Notes

1. Please note that in general, when the authors discuss words in the original biblical languages, the series uses a general rather than a scholarly method of transliteration.

1. Paul Lippi, personal communication.

2. R. Coote, “Review of The Book of Leviticus, by Gordon J. Wenham,” Int 35 (1981): 423.

3. Cf. M. Warburton, “Letting the Voice of Leviticus Speak,” STR 37 (1994): 163.

4. Cf. J. Milgrom, “Profane Slaughter and a Formulaic Key to the Composition of Deuteronomy,” HUCA 47 (1976): 14–15; J. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16 (AB 3; New York: Doubleday, 1991), 154–55.

5. See esp. Contemporary Significance section of Lev. 17.

6. G. Barna, quoted in Tim Stafford, “The Third Coming of George Barna,” CT (August 5, 2002): 34–35.

7. See Contemporary Significance section of Lev. 18.

8. Rob Bell, “Life in Leviticus,” Leadership Journal 24 (Winter 2002): 45.

9. Ibid.

10. Luke 2:22 (referring to Lev. 12); Matt. 8:4//Mark 1:44//Luke 5:14 (referring to Lev. 13–14); Mark 7:10 (referring to Lev. 20:9).

11. S. H. Kellogg, The Book of Leviticus (EB; New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1900), 5–17.

12. J. ben E. Bonfils, Tsafenat Paneah, quoted in N. Sarna, Genesis (JPSTC; Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1989), 91.

13. See R. Gane, “Leviticus, Book of,” in J. H. Hayes, ed., Dictionary of Biblical Interpretation (Nashville: Abingdon, 1999), 55–56.

14. Ibid., 56–58.

15. Cf. D. Damrosch, “Leviticus,” in R. Alter and F. Kermode, eds., The Literary Guide to the Bible (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap, 1987), 66–67, 75–76.

16. R. Rendtorff, “Is It Possible to Read Leviticus as a Separate Book?” in J. Sawyer, ed., Reading Leviticus: A Conversation with Mary Douglas (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996), 22–27, 33–35; G. Auld, “Leviticus at the Heart of the Pentateuch?” in Sawyer, ed., Reading Leviticus, 40–51.

17. See, e.g., Y. Radday, “Chiasmus in Hebrew Biblical Narrative,” in J. W. Welch, Chiasmus in Antiquity (Hildesheim: Gerstenberg, 1981), 50–117, esp. 87–89 on inverted structures in Leviticus. For chiastic/inverted and parallel line structures in the latter “holiness” portion of Leviticus, see M. Hildenbrand, “Structure and Theology in the Holiness Code” (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1998).

18. W. Warning, Literary Artistry in Leviticus (BIS 35; Leiden: Brill, 1999), 86–87.

19. J. Hartley, Leviticus (WBC 4; Dallas: Word, 1992), xxxiv–xxxv, 217, 224.

20. W. Shea, “Literary Form and Theological Function in Leviticus,” in F. Holbrook, ed., The Seventy Weeks, Leviticus, and the Nature of Prophecy (DARCOM 3; Washington, D.C.: Biblical Research Institute, 1986), 131–68, esp. 149.

21. J. H. Walton, “Equilibrium and the Sacred Compass: The Structure of Leviticus,” BBR 11 (2001): 299; cf. diagram on 300.

22. Ibid., 299–304, esp. 304.

23. Ibid., 298.

24. See Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 230; J. Milgrom, Leviticus 23–27 (AB 3B; New York: Doubleday, 2001), 2440–46; D. Davies, “An Interpretation of Sacrifice in Leviticus,” ZAW 89 (1977): 396–98; against N. Snaith, “The Sprinkling of Blood,” ExpTim 82 (1970–71): 24; I. Knohl, The Sanctuary of Silence: The Priestly Torah and the Holiness School (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1995), 175–78.

25. Knohl, The Sanctuary of Silence, 69, 105; Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 694; J. Milgrom, Leviticus 17–22 (AB 3A; New York: Doubleday, 2000), 1343.

26. M. Douglas, “Poetic Structure in Leviticus,” in D. P. Wright, D. N. Freedman, and A. Hurvitz, eds., Pomegranates and Golden Bells: Studies in Biblical, Jewish, and Near Eastern Ritual, Law, and Literature in Honor of Jacob Milgrom (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1995), 247–55, esp. 253; endorsed by Milgrom, Leviticus 17–22, 1364–65.

27. J. K. Newman, The Classical Epic Tradition (WSC; Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1986), 13.

28. M. Douglas, “Poetic Structure in Leviticus,” 253. For chaps. 1–17 in a ring, with 17:3–4 repeating the instruction of 1:2–4 that slaughter of animals must take place at the sanctuary, see M. Douglas, Leviticus as Literature (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 192–3.

29. On holiness as the central theme of Leviticus, see, e.g., W. Kaiser, “The Book of Leviticus,” in NIB, 1:1131; W. Greathouse, Wholeness in Christ: Toward a Biblical Theology of Holiness (Kansas City: Beacon Hill Press of Kansas City, 1998), 24.

30. On arrangement of the Pentateuchal books as a chiasm with Leviticus at its center, see Radday, “Chiasmus,” 84–86.

1. Cf. 2 Kings 1:1, which also begins with a waw consecutive (imperfect) verb, thereby grammatically tying it to 1 Kings.

2. Cf. Num. 1:1, lit., “And the LORD spoke.” Ex. 1:1 also begins with “And,” but it is not attached to a verb (see P. Enns, Exodus [NIVAC; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000], 40). In such contexts at the beginnings of literary units, translators generally omit this “And” for the sake of good English style, thereby giving up the “hook” to that which goes before.

3. Esp. waw consecutive with the verb “to be”: Josh. 1:1; Judg. 1:1; 1 Sam. 1:1, etc.

4. I am using Accordance, without which I would no longer dream of studying the Bible in any depth.

5. Heb. “he”; the NIV supplies “the LORD” here.

6. From the same root škn; see 40:35.

7. Enns, Exodus, 598–99.

8. While the bulk of Ex. 25–31 is fulfilled in chs. 35–40, this does not include fulfillment of ch. 29 (consecration of the priesthood and sanctuary), which is delayed until Lev. 8. This relationship between Ex. 29 and Lev. 8 constitutes another important link between the two books.

9. See J. H. Walton, Genesis (NIVAC; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2001), 393–94, 401–4.

10. R. Rendtorff, “Is It Possible to Read Leviticus as a Separate Book?” 22–35; cf. G. Auld, “Leviticus at the Heart of the Pentateuch?” in Sawyer, ed., Reading Leviticus, 40–51.

11. On the way Leviticus calls the community to enact holiness through ritual and ethical practice, see F. H. Gorman, Divine Presence and Community: A Commentary on the Book of Leviticus (ITC; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997).

1. See, e.g., M. J. Selman, “Sacrifice in the Ancient Near East,” in R. Beckwith and M. Selman, ed., Sacrifice in the Bible (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1995), 88–104.

2. R. Gane, Ritual Dynamic Structure (Piscataway, N.J.: Gorgias, forthcoming), chs. 1–3. See also idem, Cult and Character: Purification Offerings, Day of Atonement, and Theodicy (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, forthcoming), ch. 1 (“The Locus of Ritual Meaning”). On conceptual issues involved in formation of theories regarding ritual and ritualization, and on methodologies for analyzing them, see C. Bell, Ritual Theory, Ritual Practice (New York/Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1992); R. Grimes, Ritual Criticism: Case Studies in Its Practice, Essays on Its Theory (SCR; Columbia, S.C.: Univ. of South Carolina Press, 1990), 13–15, 192. On such questions regarding the sacrificial category of rituals, see A. Green, The Role of Human Sacrifice in the Ancient Near East (ASORDS 1; Missoula, Mont.: Scholars Press, 1975), 3–17.

3. Addition of salt is not included in the activity outline of any ritual, suggesting that it is preliminary to commencement of ritual proper. Cf. Ezek. 43:24, where two animals are presented before the Lord at the temple, priests throw salt on them, and then they are sacrificed as burnt offerings. In m. Tamid 4:3, Ezekiel’s procedure is not followed: The regular burnt offering and its cereal accompaniment are salted after the animal is cut up into pieces.

4. On slaughter as slitting the throat, see Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 154–55.

5. Cf. 2 Chron. 29:22.

6. Cf. Lev. 9:12–14.

7. Cf. Lev. 1:13.

8. For procedural and zoological details, see Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 169–71.

9. See Gane, Ritual Dynamic Structure, ch. 1.

10. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 159–60.

