish–lampreys, sharks and rays –have no true bones at all. As such, direct quantification and comparison with other faunal material is fraught with difficulties. Access to extensive comparative reference collections is also essential for bird and fish bone analysis, even more than is the case with research on mammal bones.

The question may be asked, why commit resources to the costly and time-consuming detailed analysis of bird and fish bones if they are rarely recovered and form only a tiny part of the bone assemblage compared to the main domestic mammals? There are a number of compelling reasons why this analysis should be routinely undertaken. At some sites, especially those located along a coast, the exploitation of fish and birds would have made a major impact on the diet and lifestyle of the inhabitants. The remains may also offer seasonal information, such as the summer exploitation of local fish inferred from the bird and fish remains recovered from Mesolithic contexts at Ferriter’s Cove, Co. Kerry. Taphonomic bias, particularly for fish, almost certainly produces a gross underestimate of the quantity originally present. Although meat-weights are obviously much less for each individual fish than for the main domestic animals such as cattle, the sheer numbers–both of bones in the skeleton and of individuals consumed–increase the contribution significantly.

Birds and fish can provide variety of taste in the diet in addition to supplying a plethora of proteins, vitamins and minerals (e.g. iodine and Vitamin A from fish). Cultural practices and differing lifestyles may be hinted at where they would not be revealed by the ubiquitous, almost universal, base of the domestic mammals. Seasonal activities can be indicated by the recovery of the remains, for example, of guillemot chicks or corncrakes. Possible status differences can be inferred by the presence of high status fish such as salmon. The recovery of imported species, such as peacock, pheasant and pike, can also provide insights concerning status. Reliance on documentary sources alone has been shown to be completely inadequate but there are notable areas for which archaeological evidence is also lacking, particularly with regard to the smaller species. The presence of birds of different species within an archaeological assemblage can also provide information about the nature of the local environment. The availability of seabirds at Illaunloughan, Co. Kerry, provided information about local island colonies (O’Sullivan 2005), for example, although this interpretation must be tempered by the knowledge that bird remains from cultural deposits in general predominantly represent deliberately exploited taxa such as poultry or those regarded as pests such as buzzard and crow. The remains of birds that lived in the vicinity of a site, but were neither eaten nor culled for other reasons, would be rarely recovered from refuse deposits. This situation would appear to be especially true for smaller birds such as the common ‘garden’ songbirds; their remains are rarely recovered even on sites where extensive sieving has been undertaken.

Ireland has a restricted fauna, mostly due to its separation from Britain (and therefore also mainland Europe), by the Late Glacial opening of the Irish Sea. Birds were obviously less affected than land mammals, although some birds such as woodpeckers do not seem to have reached Ireland. Some bird species appear to have been formerly present or even common, such as eagle, raven, crane and capercaillie, but are now rare or absent, while others such as pheasant have been introduced. The freshwater fish found in Ireland today were almost all introduced, probably by the Anglo-Normans and later groups. Mapping the arrival and departure of the Irish fauna in the archaeological record has been explored by van Wijngaarden-Bakker (1985). A further examination of the distribution of a limited selection of birds was recently undertaken (Yalden and Carthy 2004), but nothing similar has been further attempted for fish.

The Evidence: Birds

Bird bones are very rarely recovered in large numbers from excavations but most sites, even those which have not employed sieving, produce a few. In some assemblages they form a significant minor component, and hand collected material generally displays a bias against the smaller species and body parts. The small passerines (songbirds) are often particularly affected but smaller game birds, waders, and pigeons can also suffer, and it is noticeable how few have been recovered from unsieved sites. A checklist of species recovered from historic contexts in Ireland is provided in Table 6.1, while the distribution of species at the major sites included in the current study is displayed in Table 6.2.