11. J. Hoftijzer, “Das Sogenannte Feueropfer,” in Hebräische Wortforschung: Festschrift zum 80. Geburtstag von Walter Baumgartner (VTSup 16; Leiden: Brill, 1967), 114–34.

12. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 161–62.

13. Atraḫrasis III v. 30–36; W. G. Lambert, and A. R. Millard, Atra-Ḫasis: The Babylonian Story of the Flood (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, repr. 1999; orig. 1969), 98–99.

14. Gilgamesh XI 160–62; A. George, The Epic of Gilgamesh: The Babylonian Epic Poem and Other Texts in Akkadian and Sumerian (New York: Barnes & Noble, 1999), 94.

15. R. Gane, Altar Call (Berrien Springs, Mich.: Diadem, 1999), 54.

16. Ibid., 52.

17. E. Leach, Culture & Communication: The Logic by Which Symbols Are Connected (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1976), 82.

18. Nevertheless, R. Grimes points out that investigation of ritual as performance should inform readings of ancient ritual texts “because in all but the most bookish traditions, ritual texts exist to serve ritual enactments, not the other way around” (Ritual Criticism, 9).

19. R. Knierim, Text and Concept in Leviticus 1:1–9: A Case in Exegetical Method (FAT 2; Tübingen: Mohr, 1992), 31, 64–67, 89–90, 94–97, 98–106. For R. Rendtorff the primary function of the texts for ensuring proper performance explains why they say so little about the meanings of the sacrifices (The Old Testament: An Introduction, transl. John Bowden [Philadelphia: Fortress, 1985], 98).

20. Transl. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 133.

21. A. P. Ross, Holiness to the Lord: A Guide to the Exposition of the Book of Leviticus (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2002), 95.

22. See S. R. Driver, “Propitiation,” in J. Hastings, ed., A Dictionary of the Bible (New York: Scribners, 1911), 4:131.

23. On kipper, see, e.g., ibid., 4:128; B. Levine, In the Presence of the Lord (SJLA 5; Leiden: Brill, 1974), 55–77, 123–27; B. Janowski, Sühne als Heilsgeschehen: Studien zur Sühnetheologie der Priesterschrift und zur Wurzel KPR im Alten Orient und im Alten Testament (WMANT 55; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1982), 95–102; B. Lang, “ [kipper],” in TDOT, 7:288–303; Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 1079–84; N. Kiuchi, The Purification Offering in the Priestly Literature: Its Meaning and Function (JSOTSup 56; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1987), 87–109.

24. Not two hands; against m. Menaḥ. 9:8.

25. For the “identification of ownership” theory in comparison with other views, see e.g. R. Péter, “L’imposition des mains dans l’Ancien Testament,” VT 27 (1977): 48–55; D. P. Wright, “The Gesture of Hand Placement in the Hebrew Bible and in Hittite Literature,” JAOS 106 (1986): 433–46.

26. Burnt offering—Lev. 1:4; well-being offering—3:2, 8, 13; purification offering—4:4, 24, 29, 33.

27. Burnt offering—Ex. 29:15; Lev. 8:18; Num. 8:12; purification offering—Ex. 29:10; Lev. 8:14; Num. 8:12.

28. Purification offering—Lev. 4:15; 2 Chron. 29:23.

29. Wright, “The Gesture of Hand Placement,” 439.

30. J. Matthes, “Der Sühnegedanke bei den Sündopfern,” ZAW 23 (1903): 118–19.

31. See F. H. Gorman, The Ideology of Ritual: Space, Time and Status in the Priestly Theology (JSOTSup 91; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1990), 121–2.

32. See Gane, Cult and Character, ch. 3 (“ ‘Outer Altar’ Purification Offerings”); idem, Ritual Dynamic Structure, ch. 2.

33. H. C. Brichto, “On Slaughter and Sacrifice, Blood and Atonement,” HUCA 47 (1976): 31–35.

34. Compare S. R. Driver and H. A. White, The Book of Leviticus (SBONT 3; New York: Dodd, Mead, 1898), 66. Against the famous “abstract scheme of sacrifice” originally published by H. Hubert and M. Mauss in 1898 (Sacrifice: Its Nature and Function, transl. W. D. Halls [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964], 19, 32–3, 35, 44–5).

35. D. P. Wright, “Deuteronomy 21:1–9 As a Rite of Elimination,” CBQ 49 (1987): 387–403.

36. See Contemporary Significance section on Lev. 17; Gane, Ritual Dynamic Structure, ch. 2.

37. Ibid.

38. See, e.g., Selman, “Sacrifice in the Ancient Near East,” 96–101.

39. Gane, Altar Call, 79–80.

40. Ibid., 55–56.

41. P. S. Kramer, “Family Traditions: Making Moments You and Your Children Will Always Cherish,” Woman’s Day (November 19, 1996), 68. See also R. Fulghum’s wonderfully insightful and practical book, From Beginning to End: The Rituals of Our Lives (New York: Ivy Books, 1995).

42. R. Gane, God’s Faulty Heroes (Hagerstown, Md.: Review and Herald, 1996), 80.

43. In M. Walter, compiler, The New Encyclopedia of Christian Quotations (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2000), 900.

1. On this kind of “procedural law” as a subcategory of “case law,” see R. Knierim, Text and Concept in Leviticus 1:1–9, 31, 65, 94–97, 98–106.

2. For details regarding the various kinds of preparation, see Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 183–85.

3. On participation of women in ritual worship, see M. Gruber, “Women in the Cult According to the Priestly Code,” in J. Neusner, B. Levine, and E. Frerichs, eds., Judaic Perspectives on Ancient Israel (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1987), 35–48.

4. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 179.

5. On the distinction between “first-ripe” and “first-processed” firstfruits, see ibid., 190–91.

6. Transl. ibid., 178. For other possible explanations of ʾim at the beginning of this verse, see 192–93.

7. Compare A. Dillmann, Die Bücher Exodus und Leviticus, ed. V. Ryssel (Leipzig: Hirzel, 1897), 447.

8. Transl. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 177–78.

9. R. Gane and J. Milgrom, “ qarab,” TDOT, 13:142.

10. K. Koch excludes purification (ḥaṭṭaʾt) offerings from the category of sacrifices so that he can maintain consistency with Lev. 16:5, where the same term ḥaṭṭaʾt exceptionally applies to the nonsacrificial goat for Azazel. However, to sustain this notion he must manipulate the biblical evidence by asserting that in 4:31 the notice that purification offering fat is a “pleasing aroma” to Yahweh is “the result of textual corruption” (see “ ḥaṭaʾ,” in TDOT, 4:316).

11. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 189.

12. Ibid., 189–90.

13. See Philo, The Special Laws, 1.289.

14. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 191; cf. J. H. Walton, V. H. Matthews, and M. W. Chavalas, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2000), 122.

15. A. Schweitzer, Indian Thought and Development, transl. C. E. B. Russell (New York: Henry Holt, 1936), 6.

16. See R. M. Pippert, Out of the Saltshaker and into the World: Evangelism As a Way of Life (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1979).

17. A. Schweitzer, Out of My Life and Thought, transl. C. T. Campion (New York: Henry Holt, 1948), 230.

18. P. Yancey, Finding God in Unexpected Places (Ann Arbor: Servant Publications, 1997), 68–75.

19. S. Kierkegaard, Attack Upon “Christendom,” transl. W. Lowrie (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1968), 34.

20. M. Luther, The Small Catechism (Books for the Ages; Version 1.0 on CD-ROM; Albany, Ore.: Ages Software, 1997), 10.

21. In M. Water, compiler, The New Encyclopedia of Christian Quotations, 371.

22. T. Watson, in ibid., 739.

23. F. Schaeffer, in ibid.

1. A singular form (šelem) shows up in Amos 5:22 as well as in Ugaritic texts.

2. For details on the various theories, see J. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 220–21.

3. See ibid., 203.

4. The text precisely identifies the suet portions. On the physiological details, see Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 205–13.

5. See R. Gane, “ ‘Bread of the Presence’ and Creator-in-Residence,” VT 42 (1992): 198.

6. In 21:6, 8, 17, 21, 22, etc., leḥem refers to sacrificial “food,” including meat. In other contexts the same word means specifically “bread” (e.g., 7:13; 8:26, 31, 32).

7. But see comments on 17:11 regarding the kipper meaning of well-being offering blood.

8. For life in the Promised Land, when many could live at a distance from the sanctuary, Deut. 12:15–16 allowed nonsacrificial slaughter of sacrificeable animals.