Few assemblages from major Early Christian inland sites have been recovered to date, and those retrieved from early excavations have rarely been quantified. The assemblage retrieved from the excavations undertaken at Lagore Crannog, Co. Meath (Stelfox 1938), during the 1930s is exceptional and, although excavated by hand as opposed to having been sieved, the species list is extensive. Over 30 taxa were identified using a reference collection of modern skeletons and, although a few identifications may be over enthusiastic, the list and quantities are plausible. Wild species dominated, with geese, swans, water birds, raptors, and ravens having been common, while domestic fowl were present but not at a high level. Other, smaller assemblages too small and/or too old display a similar trend but, as one would expect, these hand collected bones are mainly from larger species.

Documentary sources suggest that all kinds of birds were captured by nets, traps and missiles for food (Kelly 1997, 298–302). Raptors in pre-Norman assemblages mainly represent culls of pests. Corvids may have been kept as pets (Kelly 1997, 129), but they are also carrion feeders and predators of young poultry and may have been culled as vermin. Domestic fowl are frequently mentioned in law texts, manuscripts and poetry (Kelly 1997, 102). This galliform bird is a native of Asia and, although fragmentary material can be difficult to separate from grouse species, in Ireland it is generally accepted that galliform bones are those of the introduced domestic fowl. Relative to their reference within the literary sources domestic fowl bones are rare on Irish Early Christian sites, despite being present in England from the Late Iron Age. Their very rarity may have conferred special status on the bird, thereby providing an explanation for the documentary interest. The presence of both male and female domestic fowl, as evidenced by the recovery of spurs and sometimes by medullary bone, implies that they were bred, although they may have been kept mainly for eggs and cock-fighting rather than primarily for eating.

Bird bone assemblages recovered during excavations at coastal fort sites are unfortunately small, and almost all were excavated over 40 years ago. The remains of seabirds have been found in all of the assemblages and it is probable that they were exploited for eggs as well as flesh. More substantial samples have been recovered from monastic sites located along the Atlantic seaboard although, again, many were excavated some time ago and have only produced small and unsieved assemblages. In general, the results would tend to suggest that seabirds and geese were of major importance. Of the more recent excavations Illaunloughan, Co. Kerry, produced a large assemblage dominated by Manx shearwater, a species still common on the west coast (O’Sullivan 2005). The exploitation of seabirds in Scotland is well known (Serjeantson 1988), and these ground nesting birds and their eggs were undoubtedly used for food, perhaps also preserved for later use. These and other fish-eating seabirds were also classed as ‘fish’ and therefore would have been permissible fare during times of religious fasting.

divers, Gavia sp.	quail, Coturnix coturnix
great crested grebe, Podiceps cristatus	turkey, Meleagris gallopavo
little grebe, dabchick, Tachybaptus ruficollis	crane, Grus grus
	corncrake, Crex crex
fulmar, Fulmarus glacialis	coot, Fulica atra
Manx shearwater, Puffinus puffinus	waders, Charadriidae, including plovers
gannet, Sula bassana	Pluvialis sp., cf. lapwing, Vanellus vanellus, cf. oystercatcher, Haematopus
cormorant, Phalacrocorax carbo
shag, Phalacrocorax aristotelis	ostralegus, woodcock, Scolopax rusticola,
heron, Ardea cinerea	snipe, Gallinago gallinago, curlew,
swans, Cygnus sp.	Numenius arquata, bar-tailed godwit,
domestic goose or greylag, Anser anser	Limosa lapponica, and cf. greenshank,
other grey geese, Anser sp. probably	Tringa nebularia
white-fronted, A. albifrons	gulls, Lariidae, including cf. great black-
Brent goose, Branta branta	backed, Larus marinus, herring/lesser
barnacle goose, Branta bernicla	black-backed, L. argentatus/fuscus, and
domestic duck or mallard, Anas platyrhynchos	common/kittiwake, L. canus/Rissa tridactyla
other ducks, including cf. wigeon Anas	guillemot, Uria aalge
penelope, cf. teal, Anas crecca, cf.	razorbill, Alca torda
garganey, Anas querquedula, and cf.	pigeons, cf. woodpigeon, Columba
tufted, Aythya fuligula	palumbus, and domestic/rock dove,
white-tailed eagle, Haliaeetus albicilla	Columba livia
osprey, Pandion haliaetus	raven, Corvus corax
kite, Milvus sp.	other Corvidae, cf. crow, Corvus corone,
goshawk, Accipiter gentilis	or rook, Corvus frugilegus, jay, Garrulus
buzzard, Buteo buteo	glandarius, cf. jackdaw, Corvus monedula, and cf. magpie, Pica pica
harrier, Circus sp.
peregrine falcon, Falco peregrinus	Small passerines, cf. blackbird, Turdus
capercaillie, Tetrao urogallus	merula, cf. thrush, Turdus philomelos, cf.
domestic fowl, Gallus gallus	fieldfare, T. pilaris, cf. redwing, T.
pheasant, Phasianus colchicus	iliacus, and cf. starling, Sturnus vulgaris,
partridge, Perdix perdix	finches, Fringillidae

Table 6.1: Birds identified from Medieval and Post-Medieval sites in Ireland, in taxonomic order.

Domestic fowl appear to have become frequent for the first time in Viking levels at Fishamble Street, Dublin (O’Sullivan 1990). Geese were present but they were not as common as fowl. It is difficult to separate the very similar species of grey geese but at least three of these species, and the smaller Brent geese, were present. As was the case for Early Christian period sites the raptors were common and the white-tailed eagle, the kite, osprey, harriers and the buzzard were all present. These birds can be considered as scavengers and vermin species, but the eagle also had symbolic importance in Viking mythology. Raven remains occurred frequently in both Early Christian and rural assemblages, although they were particularly numerous in Viking deposits from Dublin, and it is possible to speculate that this situation may have arisen as a consequence of the mythological association of the bird with the Viking god Woden.

Table 6.2: Distribution of bird taxa at selected Irish sites.

Sources: (1) Hamilton-Dyer (in prep.); (2) Stelfox (1938); (3) Monk (1984); (4) O’Sullivan (2005); (5) Hamilton-Dyer (2002); (6) Hamilton-Dyer (2004a); (7) McCarthy (2003); (8) O’Sullivan (1990); (9) Hamilton-Dyer (1993); (10) Hamilton-Dyer (1996); (11) Hamilton-Dyer (1997a); (12) Hamilton-Dyer (1999a); (13) Hamilton-Dyer (2000a); (14) Hamilton-Dyer (1997b); (15) Hamilton-Dyer (1999b). Waterbirds include–divers, grebes, heron, coot, moorhen. Gulls and seabirds include–all gulls, shearwater, puffin, gannet, guillemot. Hawks and falcons include–buzzard, kite, goshawk, harriers, peregrine. NB: for Fishamble St., Dublin, all geese have been grouped in the wild category as all four species, including greylag, were considered wild.