9. On joy in connection with meals following ancient Greek sacrifices to Olympian deities, see W. Durant, The Life of Greece (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1939/1966), 2:195.

10. R. Gane, Altar Call, 89

11. On the bread as “microcosmic modelling,” see M. Douglas, “The Eucharist: Its Continuity with the Bread Sacrifice of Leviticus,” MT 15 (1999): 219–23.

12. Gane, Altar Call, 12, 58–62.

13. Ibid., 344.

14. L. Crabb, Finding God (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993), 38.

15. N. Herman (1611–1691), Brother Lawrence: The Practice of the Presence of God the Best Rule of a Holy Life, transl. from French (New York: Revell, 1958), 22.

16. Leslie Weatherhead, in The New Encyclopedia of Christian Quotations, 537.

17. André Gide, in ibid., 536.

1. The vegetable and animal sacrifices of Cain and Abel are called minḥah (Gen. 4:3–5), the term used in the Israelite sanctuary system in the narrower, technical sense of “grain offering” (Lev. 2, etc.).

2. A. R. S. Kennedy and J. Barr, “Sacrifice and Offering,” in J. Hastings, ed., Dictionary of the Bible, ed., F. C. Grant and H. H. Rowley, rev. ed. (New York: Scribners, 1963), 874; J. Milgrom, “Sin-Offering or Purification-Offering?VT 21 (1971): 237–39.

3. J. Milgrom, “The Cultic and Its Influence in Psalms and Job,” JQR 58 (1967): 115–25, esp. 118. B. Levine summarizes the two related aspects of inadvertence as understood by the rabbis: “(1) inadvertence with respect to the facts of law; and (2) inadvertence with respect to the nature of the act” (Leviticus [JPSTC; Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1989], 19).

4. Although ordinary priests were also anointed (Ex. 29:21; 40:14–15; Lev. 8:30), the high priest received a special anointing on his head (Ex. 29:7; Lev. 8:12), and in Lev. 6:22 “the anointed priest” is the high priest in Aaron’s line of succession (cf. Ex. 29:29–30).

5. See comments on Num. 15:22–26 regarding a variant ritual for the community.

6. Cf. 2 Chron. 29:22.

7. Cf. Lev. 1:13.

8. E.g., B. Baentsch held that the blood was to be sprinkled in the area before the veil (Exodus-Leviticus-Numeri [HKAT; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1903], 323), but J. H. Kurtz argued against this position (Sacrificial Worship of the Old Testament, transl. J. Martin [Minneapolis: Klock & Klock, 1980; repr. of 1863], 215 n. 1).

9. For a more detailed discussion see Gane, Cult and Character, ch. 4.

10. The rabbinic tradition that 16:16b refers to the 1 + 7 pattern in the inner sanctum (b. Yoma 56b) correctly interpreted this aspect of the ritual. However, this tradition understood the blood applications to be sprinklings performed once upward plus seven times downward (cf. m. Yoma 5:3–4).

11. C. F. Keil and F. Delitzsch, Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament, transl. J. Martin (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1952 [orig. 1874]), 2:400–401.

12. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 1034.

13. On the spatial function of the inner veil, see R. Gane and J. Milgrom, “ paroket,” TDOT, 12:96. Compare the Akkadian cognate parakku, which can refer to an area: the shrine or cella of a deity (AHW, 2.827–9).

14. Cf. 2 Chron. 29:22.

15. Cf. Lev. 1:5.

16. Cf. Lev. 1:13.

17. P. Bovati, Re-Establishing Justice: Legal Terms, Concepts and Procedures in the Hebrew Bible (JSOTSup 105; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994), 143–44 n. 48. C. Macholz points out that slḥ is like brʾ, (“create”) in that it takes only the deity as subject (“Das ‘Passivum divinum,’ seine Anfänge im Alten Testament und der ‘Hofstil,’ ” ZNW 81 (1990): 247–53, esp. 248.

18. J. McDowell, More Than a Carpenter (Wheaton, Ill.: Living Books, 1977), 19.

19. George Herbert, in R. Atwan & L. Wieder, eds., Chapters into Verse: Poetry in English Inspired by the Bible (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1993), 160.

20. With A. Büchler, Studies in Sin and Atonement in the Rabbinic Literature of the First Century (LBS; New York: KTAV, 1967), 266; B. Levine, Leviticus, 18. For a far more detailed analysis, see Gane, Cult and Character, ch. 6. Against the influential theory of J. Milgrom (“Israel’s Sanctuary: The Priestly Picture of Dorian Gray,” RB 83 [1976]: 390–96, reprinted in Studies in Cultic Theology and Terminology [Leiden: Brill, 1983], 75–81; see now Leviticus 1–16, 254–58), which is followed by M. Anderson and P. Culbertson, “The Inadequacy of the Christian Doctrine of Atonement in Light of Levitical Sin Offering,” ATR 68 (1986): 310, 315, 322; D. P. Wright, “Day of Atonement,” ABD, 2:72–73; F. H. Gorman, The Ideology of Ritual, 76–77; K. C. Hanson, “Sin, Purification, and Group Process,” in H. T. C. Sun et al., eds., Problems in Biblical Theology: Essays in Honor of Rolf Knierim (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997), 177; and A. P. Ross, Holiness to the Lord, 124–25, 132–34.

21. H. C. Brichto has recognized similar “privative” use of the preposition min in Lev. 15:15, 30 (“On Slaughter and Sacrifice,” 33). His understanding of privative min in such contexts accords with Milgrom’s interpretation of the noun ḥaṭṭaʾt (“purification offering”) as derived from the privative Piel of the verb ḥṭʾ (“purify”), which can describe the effect of the ḥaṭṭaʾt sacrifice (Ex. 29:36; Lev. 8:15; Ezek. 43:20, 22, 23; 45:18; Milgrom, “Sin-Offering or Purification-Offering?” 237; idem, Leviticus 1–16, 253). On the privative Piel in general, see GKC, §52h. Notice that in Lev. 16:16 the inner sanctum rather than one or more persons is freed from (min) evils on the Day of Atonement.

22. The word for “priest,” indicating the one who performs the expiation, usually follows kipper ʿal + offerer.

23. H. Maccoby points out that when a chieftain’s sin is removed from him (Lev. 4:26), it is the same sin that he committed, not another sin of contaminating the altar (Ritual and Morality: The Ritual Purity System and its Place in Judaism [Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1999], 178–79).

24. Milgrom’s translation agrees (Leviticus 1–16, 742). A. Rodriguez also agrees (Substitution in the Hebrew Cultus [AUSDDS 3; Berrien Springs, Mich.: Andrews Univ. Press, 1979], 104–5).

25. Cf. Lev. 16:30: “to cleanse you,” with “you” as direct object.

26. Against Milgrom, “Israel’s Sanctuary,” 390–96, etc. (see above).

27. Compare Lev. 14, where repeated pronouncements of purity (vv. 8, 9, 20) signify completion of successive stages of purification (Kiuchi, The Purification Offering in the Priestly Literature, 60–61).

28. R. E. Friedman, Commentary on the Torah (New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 2001), 322.

29. Gane, Cult and Character, ch. 1; cf. F. Staal, Rules Without Meaning: Ritual, Mantras and the Human Sciences (New York: Peter Lang, 1989), 127–29, 134, 137, 140, 330; Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 279: “Ritual substances have no intrinsic force: they are powered by the will of God.”

30. Gane, Cult and Character, ch. 7; see also idem, Altar Call, 214–15.

31. On the various uses and connotations of horns in the Bible and the ancient Near East, see M. L. Süring, The Horn-Motif in the Hebrew Bible and Related Ancient Near Eastern Literature and Iconography (AUSDDS 4; Berrien Springs, Mich.: Andrews Univ. Press, 1980), esp. 313–17, 323–25, 440–41.

32. Gane, Altar Call, 92–93.

33. On this meaning of kipper, “expiate,” see Brichto, “On Slaughter and Sacrifice,” 26–8, 34–5.

34. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 161–62, 253. For a discussion of this word, see comments on 1:9.

35. Ibid., 253; Büchler, Studies in Sin and Atonement, 452. For the concept of “harm” to God, who is “duty-bound to uphold the moral order of the universe,” see R. Cover, “Sin, Sinners: Old Testament,” ABD, 6:38.

36. See t. Parah 1:1; Kennedy and Barr, “Sacrifice and Offering,” 875. On the difference between the procedural order, in which the purification offering is actually performed first (e.g., Lev. 9), and the administrative order, in which the burnt offering is listed first (e.g., Num. 28–29), see A. Rainey, “The Order of Sacrifices in Old Testament Ritual Texts,” Bib 51 (1970): 494–98.