By the thirteenth century, the character of bird bone assemblages recovered from Dublin had changed markedly, with a restricted list of species and an increased number of goose remains. As indicated above, it is difficult to distinguish between the different species of geese and the situation is further complicated if domestic birds are thought to be present; the ancestral greylag goose is a common resident and will mix with domestic birds. Human selection during the domestication of geese, whether deliberate or unconscious, appears to favour heavier birds with smaller wings and thicker legs (Reichstein and Pieper 1986). Measurements derived from the substantial collection of goose bones recovered from Anglo-Norman deposits during excavations at Arran Quay, Dublin, appear to support this assertion as these too would have had sturdy leg bones and shorter wing bones in comparison with wild birds (Hutton Macdonald et al. 1993). The increase in frequency of geese in the thirteenth century material is, therefore, thought to have been due to the introduction of domestic birds by Anglo-Norman settlers. In comparison with the Early Christian Irish sites there is a consistency amongst the later urban assemblages, such as those recovered from Dublin, Galway, and Cork (McCarthy 2003), of a striking predominance of domestic poultry. Along with domestic fowl and goose there was often increased numbers of mallard-sized duck and some of these may well have been the domestic form. This trend has also been observed in other Anglo-Norman assemblages; at many of these sites domestic poultry frequently account for over 80% of the identified bird bones (Table 6.2). In contrast, sites with little Anglo-Norman influence appear to continue the earlier pattern. At thirteenth-fourteenth century Lough Gur, Co. Limerick, for example, poultry amounts to only 10% of the identified bird bones (Monk 1984). Similar differences occur in the distribution of waterbirds and waders; common but not particularly tasty waterbirds such as gulls, cormorant and heron occur sporadically across the sites, as do swans and the now absent crane. The waders, however, have only been commonly found at Later Medieval sites; this situation also applies to the few native game birds found–quail, partridge and capercaillie. This turkey-sized grouse is now absent from Ireland and it has been disputed as an Irish native (D’Arcy 1999, 99). Its first appearance in Irish archaeological material was in Mesolithic deposits at Mount Sandel, Co. Londonderry (van Wijngaarden-Bakker 1985). Recently capercaillie remains have been identified in Medieval material from Trim Castle, Co. Meath (Hamilton-Dyer 1997b), Carrickfergus, Co. Antrim (Hamilton-Dyer 1999b), Galway (Hamilton-Dyer 2004a) and Wexford (McCarthy n.d.). Jope (1954) also stated that capercaillie bones were recovered from the excavations at Clough Castle, Co. Down.

It has been suggested that capercaillie may have been the ‘wood-peacock’ noted by Giraldus Cambrensis, a remarkably observant Medieval ‘travel writer’ (Kelly 1997, 300). Three non-native members of this order are noteworthy in the Irish context, i.e. pheasant, peacock and turkey. Pheasant bones have been positively identified from Anglo-Norman deposits at Trim Castle, Co. Meath (Hamilton-Dyer 1997b); the earliest evidence for its introduction to Ireland retrieved to date. Osteologically, the pheasant is extremely similar to domestic fowl and it is therefore possible that its remains may have been overlooked in some assemblages, although it is unlikely to have been common until recently. Peacock bones have yet to be identified in Irish assemblages, but it is mentioned as being present on demesnes in the south-east by the late thirteenth century (Down 1987, 478).

Locations which have produced Post-Medieval bird bone material include Dublin (Hamilton-Dyer 1997a), Carrickfergus (Hamilton-Dyer 1999b) and Galway (Hamilton-Dyer 2004a), and the assemblages from all three urban centres have included turkey bones. This bird is a native of America and these findings are, therefore, consistent with a Post-Medieval introduction to Ireland. The bird bone assemblage recovered during excavations in Galway was sufficiently large to enable a metrical analysis to have been undertaken on the fowl bones. An increase in size was detected between the Medieval and Post-Medieval periods, perhaps indicating improvements in husbandry and breeding or the use of new types (Hamilton-Dyer 2004a).

Dovecotes date from the Anglo-Norman period and pigeon bones have been found at a number of sites. The small number of pigeon bones recovered from Early Christian sites have been identified as woodpigeon, whereas almost all of the pigeon remains retrieved from Medieval sites, such as the castles of Trim and Maynooth, have been smaller in size and comparable with domestic pigeon (the ancestral rock dove is native to Britain but is uncommon (Reid-Henry and Harrison 1988)). Pigeon bones recovered from Trim Castle, Co. Meath, were mainly derived from young birds and in one case evidenced the axial division of the carcass (Hamilton-Dyer 1997b).

Another interesting group of birds recovered from Irish assemblages of historic date are the raptors. Most of these birds are scavengers, or they will take poultry and pigeons. There seems to have been no interest in hunting with birds in Ireland until the Anglo-Norman period and the raptor remains recovered from Early Christian sites almost certainly represent culls of vermin (Kelly 1997, 303). Many of these species, such as buzzard, kite and harriers, are unsuitable for falconry. Direct evidence for falconry is also absent from the later sites (e.g. Trim and Maynooth Castles) since raptor bones are rare compared with those of poultry and only the chick-taking buzzard has been identified to date.