37. Brichto, “On Slaughter and Sacrifice,” 30–33, 35. W. Kaiser missed this point in the context of the burnt offering when he states, “The atoning work is completed in the sprinkling of the blood” (“The Book of Leviticus,” in NIB, 1:1012). While Christians emphasize blood, Christ spoke of his sacrifice both in terms of flesh and blood (Matt. 26:26–29; John 6:53–58; 1 Cor. 11:23–26).

38. Gane, Altar Call, 72.

39. D. Wold, “The Meaning of the Biblical Penalty Kareth” (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Berkeley, 1978), 251–55.

40. Gane, Altar Call, 73.

41. Ibid., 106.

42. D. Prager, “When Forgiveness Is a Sin,” Reader’s Digest (March, 1998): 38; reprinted from The Wall Street Journal (December 15, 1997).

43. P. Yancey, What’s So Amazing About Grace? (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1997), 85.

44. Gane, Altar Call, 109.

45. C. ten Boom and J. Buckingham, Tramp for the Lord (New York: Jove, 1974), 54–55.

46. Ibid., 55.

47. M. Luther, A Simple Way to Pray (London: Westminster John Knox, 2000), 27.

48. Compare Ross, Holiness to the Lord, 134.

49. J. Bunyan, Pilgrim’s Progress from This World to That Which Is to Come; Delivered under the Similitude of a Dream (Books For The Ages; Version 1.0 on CD-ROM; Albany, Ore.: Ages Software, 1997), 82.

50. Boom and Buckingham, Tramp for the Lord, 53.

51. H. W. Smith, The Christian’s Secret to a Happy Life (Books For The Ages; Version 1.0 on CD-ROM; Albany, Ore.: Ages Software, 1997), 48–49.

52. P. Jenson, Graded Holiness: A Key to the Priestly Conception of the World (JSOTSup 106; Sheffield: JSOT, 1992), 172–73.

1. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 303.

2. Jonathan Edwards, The Works of Jonathan Edwards (Books for the Ages; Version 1.0 on CD-ROM; Albany, Ore.: Ages Software, 1997), 6:1607.

3. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 339.

4. Ibid., 339–45, esp. 345.

5. Ibid., 373–78; J. Milgrom, Cult and Conscience: The Asham and the Priestly Doctrine of Repentance (SJLA 18; Leiden: Brill, 1976), 7–11, 104.

6. Milgrom, Leviticus 17–22, 1425.

7. R. Knierim, “ ʾašam guilt,” TLOT, 1:193.

8. Milgrom, Cult and Conscience, 74–76.

9. Cf. instructions for constructing the tabernacle, beginning with the ark (Ex. 25:10–22) in the Most Holy Place and then moving to other items (25:23–27:21; 30:1–10).

10. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 307–18; cf. Levine, Leviticus, 28–29.

11. Cf. R. Rendtorff, Leviticus (BKAT; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1985–1992), 3:177.

12. Ibid., 29; Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 304.

13. B. Janowski (Sühne als Heilsgeschehen: Studien zur Sühnetheologie der Priesterschrift und zur Wurzel KPR im Alten Orient und im Alten Testament [WMANT 55; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1982], 192) and Rendtorff (Leviticus, 1:38) maintain that a burnt offering expiates only when it is combined with a purification offering.

14. That is, 1.175 liters according to S. Rattray, “The Biblical Measures of Capacity,” in Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 895.

15. Levine distinguishes between sins of commission in 4:1–35 and omission in 5:1–13 (Leviticus, 19–20, 25–28).

16. Compare Kiuchi, The Purification Offering in the Priestly Literature, 30; Rodriguez, Substitution in the Hebrew Cultus, 148.

17. On leniency to encourage confession, cf. A. Phillips, “The Undetectable Offender and the Priestly Legislators,” JTS 36 (1985): 150.

18. On the graduated purification offering as the remedy for prolonged impurity (5:2–3), see Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 310–13.

19. Ibid., 302; J. Milgrom, “The Priestly Doctrine of Repentance,” RB 82 (1975): 194; idem, Cult and Conscience, 108.

20. C. H. Spurgeon, The Spurgeon Sermon Collection (Books for the Ages; Version 1.0 on CD-ROM; Albany, Ore.: Ages Software, 1997), 3:483.

21. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 301–2, 373–78; idem, “The Priestly Doctrine,” 195–205; idem, Cult and Conscience, 119–27.

22. M. Lucado, When God Whispers Your Name (Dallas: Word, 1994), 133.

23. See, e.g., Kellogg, The Book of Leviticus, 259–60.

24. D. P. Wright, “The Spectrum of Priestly Impurity,” in G. Anderson and S. Olyan, eds., Priesthood and Cult in Ancient Israel (JSOTSup 125; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1991), 180; cf. 171–79.

25. Gane, Altar Call, 88.

26. Ross, Holiness to the Lord, 135.

27. Ibid., 89.

28. See, e.g., ANET, 334 (Babylonian), 358–61 (Hittite).

1. Compare Rashi on Lev. 5:4; M. Rooker, Leviticus (NAC 3A; Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 2000), 122.

2. Rodriguez, Substitution in the Hebrew Cultus, 190–91.

3. Cf. A. Médebielle, “Le symbolism du sacrifice expiatoire en Israël,” Bib 2 (1921): 300–301.

4. R. Knierim, “ mʿl to be unfaithful,” TLOT, 2:681.

5. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 345–56.

6. See ibid., 349. Compare the seriousness of misappropriating divine property in the Hittite “Instructions for Temple Officials” (ANET, 208).

7. Ibid., 337.

8. Cf. Abraham’s covenant ritual in Gen. 15, in which God represented himself as passing between the pieces of dismembered animals, thereby voluntarily binding himself by a conditional curse: “Let me be broken like these animals if this covenant is violated.”

9. D. Richardson, “Redemptive Analogy,” in R. D. Winter and S. C. Hawthorne, eds., Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A Reader, 3d ed. (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 1981), 398.

10. Thomas A. Hemphill, “Identity Theft: A Cost of Business?Business and Society Review 106 (2001): 52–53.

11. D. Patrick, Old Testament Law (Atlanta: John Knox, 1985), 49.

12. Gane, Altar Call, 103.

13. D. L. Moody, Prevailing Prayer: What Hinders It? (Books for the Ages; Version 1.0 on CD-ROM; Albany, Ore.: Ages Software, 1997), 27, 29.

14. C. Gorman, “The Science of Anxiety,” Time (June 10, 2002), 48.

15. F. Staal, Rules Without Meaning: Ritual, Mantras and the Human Sciences (New York: Peter Lang, 1989), 135.

16. Laws of Hammurabi, law 2. For translations, see ANET, 166; M. T. Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor (SBLWAW 6; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995), 81.

17. See, e.g., Patrick, Old Testament Law, 48, 81, 164.

1. On relationships between the four categories, see Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 616–17.

2. Transl. ibid., 380.

3. Gane, Ritual Dynamic Structure, ch. 6.

4. See, e.g., R. Payne, “Feeding the Gods: The Shingon Fire Ritual” (Ph.D. diss., Graduate Theological Union, 1985).

5. Gane, God’s Faulty Heroes, 101.

6. See, e.g., R. Gane, “Schedules for Deities: Macrostructure of Israelite, Babylonian, and Hittite Sancta Purification Days,” AUSS 36 (1998): 231–44.

7. On this complex of rituals, see M. Haran, Temples and Temple-Service in Ancient Israel (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1985), 205–10, 216–19.

8. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 403; idem, “The Paradox of the Red Cow (Num. XIX),” VT 31 (1981): 64; cf. D. P. Wright, The Disposal of Impurity: Elimination Rites in the Bible and in Hittite and Mesopotamian Literature (SBLDS 101; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1987), 129–32. Milgrom points out that in the Temple Scroll (26:10), on the Day of Atonement the high priest must wash the blood of the people’s inner sanctum purification offering goat from his hands and feet, reinforcing the idea that purification offerings carry defilement (Leviticus 1–16, 1064).

9. Spattering (Qal of nzh) involves uncontrolled movement through the air (cf. 2 Kings 9:33; Isa. 63:3). The Hiphil of nzh indicates human control of sprinkling blood in Lev. 4:6, 17. A postbiblical limitation appears in m. Zebaḥ. 11:3: Only blood that has been collected in a vessel and is fit for sprinkling must be washed from a garment. For a detailed discussion of sacrificial blood, see Gane, Cult and Character, ch. 8.

10. Against Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 403, because blood is a sticky substance that would not ricochet through the air from the altar to a garment.