The tiny bones of quail were identified in Medieval levels at Trim Castle, Co. Meath, while those of the now rare corncrake have been found at Lagore Crannog, Co. Meath (Stelfox 1938), Clonmacnoise, Co. Offaly (Hamilton-Dyer in prep.) and Dundrum Castle, Co. Dublin (Hamilton-Dyer 1999a). These species are of interest because they are entirely migratory, arriving from Africa in early summer. The remains of such birds are unlikely to be recovered in the absence of on site sieving.

The interpretation of small passerine bones remains a problem even if they are recovered since, unless butchery or other evidence is clearly indicative of their consumption, they may represent the remains of birds that had lived on the site or were brought there by cats. Trim Castle, Co. Meath, is the only assemblage thus far to have produced a substantial number of passerine bones; these were mainly derived from the thrush family and they appear to have been consumed as evidenced by butchery marks, anatomical selection and their association with other probable food waste (Hamilton-Dyer 1997b).

The Evidence: Fish

Collections of fish bones are now available from a variety of different types of site from throughout Ireland. The nature of these assemblages, however, is extremely variable and they can range in size from a single bone to many thousands. As stated above, sieving is particularly important for the retrieval of archaeological fish remains since most fish bones are too small for easy hand collection and many are microscopic. Work is currently in progress on several major samples that have been sieved. A checklist of fish species recovered from historic contexts in Ireland is provided in Table 6.3, while the distribution of species at the major sites included in the current study is displayed in Table 6.4.

The most notable aspect of all Irish fish bone assemblages is the presence of marine, rather than freshwater species. Indeed, at only one site–the inland Early Christian monastic site of Clonmacnoise, Co. Offaly–can all the fish be interpreted as having come from the river. Even this interpretation could be in doubt, however, as they are all migratory species–eel, salmon and shad (Hamilton-Dyer in prep.). As such, it is extremely interesting to note that the documentary sources so often used in discussions of diet and faunal exploitation almost exclusively make reference to freshwater fish (Kelly 1997). Salmon is often referred to in the texts but is uncommon in archaeological material in comparison with other species. This situation may partly have arisen as a result of taphonomic bias, due to the nature of fish physiology and bone structure as noted above. It is also possible, however, that the freshwater salmon had evoked greater interest among writers since it may have been considered a higher status fish relative to its more freely available marine counterparts.

The collections of fish bone material available to date are mainly derived from the major Medieval urban centres, such as Dublin, Cork and Galway, and Early Christian sites from the west coast. The only inland sites to have produced fish bone are the Early Christian monastic site at Clonmacnoise, Co. Offaly (Hamilton-Dyer in prep.), and the Medieval rural castles of Trim, Co. Meath (Hamilton-Dyer 1997b), and Maynooth, Co. Kildare (Hamilton-Dyer 2000a). It should be noted, however, that the latter two sites are both located less than one day’s travel from the Dublin Bay coast.

sharks and rays unspecified	cod family, Gadidae, unidentified
spurdog, Squalus acanthias	fragments and rocklings
thornback ray, Raja clavata	gurnards, Triglidae, probably
ray unspecified	mostly grey, Eutrigla gurnardus
conger eel, Conger conger	sea scorpion, Taurulus bubalis
eel, Anguilla anguilla	bass, Dicentrarchus labrax
herring, Clupea harengus	scad, Trachurus trachurus
shad, probably twaite, Alosa	seabreams, Sparidae including
fallax	red seabream, Pagrus pagrus,
salmonids, cf. salmon, Salmo	black seabream, Spondyliosoma
salar, may also include trout,	cantharus and others not further
Salmo trutta	identified
cod, Gadus morhua	grey mullets, Mugillidae
ling, Molva molva	wrasse, Labridae
haddock, Melanogrammus	Ballan wrasse, Labrus bergylta
aeglefinus	mackerel, Scomber scombrus
pollack, Pollachius pollachius	turbot, Scophthalmus maximus
saithe, Pollachius virens	halibut, Hippoglossus hippoglossus
whiting, Merlangius merlangius
pouting, Trisopterus luscus	other flatfish, cf. plaice,
hake, Merlucius merlucius	Platichthys platessa, and
	flounder, Pleuronectes flessus

Table 6.3: Fish identified from Medieval and Post-Medieval sites in Ireland, in taxonomic order.

Table 6.4: Distribution of fish taxa at selected Irish sites. Sources: (1) Hamilton-Dyer (in prep.); (2) Hamilton-Dyer (2002); (3) Hammilton-Dyer (2004a); (4) Mc Carthy (2003); (5) Hamilton-Dyer(1993); (6) Hamilton-Dyer (1996); (7) Hamilton-Dyer (1997a); (8) Hamilton-Dyer (2000a); (9) Hamilton-Dyer (1997b); (10) Hamilton-Dyer (1999b); (11) Hamilton-Dyer (2005); (12) Hamilton-Dyer (1999c); (13) Hamilton-Dyer (1994a); (14) Hamilton-Dyer (1994b); (15 McCarthy (1997).

The Early Christian ecclesiastical coastal site at Illaunloughan, Co. Kerry, already noted as having produced an unusually large quantity of shearwater bones, is also striking because of the sheer number of seabream bones, of more than one species (Hamilton-Dyer 2005). This finding might indicate a preference for these tasty fish, or locally favourable fishing conditions, but it may also be an indication of warm sea conditions. These fish have also been identified in Roman and Medieval material that originated from along the south-west coast of England (Wilkinson 1979), yet until relatively recently they were considered to be uncommon catches. Wrasse bones were also frequent in the Illaunloughan assemblage together with several other species, such as pollack, bass and conger, which also prefer to live near rocky coasts. The secular Early Christian sites of Rathgurreen (Hamilton-Dyer 2002) and Doonloughan (Hamilton-Dyer 1999c) are situated further north along the Atlantic west coast in County Galway. As was the case for Illaunloughan, the assemblage retrieved from Doonloughan produced considerable numbers of inshore species represented in the sieved material, although in this case wrasses and the pelagic scad were more frequent than the seabreams. Only 12 fish bones were recovered from Rathgurreen, which had not been sieved. Two of the bones were from large fish (hake and angler) and nine were of scad from a single find-spot (Hamilton-Dyer 2002). It is highly probable that fish were grossly under-represented at the site as a result of the excavation strategy and this situation highlights the problems involved with comparing data derived from sieved and unsieved sites.

Trim Castle produced samples of varying sizes which ranged from a hand collected twelfth century assemblage to considerable, and sieved, samples derived from thirteenth-fourteenth century midden deposits. Only a single cod vertebra was recovered from the hand collected sample, while over 14 species were identified in the sieved assemblages. These mainly consisted of Gadidae, flatfish and conger but, importantly, the collection also included three pike bones (see below).

Numerous samples, ranging in date from the twelfth to eighteenth centuries, have been recovered from various excavations undertaken in Dublin–Back Lane, Cornmarket, Bridge Street, Arran Quay and Nicholas Street. In general, the fish remains predominantly comprised large Gadidae, including cod, ling, haddock and hake. A number of these fish would have been notably large individuals which are mainly found, and therefore caught, offshore in quite deep water. Ling, for example, is known to favour water depths of 300–400 metres (Wheeler 1978). The haddock bones recovered were found to have included specimens much larger than those generally available today. None of these assemblages were sieved and it could be argued that the apparent bias in favour of large bones was due to the lack of sieving. The apparently genuine nature of this preference for large fish, however, has been confirmed as a result of the examination of more recently excavated assemblages which have included sieved material. Although more species were present in these latter samples and the predominance of large fish was not so marked it was still present.