11. N. Zohar, “Repentance and Purification: The Significance and Semantics of in the Pentateuch,” JBL 107 (1988): 612.

12. Jenson, Graded Holiness, 157.

13. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 403–4. Compare the role of the uniquely holy Day of Atonement purification offerings, which carry defilement from the sanctuary (see comments on Lev. 16).

14. Ibid., 406; cf. Milgrom, “The Paradox of the Red Cow,” 64; Wright, The Disposal of Impurity, 129–34; against N. Snaith, “The Sin-Offering and the Guilt-Offering,” VT 15 (1965): 76, and A. Geller, “Blood Cult: Toward a Literary Theology of the Priestly Work of the Pentateuch,” Prooftexts 12 (1992): 106.

15. For the idea that blood could be associated with more than one concept (life/strength and bloodshed/death) in the ancient Near East, including Israel, see D. J. McCarthy, “Further Notes on the Symbolism of Blood and Sacrifice,” JBL 92 (1973): 205.

16. Rodriguez, Substitution in the Hebrew Cultus, 133–34, 217–18; Kiuchi, The Purification Offering in the Priestly Literature, 119; cf. J. Calvin, Commentaries on the Four Last Books of Moses Arranged in the Form of a Harmony, transl. C. W. Bingham (Grand Rapids: Baker, repr. 1996), 2:318.

17. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 258–61; cf. idem, “Israel’s Sanctuary,” 396–99.

18. Gane, Cult and Character, ch. 8.

19. Thomas Watson, The Lord’s Prayer (Books for the Ages; Version 1.0 on CD-ROM; Albany, Ore.: Ages Software, 1997), 164.

20. José Luis González-Balado, compiler, Mother Teresa: In My Own Words (New York: Gramercy, 1996), 29.

1. See Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 381, 422.

2. Cf. Wold, “The Meaning of the Biblical Penalty Kareth,” 251–55; Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 457–60; B. Schwartz, “The Bearing of Sin in the Priestly Literature,” in D. P. Wright, D. N. Freedman, and A. Hurvitz, eds., Pomegranates and Golden Bells: Studies in Biblical, Jewish, and Near Eastern Ritual, Law, and Literature in Honor of Jacob Milgrom (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1995), 13.

3. Cf. ancient Greek sacrifices to the Olympian gods, in which the portion for the deity consisted of bones and a little flesh, wrapped in the fat (Durant, The Life of Greece, 2:194).

4. Regarding the meaning of blood, see comments on 17:10–12.

5. On the respective meanings of these terms for dedication, see Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 415–16, 431, 461–81.

6. In M. Water, compiler, The New Encyclopedia of Christian Quotations (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2000), 537.

7. Henri Nouwen, quoted in P. Yancey, Reaching for the Invisible God: What Can We Expect to Find? (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000), 266.

8. Author unknown, in Water, The New Encyclopedia, 607.

1. On the division of Leviticus into divine speeches as the foundation of the book’s structure, see W. Warning, Literary Artistry in Leviticus (BIS 35; Leiden: Brill, 1999), 37–63.

2. On the important distinction between prescriptive and descriptive ritual texts, see B. Levine, “The Descriptive Tabernacle Texts of the Pentateuch,” JAOS 85 (1965): 307–18; B. Levine and W. W. Hallo, “Offerings to the Temple Gates at Ur,” HUCA 38 (1967): 17–58.

3. Rainey, “The Order of Sacrifices in Old Testament Ritual Texts,” 495.

4. On rites of passage, see A. van Gennep, The Rites of Passage (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1960).

5. For the ingredients and uses of the anointing oil, see Ex. 30:22–33.

6. Cf. Kiuchi, The Purification Offering in the Priestly Literature, 42.

7. Cf. O. P. Robertson’s definition of the covenant relationship between God and his people as a “bond in blood sovereignly administered” (The Christ of the Covenants [Phillipsburg, N.J.: Presbyterian and Reformed, 1980], 4).

8. G. Klingbeil, “Ritual Time in Leviticus 8 with Special Reference to the Seven Day Period in the Old Testament,” ZAW 109 (1997): 500–13.

9. Compare week-long initiations of Solomon’s altar (2 Chron. 7:9) and Ezekiel’s altar (Ezek. 43:19–26).

10. Anointing of priests: e.g., Ex. 40:15; Lev. 8:12; anointing of kings: e.g., 1 Sam. 10:1; 16:13; 1 Kings 1:39.

11. For detailed analysis of this ceremony, see K. Mattingly, “The Laying on of Hands on Joshua: An Exegetical Study of Numbers 27:12–23 and Deuteronomy 34:9” (Ph.D. dissertation, Andrews University, 1997).

12. On the “part for all” principle, see Wright, The Disposal of Impurity, 130; J. Milgrom, “The Modus Operandi of the Ḥaṭṭaʾt: A Rejoinder,” JBL 109 (1990): 112–13; Gorman, The Ideology of Ritual, 81; Gane, Altar Call, 217–22; idem, Cult and Character, ch. 8.

13. Compare Milgrom, “The Modus Operandi,” 112.

14. Not recognized by Rodriguez, Substitution in the Hebrew Cultus, 142–43 n. 1.

15. Cf. B. Carradine, The Sanctified Life (Books for the Ages; Version 1.0 on CD-ROM; Albany, Ore.: Ages Software, 1997), 142.

16. R. Burrill, Revolution in the Church (Fallbrook, Calif.: Hart Research Center, 1979), 24–25.

17. A. Murray, With Christ in the School of Prayer (Springdale, Penn.: Whitaker, 1981), 228.

18. G. L. Jones, “Needy Pastors,” ChrCent (June 15–22, 1994): 62.

19. E. H. Peterson, Working the Angles: The Shape of Pastoral Integrity (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987), 7.

20. J. N. Griffith, Looking Up (Macon, Ga.: Mercer Univ. Press, 1993), 18.

21. Ibid.

1. F. H. Gorman, “Priestly Rituals of Founding: Time, Space, and Status,” in M. Graham, W. Brown, and J. Kuan, eds., History and Interpretation: Essays in Honour of John H. Hayes (JSOTSup 173; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993), 47–64.

2. A. Hurowitz, cited by J. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 588.

3. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 591.

4. Augustine, Confessions, transl. R. S. Pine-Coffin (New York: Barnes & Noble, 1961), 250.

5. On biblical hermeneutical controls for typology, especially of the horizontal and vertical varieties, see R. M. Davidson, Typology in Scripture: A Study of Hermeneutical τύπος Structures (AUSDDS 2; Berrien Springs, Mich.: Andrews Univ. Press, 1981).

6. R. Gane, Altar Call, 40.

7. See further in ibid., 41–43.

8. V. L. Hess, “Faith in Failure,” in R. Knott, ed., College Faith (Berrien Springs, Mich.: Andrews Univ. Press, 2002), 37–38.

9. K. Fedarko and M. Thompson, “All for One,” Time (June 19, 1995): 21–26.

10. P. Yancey, The Jesus I Never Knew (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1995), 227, 229.

11. See Gane, Altar Call, 16–19.

1. C. Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities (Ware, Hertfordshire, U.K.: Wordsworth Classics, 1993), 3.

2. Destructive divine fire also appears in Num. 11:1; 16:35; 2 Kings 1:10, 12; Rev. 20:9–10, 14–15 (= hellfire).

3. On several words derived from qrb, see R. Gane and J. Milgrom, “ qarab,” TDOT, 13:135–48.

4. J. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 600.

5. Compare P. Segal, “The Divine Verdict of Leviticus 10:3,” VT 39 (1989): 91–93.

6. On the meaning of ʾet peney, see comments on 4:6, 17.

7. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 608.

8. B. Schwartz, “The Literary and Ritual Unity of Leviticus 16,” paper presented at the 2001 Annual Meeting of the Society of Biblical Literature in Denver.

9. Modification of Milgrom’s translation (Leviticus 1–16, 596).

10. Transl. ibid., 596.

11. Cf. Kiuchi, The Purification Offering in the Priestly Literature, 73, 75–77.

12. Although the sacrifice was not invalidated, this departure from the script was conditioned by exceptional extenuating circumstances: divine execution of Nadab and Abihu when they engaged in ritual activity that “misfired” or “backfired” (literally!). On ritual mistakes and failures, see Grimes, Ritual Criticism, 191–209, repr. from “Infelicitous Performances and Ritual Criticism,” Semeia 41 (1988): 103–22.