Anatomical distribution is also likely to be biased in unsieved collections and it is difficult to judge, for example, whether the low proportions of caudal vertebrae in many of these samples is due to taphonomy or is an indication of butchery processing. The sample recovered from excavations at Arran Quay was particularly biased in favour of cod and ling head bones, a probable indication of the preparation of salted and/or dried fish (Hamilton-Dyer 2004b, 236). Documentary evidence indicates that preserved fish would have been traded from Dublin (although it could have been imported from elsewhere) (Murray 1999).

Medieval and Post-Medieval coastal sites have produced a wider variety of species, mainly wrasse, scad, pollack and seabreams, which can be caught inshore on rocky ground–i.e. locally. Fish bone collections from complimentary sites from other coastal areas, inland and from different settlement types are now needed so that it is possible to fully explore whether this difference is chronological, social or geographic in nature. Interestingly, the recently analysed material from Medieval and Post-medieval deposits in Galway City (Hamilton-Dyer 2004a) has a unique identity which would appear to be more similar in nature to the assemblages derived from eastern urban sites and at variance to material recovered from Early Christian west coast sites. There is a dominance of the large gadids similar to the Dublin assemblages but some of the inshore rocky ground species are also represented. In light of Galway’s location on the west coast of Ireland it can therefore be tentatively proposed that a genuine difference in terms of fish exploitation existed between Early Christian and Medieval urban sites.

Fish bone assemblages recovered from Medieval and Post-Medieval horizons in Cork have been dominated by hake (McCarthy 1997; 2003). This cod-like fish is now under threat from overfishing (FAO 1997), and the archaeological evidence would tend to suggest that it was more common in the south and west of Ireland (and England) in the past. Several of the fish bone assemblages retrieved during excavations in Cork included sieved material. It is interesting to note that these were the only ones to have produced herring bones. This finding again underlines the need for sieved samples to enable the effective analysis of fish bone assemblages.

Conger eel occurs only as a minor component of assemblages, but is a species regularly encountered in small amounts in most Anglo-Norman and later material, including Galway City, Dublin and Trim Castle (Hamilton-Dyer 1993, 1996; 1997b; 2004a). This fish is of interest as it is one of the few marine species to be mentioned in the documentary sources, and inland at that, as there is a record of congers being sent to Clones in the early thirteenth century (Davies and Quinn 1941, 25). The presence of conger eel bones in Medieval assemblages may be a reflection of an Anglo-Norman taste. Cartloads of conger were transported to Salisbury from Southampton, for example (Stevens and Olding 1985), and there is archaeological evidence of split eels (probably salted and dried) in Salisbury itself (Hamilton-Dyer 2000b). Similarly, split eels were also found on the Tudor warship, the Mary Rose (Hamilton-Dyer 1995; Coy and Hamilton-Dyer 2005). A specimen from Maynooth Castle, Co. Kildare, had been axially divided in an identical manner to these English examples (Hamilton-Dyer 2000a). Conger was identified at only one of the Early Christian sites–Illaunloughan. Whether this finding is related to favourable conditions for catching conger or some other reason is not clear.

As with other faunal classes, Ireland has a restricted list of native freshwater fish. Following the separation from Britain during the Late Glacial it would appear to be the case that only the migratory salmonids, whitefish (pollan), shad, eel and lamprey managed to populate Irish fresh waters. Pike is reputed to have been introduced by the Anglo-Normans and was sufficiently successful to have enabled its export back to Britain by the late fifteenth century (Longfield 1929, 49). On this note mention can be made of the recent finding of pike from late thirteenth-early fourteenth century assemblages at Trim Castle (Hamilton-Dyer 1997b). This is the first case of pike to have been recovered from an Irish archaeological site, but even in this instance it is not impossible that the remains were those of an imported preserved fish. A limited number of Cyprinidae are now present in Ireland but again these were introduced, possibly starting with Anglo-Norman introductions but certainly by the seventeenth century (Longfield 1929). Members of this family include bream, carp, tench, and gudgeon, but no examples of these species have been recovered from secure archaeological contexts in Ireland to date.

Mention should also be made of the apparent difference between the Medieval and Post-Medieval urban fish bone assemblages of Ireland and those of contemporary England. Although English sites have produced many bones of the large Gadidae they are often dominated by the remains of herring and eel especially in rubbish and cess pits. In this respect the Irish material is more similar to that of Aberdeen and other Scottish sites, which also have produced little herring and eel but many large gadids, even where sieving has been employed (e.g. Hamilton-Dyer et al. 2002). It is thought that the large gadids were primarily for trade, both internal and external, and indeed fish are known to have become an important Irish export during the Anglo-Norman period (McCormick 1991). The lack of herring and eel remains in Irish urban assemblages remains curious, however, as herring fishermen from Waterford are mentioned in at least one document (Kelly 1997, 297), and there was an established eel fishery on the Shannon by the thirteenth century (O’Neill 1987, 41). Indeed, by the sixteenth century herrings were amongst Ireland’s greatest export products (O’Neill 1987, 30–6). As such, it is clear that more assemblages of sieved material from Irish Medieval and Post-Medieval urban sites are needed to help elucidate the nature of the true situation.

Priorities for Future Research

Analysis is of little use without dissemination of results; publication is therefore crucial to enable a wider discussion of the role of the bird and fish remains recovered from Irish archaeological excavations. There are a number of substantial collections that remain unpublished, some of which are mentioned in the current paper, and several where work is in progress. Doubtless there are others within the grey literature that have not come to the attention of the author. The assemblages discussed here are by no means exhaustive; the smallest collections have not been included and the results of assemblages retrieved from early excavations should be used with caution.

Very few bird and fish bone reports have been produced for inland sites of the historic period, many of which are lacking sieved assemblages. Fish remains are particularly notable by their absence. Do these settlements follow the pattern apparent at Clonmacnoise, with some fish, probably of local origin, or do they have no fish at all? Do any have evidence of trade in marine fish? Some areas of Ireland, such as Munster, are poorly represented by faunal assemblages, especially for birds and fish (McCarthy 1998). Fish seem absent or rare from pre-Anglo-Norman sites from any area in Ireland, but it is difficult to interpret this as a genuine paucity without more, and sieved, assemblages. There is thus great potential in the accumulation of data from such sites, even if the individual samples are small.

In some cases it has been possible to go beyond the species list level of reporting. Detection of processing and dumping areas; industrial, kitchen and plate waste; and even of butchery styles, has been reported with improved excavation strategies. Analysis in these subject areas is ripe for further research. Comparisons with material from other areas of north-west Europe are possible and desirable; the nearest neighbours Scotland and Wales are obvious candidates, but England and Scandinavia are also known to have had important links with Ireland.

New research and application in the area of DNA and related techniques may help in the thorny question of separating the various goose and duck species and, together with metrical studies, track changes caused by domestication and husbandry techniques. Indeed, there is a general need to strengthen the database on sexing, ageing and metrical analysis of domestic birds. Similar work on fish should also be an important objective for future work. Detection of the trade in, and use of, stored fish in England has been explored by Locker (2001) and the same types of analyses could also be undertaken on Irish material.

On an ecological front there is the possibility of logging the past distribution of bird species now absent in Ireland, or at least of restricted occurrence, and of detecting introductions. This type of work has already been explored by D’Arcy (1999) and Yalden and Carthy (2004). Similarly, the understanding of the historical distribution of freshwater fish in Ireland is still extremely patchy (McCormick 1999; Murray 1999) and would form a valuable topic for future research.

Acknowledgements

Many thanks to Tanya O’ Sullivan and Emily Murray for permission to use unpublished data.

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