13. S. Karff, “Silence and Weeping before the Song (Leviticus 10:1–20),” in F. C. Holmgren and H. E. Schaalman, eds., Preaching Biblical Texts: Expositions by Jewish and Christian Scholars (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995), 111–12.

14. Cf. J. H. Walton, Covenant: God’s Purpose, God’s Plan (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1994), 94–99.

15. See e.g. ANET, 338–41, 343 (beer and wine in Mesopotamia).

16. COS, I:III: 396 (Enuma Elish, 3.135–38).

17. On šekar (so-called “strong/fermented drink”) offered in the Israelite tabernacle, see comments on Num. 28:7.

18. Ezek. 44:21 does prohibit priests from drinking wine when they enter the inner court of the later temple.

19. Milgrom, cited by Wright, The Disposal of Impurity, 133 n. 22; Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 622–25, 635–40. Supporters of the idea that eating the meat contributes in some way to expiation include Sipra, Shemini 2:4; Ibn Ezra on Lev. 10:17; B. Baentsch, Exodus-Leviticus-Numeri (HKAT; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1903), 325, 337, 352–53; D. Hoffmann, Das Buch Leviticus (Berlin: Poppelauer, 1905–1906), 213, 298.

20. Levine, Leviticus, 62; see also idem, In the Presence of the Lord, 104, 107.

21. A. Rodriguez, personal communication.

22. Cf. Ibn Ezra on Lev. 10:17; G. Olaffson, “The Use of nsʾ in the Pentateuch and Its Contribution to the Concept of Forgiveness” (Ph.D. diss., Andrews University, 1992), 263.

23. Cf. Friedman, Commentary on the Torah, 326; Hoffmann, Das Buch Leviticus, 213–14.

24. Schwartz, “The Bearing of Sin in the Priestly Literature,” 8, 15; E. Jacob, Theology of the Old Testament, transl. A. Heathcote and P. Allcock (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1958), 291; A. von R. Sauer, “The Concept of Sin in the Old Testament,” CTM 22 (1951): 716–17; K. Koch, “ ʿāwôn,” TDOT, 10:559.

25. Schwartz, “The Bearing of Sin,” 9–15.

26. Koch, “ ʿāwôn,” 559.

27. Ibid.

28. For more detailed analysis of Lev. 10:17, see Gane, Cult and Character, ch. 5.

29. Carradine, The Sanctified Life, 142.

30. R. Stewart, Leper Priest of Molokai: The Father Damien Story (Honolulu: Univ. of Hawaii Press, 2000).

1. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 743.

2. Ibid., 667.

3. See ibid., 648, 656–57.

4. Some of the creatures listed in Lev. 11, especially the various birds, are notoriously difficult to identify by the Heb. terms for them. For details regarding animals known to peoples of the ancient Near East, including those mentioned in here, see E. Firmage, “Zoology,” ABD, 6:1109–67. On the animals of Lev. 11 in particular, see also Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 645–72.

5. Rodents and reptiles, but including the weasel, which is a mammal.

6. See, e.g., Maimonides, Guide for the Perplexed, 3.48; Ramban on Lev. 11:9.

7. On poisonous fish, see B. W. Halstead, Dangerous Marine Animals (Cambridge, Md.: Cornell Maritime Press, 1959), 107–31.

8. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 719.

9. M. Douglas, Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (London: Rout-ledge & Kegan Paul, 1966), 41–57, esp. 54–57.

10. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 726–27.

11. E. Firmage, “The Biblical Dietary Laws and the Concept of Holiness,” in J. A. Emerton, ed., Studies in the Pentateuch (Leiden: Brill, 1990), 177–208; cf. M. Douglas, “The Eucharist: Its Continuity with the Bread Sacrifice of Leviticus,” MT 15 (1999): 211–12.

12. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 735.

13. J. Moskala, The Laws of Clean and Unclean Animals of Leviticus 11: Their Nature, Theology, and Rationale (an Intertextual Study) (ATSDDS 4; Berrien Springs, Mich.: Adventist Theological Society Publications, 2000).

14. L. Schlessinger and S. Vogel, The Ten Commandments: The Significance of God’s Laws in Everyday Life (New York: Cliff Street Books, 1998), xxv.

15. H. L. Neal, Wave As You Pass, 2d ed. (Paris, Tenn.: Manorhouse, 1966), 17–18.

16. Thomas à Kempis, The Imitation of Christ, transl. L. Sherley-Price, 1993 ed. (New York: Barnes & Noble, 1952), 216.

17. The common translation “Thus he declared all foods clean” (NRSV; cf. NASB, NIV, NJB) does not accurately reflect the Greek original, in which the participle of katharizo (“to purify”) continues Jesus’ sentence in direct speech rather than beginning a new sentence explaining what he taught. There is no Greek behind the English translation “declared.” See Moskala, The Laws of Clean and Unclean Animals, 374–75.

18. C. House, “Defilement by Association: Some Insights from the Usage of κοινός/κοινόω in Acts 10 and 11,” AUSS 21 (1983): 143–53.

19. Ibid., 152–53.

20. Cf. the fact that in Mark 7, Jesus’ discourse regarding what makes a person unclean (Mark 7:14–23) is immediately followed by the incident of the Syro-Phoenician woman (7:24–30), who humbly requested Christ’s help with the words, “but even the dogs under the table eat the children’s crumbs” (Robert Johnston, Andrews University, private communication).

21. Cf. Moskala, The Laws of Clean and Unclean Animals, 351–69.

22. From the standpoint of health, Winston Craig of the Andrews University Department of Nutrition declares regarding the creatures in Lev. 11: “They’re all unclean.”

23. C. H. Spurgeon, A Popular Exposition to the Gospel According to Matthew (Books for the Ages; Version 1.0 on CD-ROM; Albany, Ore.: Ages Software, 1997), 102.

24. Yancey, Finding God in Unexpected Places, 58.

25. Ibid., 59.1. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 743.

1. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 746, 749.

2. On 1:5, Milgrom maintains that anyone could perform the slaughter (ibid., 154).

3. b. Niddah 31b.

4. For surveys including other proposals, see Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 750–51; R. M. Davidson, Flame of Yahweh: A Theology of Sexuality in the Old Testament (Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 2007), 246.

5. Daniel C. Oliver, M.D., Ob.Gyn., personal communication.

6. Cf. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 744.

7. J. Magonet, “ ‘But If It Is a Girl She Is Unclean for Twice Seven Days . . .’: The Riddle of Leviticus 12.5,” in J. Sawyer, ed., Reading Leviticus: A Conversation with Mary Douglas (JSOTSup 227; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996), 152.

8. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 763–65; G. Beckman, Hittite Birth Rituals, 2d ed. (StBoT 29; Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1983), esp. 251; M. F. Small, “A Woman’s Curse? From Taboo to Time Bomb: Rethinking Menstruation,” The Sciences (January/February, 1999): 24–29.

9. Beckman, Hittite Birth Rituals, 135, 137, 143, 219.

10. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 765.

11. While a sexually mature male can occasionally become impure for one day by having a nocturnal emission (Lev. 15:16–17; Deut. 23:10–11), a woman’s menstrual period makes her impure for seven days each month (Lev. 15:19–23) until menopause.

12. Against, e.g., Hartley, Leviticus, 168.

13. M. Gruber, “Women in the Cult According to the Priestly Code,” 43 n. 13.

14. m. Yadayim 4:6. Transl. J. Neusner, The Mishnah: A New Translation (New Haven, Conn.: Yale Univ. Press, 1988), 1130.

15. Gane, Altar Call, 115–17.

16. L. Grabbe, Leviticus (OTG; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993), 52.

17. Maccoby, Ritual and Morality, 154.

18. Kurtz, Sacrificial Worship of the Old Testament, 416–17, 420; R. Rendtorff, Leviticus, 176, 216–17.

19. Maccoby, Ritual and Morality, 121.

20. T. Frymer-Kensky, “Pollution, Purification, and Purgation in Biblical Israel,” in C. L. Meyers and M. O’Connor, eds., The Word of the Lord Shall Go Forth (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1983), 403–4.

21. On tolerated versus prohibited impurities, see D. P. Wright, “Two Types of Impurity in the Priestly Writings of the Bible,” Koroth 9 (1988): 180–93; idem, “The Spectrum of Priestly Impurity,”150–81.

22. Wright, “Two Types,” 191; idem, “The Spectrum,” 152, 165.

23. Wright, “Two Types,” 191; cf. Kiuchi, The Purification Offering in the Priestly Literature, 64–66. Similarly, J. R. Porter recognized: “In the priestly theology, sin is an objective, quasi-physical thing—hence, even if committed inadvertently, its consequences cannot be avoided—and so not sharply distinguished from defilement or uncleanness” (Leviticus [CBC; Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1976], 37).

24. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 767–68, 1002–3; idem, The Rationale for Biblical Impurity,” JANES 22 (1993): 107–11.

25. Maccoby, Ritual and Morality, 49; cf. 31–32, 48, 50, 207–8.

26. Gane, Cult and Character, ch. 9.

27. Cf. Büchler, Studies in Sin and Atonement, xxv–xxx.

28. Augustine, Confessions, 251.

29. Gane, Altar Call, 118.

30. Augustine, Confessions, 251.

31. Rabbi Hiyya b. Abin said in the name of R. Joshua b. Korha: b. Megillah 14a, transl. in The Soncino Talmud (The CD-ROM Judaic Classics Library; Davka Corporation, 1991–1995).

1. Ramban on Lev. 13:1.

2. E. V. Hulse, “The Nature of Biblical ‘Leprosy’ and the Use of Alternative Medical Terms in Modern Translations of the Bible,” PEQ 107 (1975): 103; J. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16 (AB 3; New York: Doubleday, 1991), 774–5.

3. Hulse, “The Nature of Biblical ‘Leprosy,’ ” 88.

4. But John of Damascus (A.D. 777–857), an Arab physician, later used lepra for what we know as “leprosy” (ibid., 89).

5. See Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 817.

6. R. K. Harrison, “Leper; Leprosy,” ISBE, 3:103–6; cf. idem, Leviticus: An Introduction and Commentary (TOTC; Leicester, U.K.: Inter-Varsity Press, 1980), 136–45, 241–46.

7. For interpretation of terminology, I am following Milgrom (ibid., 768–826).

8. Cf. Job 18:13, where a description of Job’s skin as eaten away by malignant boils is paralleled by the words: “Death’s firstborn devours his limbs.” In Lev. 13:18–23, scale disease can arise from the place of a boil that has healed.

9. Probably “moustache”; cf. 2 Sam. 19:24; Ezek. 24:17, 22.

10. Transl. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 828; emphasis supplied.

11. Cf. K. van der Toorn, Sin and Sanction in Israel and Mesopotamia (SSN 22; Assen: Van Gorcum, 1985), 74.

12. See, e.g., J. Nougayrol, “Sirrimu (non *purîmu) ‘âne sauvage,’ ” JCS 2 (1948): 207 n. 12. For other citations of scale disease as divine punishment, including in Mesopotamia, among the Greeks, in Persia, and among the Nuer people in Africa, see Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 820–21.

13. D. P. Wright note in J. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 824. Regarding injurious effects of popular views on those who are sick, cf. S. Sontag, Illness As Metaphor and AIDS and Its Metaphors (New York: Doubleday, 1990).

14. On the problem of pain and suffering, see P. Yancey, Where Is God When It Hurts? (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1990).

1. On Israelite, Mesopotamian, and Hittite ritual use of birds to carry away evil, see D. P. Wright, The Disposal of Impurity: Elimination Rites in the Bible and in Hittite and Mesopotamian Literature (SBLDS 101; Atlanta: Scholars, 1987), 75–86.

2. According to Milgrom, that person can now enter his tent because he no longer defiles sacred things by overhang, i.e., by simply being in the same enclosed space (Leviticus 1–16, 844, 993).

3. This is the smallest biblical unit for measuring capacity. S. Rattray calculates it as about a cup (“The Biblical Measures of Capacity,” referred to in ibid., 898).

4. Cf. T. Vriezen, “The Term Hizza: Lustration and Consecration,” OtSt 7 (1950): 208.

5. Transl. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 829.

6. D. E. Garland, Mark (NIVAC; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 312–13.

7. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 832, 835.

8. Story courtesy of Dwain Ford, emeritus professor of biology, Andrews University, to whom Gulbrandson recounted this experience years later.

9. See Twelve Steps and Twelve Traditions (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1952, 1953), 5–9.

10. Alcoholics Anonymous Comes of Age: A Brief History of A.A. (New York: Alcoholics Anonymous World Services, Inc., 1985), 62–63.

11. Ibid., 64.

12. Concert program notes by Richard E. Rodda.

13. A. Ruksenas, The World’s Best Russian Jokes (North Ryde, NSW, Australia: Angus & Robertson, 1986).

1. M. M. Kalisch, A Historical and Critical Commentary on the Old Testament, with a New Translation: Leviticus (London: Longman, Green, Reader, and Dyer, 1872), 2:155; cf. J. V. KinnierWilson, who suggests infectious urinary Bilharzia (Medicine in the Land and Times of the Old Testament,” in T. Ishida, ed., Studies in the Period of David and Solomon [Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1982], 358).

2. See B. Levine, Numbers 1–20 (AB 4; New York: Doubleday, 1993), 185.

3. Milgrom (Leviticus 1–16, 920) draws the implication that if the impure person takes the precaution of rinsing his hands, he can live at home. Regarding a stricter rule, according to which males and females with genital flows must stay outside the war camp, see comments on Num. 5:1–4 (cf. Levine, Numbers 1–20, 185).

4. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 934–35.

5. Gruber, “Women in the Cult According to the Priestly Code,” 47–48 n. 40.

6. Against Milgrom’s “for his discharge” and “for her impure discharge” (Leviticus 1–16, 902–3).

7. Cf. S. Hills, “A Semantic and Conceptual Study of the Root KPR in the Hebrew Old Testament with Special Reference to the Accadian Kuppuru” (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, 1954), 209.

8. Transl. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 903.

9. Maccoby, Ritual and Morality, 60; cf. 31–32, 48–50, 207–8.

10. Cf. G. Wenham, “Why Does Sexual Intercourse Defile (Lev 15:18)?ZAW 95 (1983): 433–34.

11. Cf. M. F. Small, “A Woman’s Curse? From Taboo to Time Bomb: Rethinking Menstruation,” The Sciences (January/February 1999), 24–29.

12. John H. Walton, personal communication.

13. Beckman, Hittite Birth Rituals, 135, 137, 143, 219.

14. Transl. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 903.

15. J. Randolph, cited in Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 930–31.

16. M. Gladwell, The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference (Boston: Little, Brown, 2002), 7.

17. Ibid., 9.

18. John Wesley, The Works of John Wesley (Books for the Ages; Version 1.0 on CD-ROM; Albany, Ore.: Ages Software, 1997), 6:286.

1. Geller, “Blood Cult: Toward a Literary Theology of the Priestly Work of the Pentateuch,” 97–124.

2. Kiuchi, The Purification Offering in the Priestly Literature, 128.

3. Kurtz, Sacrificial Worship of the Old Testament, 392–93.

4. Cf. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 1036–37, 1040; A. Bonar, A Commentary on the Book of Leviticus, Expository and Practical, 5th ed. (London: Nisbet, 1875), 310.

5. Levine, In the Presence of the Lord, 103.

6. Bovati, Re-Establishing Justice, 159.

7. Gane, Cult and Character, ch. 11.

8. A. B. Ehrlich, Randglossen zur Hebräischen Bibel: Textkritisches, Sprachliches und Sachliches (Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1968), 2:56.

9. E.g., R. Péter, “L’imposition des mains dans l’Ancien Testament,” VT 27 (1977): 48–55; D. P. Wright, “The Gesture of Hand Placement in the Hebrew Bible and in Hittite Literature,” JAOS 106 (1986): 433–46.

10. Y. Kaufmann, The Religion of Israel, transl. and abridg. M. Greenberg (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1960), 114.

11. Wright, The Disposal of Impurity, 45–72; J. C. Moyer, “Hittite and Israelite Cultic Practices: A Selected Comparison,” in W. W. Hallo, J. C. Moyer, and L. G. Perdue, eds., Scripture in Context II: More Essays on the Comparative Method (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1983), 33–35; K. Aartun, “Eine weitere Parallele aus Ugarit zur kultischen Praxis in Israels Religion,” BO 33 (1976): 288.

12. E.g., BDB, 774; LXX; Targums.

13. E.g., Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 1048; Porter, Leviticus, 131; E. Gerstenberger, Leviticus: A Commentary, transl. D. Stott (OTL; Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1996), 223.

14. Contrast the high priest of the Babylonian Ekua temple, who becomes impure even if he merely views purification of the temple of Marduk (= Bel) on the fifth day of the New Year festival (ANET, 333, lines 364–5).

15. BDB, 49; Milgrom, Leviticus 23–27, 2022. On the plural of intensification, see GKC, §124e.

16. J. Milgrom, Advanced Biblical Hebrew Texts seminar, University of California at Berkeley, 1982; I. Schur, Versöhnungstag und Sündenbock (CHL 6/3; Helsingfors: Societas Scientiarum Fennica, 1933), 13, 31.

17. Gane, Altar Call, 197–98, 202.

18. Wright, The Disposal of Impurity, 19; D. P. Wright, “Day of Atonement,” ABD, 2:73.

19. A. Büchler, Studies in Sin and Atonement in the Rabbinic Literature of the First Century (LBS; New York: KTAV, 1967), 263; Shea, “Literary Form,” 166.

20. E.g. Temple Scroll 26.9–10, transl. Y. Yadin, The Temple Scroll (Jerusalem: The Israel Exploration Society, 1983), 2:117; m. Yoma 8:8–9; b. Yoma 86a; A. Médebielle, L’expiation dans L’Ancien et le Nouveau Testament, 85; S. Y. Agnon, Days of Awe (New York: Schocken, 1948), 211–14; A. Schenker, Versöhnung und Sühne (BibB 15; Freiburg: Schweizerisches Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1981), 112, 114–15; W. Kaiser, “The Book of Leviticus,” in NIB, 999, 1113–14; F. Crüsemann, The Torah: Theology and Social History of Old Testament Law, transl. A. W. Mahnke (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996), 318.

21. Compare L. Morris, “The Day of Atonement and the Work of Christ,” RTR 14 (1955): 12; R. Rendtorff, Leviticus, 180; Shea, “Literary Form,” 166; Geller, “Blood Cult,” 107.

22. See Gane, Altar Call, 203–9; idem, Cult and Character, ch. 12.

23. Shea, “Literary Form,” 155.

24. For more detail, see Gane, Cult and Character, ch. 13.

25. E.g., Elliger, Leviticus, 200–201, 205–7, 209; G. André, “ ṭāmēʾ,” in TDOT, 5:333; A. Noordtzij, Leviticus, transl. R. Togtman (BSC; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1982), 166; R. Péter-Contesse and J. Ellington, A Handbook on Leviticus (UBSHS; New York: United Bible Societies, 1990), 250, 253.

26. Lev. 5:3; 7:20, 21; 14:19; 15:3, 25, 26, 30, 31; 18:19; 22:3, 5; Num. 5:19; 19:13.

27. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 257; idem, “Israel’s Sanctuary,” 393.

28. See also Ps. 32:1; 51:3; 65:3; 103:12; Isa. 43:25; Ezek. 18:22; Mic. 7:18.

29. Cf. A. R. von Sauer, “The Concept of Sin in the Old Testament,” CTM 22 (1951): 711.

30. R. Knierim, “ perversity,” TLOT, 2:864. For unintentional ʿāwon, Knierim cites Gen. 15:16; 19:15; Lev. 22:16; Num. 18:1, 23.

31. B. Schwartz, “The Bearing of Sin in the Priestly Literature,” 10–15.

32. K. Koch, “ ʿāwōn,” TDOT, 10:559.

33. Jenson, Graded Holiness, 208.

34. Geller, “Blood Cult,” 108.

35. Gane, Cult and Character, ch. 14.

36. Ibid., ch. 16; Gane, Altar Call, 232–37.

37. M. Weinfeld, Social Justice in Ancient Israel and in the Ancient Near East (Jerusalem/Minneapolis: Magnes/Fortress, 1995), 45–56.

38. This is the usual plain sense interpretation of 2 Sam. 14:9; against the unconvincing alternatives offered by J. Hoftijzer, “David and the Tekoite Woman,” VT 20 (1970): 424–28; P. K. McCarter, II Samuel (AB 9; Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1984), 347–48. For detailed discussion, see Gane, Cult and Character, ch. 16.

39. U. Simon, “The Poor Man’s Ewe-Lamb: An Example of a Juridical Parable,” Bib 48 (1967): 220–21.

40. Gane, Altar Call, 237.

41. On the unity of love and justice in the character of God, see H. Cohen, “The Day of Atonement II,” Judaism 18 (1969): 84.

42. J. Wenham, The Enigma of Evil: Can We Believe in the Goodness of God? (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1985), 63–64, 68–69. Cf. Mesopotamian advice to a king: “If a king does not heed justice, his people will be thrown into chaos, and his land will be devastated. If he does not heed the justice of his land, Ea, king of destinies, will alter his destiny and will not cease from hostilely pursuing him” (transl. W. G. Lambert, Babylonian Wisdom Literature [Oxford: Clarendon, 1960], 113, lines 1–3).

43. J. Watts, Reading Law: The Rhetorical Shaping of the Pentateuch (BSem 59; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999), 107; cf. 89–106, 108–9, 129.

44. Ibid., 96–98. On the international attraction of the Lord’s reputation as a just judge in Isa. 2:1–4, see B. Schwartz, “Torah from Zion: Isaiah’s Temple Vision (Isaiah 2:1–4),” in A. Houtman, M. Poorthuis, and J. Schwartz, eds., Sanctity of Time and Space in Tradition and Modernity (Leiden: Brill, 1998), 21–22.

45. P. Schaff, ed., The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers (Books for the Ages; Version 1.0 on CD-ROM; Albany, Ore.: Ages Software, 1997), series 2, 10:80.

46. Cf. W. Carson, “What It Costs God to Forgive Sin,” Int 4 (1950): 168–75.

47. Cf. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 1018; A. Dillmann, Die Bücher Exodus und Leviticus (Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1897), 576. For more detailed discussion on this topic, see Gane, Cult and Character, ch. 11.

48. For the l of possession, cf. Ps. 3:1; Isa. 38:9; Hab. 3:1; see BDB, 513; Levine, Leviticus, 102—on seals.

49. H. Maccoby, Ritual and Morality, 88–89.

50. See Driver and White, The Book of Leviticus, 81.

51. C. D. Ginsburg and C. J. Ellicott, Leviticus (LHC; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1961), 151.

52. L. Grabbe, “The Scapegoat Tradition: A Study in Early Jewish Interpretation,” JSJ 18 (1987): 152–67.

53. Calvin, Commentaries on the Four Last Books of Moses, 1:320; cf. 1:316–17, 319.

54. See, e.g., C. L. Feinberg, “The Scapegoat of Leviticus Sixteen,” BSac 115 (1958): 324–33; Levine, Leviticus, 250–53; H. Tawil, “ʿAzazel, The Prince of the Steepe: A Comparative Study,” ZAW 92 (1980): 43–59; Wright, The Disposal of Impurity, 21–22; Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 1020–21; A. Treiyer, The Day of Atonement and the Heavenly Judgment from the Pentateuch to Revelation (Siloam Springs, Ark.: Creation Enterprises International, 1992), 231–58.

55. Gane, Altar Call, 248–49; cf. Zech. 5:5–11.

56. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 1020.

57. P. D. Hanson, “Rebellion in Heaven, Azazel, and Euhemeristic Heroes in 1 Enoch 6–11,” JBL 96 (1977): 220–27; Levine, Leviticus, 252; R. de Vaux, Les sacrifices de l’Ancien Testament (CahRB 1; Paris: J. Gabalda, 1964), 87; Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 1020–21. Following Origen (Contra Celsum 6:43), Keil and Delitzsch thought Azazel must refer to Satan himself (Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament, 2:398).

58. Jenson, Graded Holiness, 203.

59. I am grateful to Moise Isaac, my student, for drawing attention to this parallel.

60. A. Murray, With Christ in the School of Prayer (Springdale, Pa.: Whitaker House, 1981), 194.

61. Walton, Genesis, 79.

62. C. H. Spurgeon, All of Grace (Books for the Ages; Version 1.0 on CD-ROM; Albany, Ore.: Ages Software, 1997), 21–22.

63. Ross, Holiness to the Lord, 136.

64. Wright, The Disposal of Impurity, 22–25; D. P. Wright, “Azazel,” ABD, 1:536–37; cf. G. A. Boyd, God at War: The Bible and Spiritual Conflict (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1997), 83.

65. Gane, Altar Call, 250–53.

66. Ibid., 253–55.

1. Compare J. Milgrom, Leviticus 17–22, 1326.

2. Regarding krt (“cut off”), see comments on 7:20–21.

3. E.g. J. Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Ancient Israel (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1994 [repr. of 1885]), 50–51.

4. Transl. Milgrom, Leviticus 17–22, 1295.

5. P. Brand and P. Yancey, In His Image (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1984), 61.

6. B. Schwartz, “The Prohibitions Concerning the ‘Eating’ of Blood in Leviticus 17,” in G. A. Anderson and S. M. Olyan, eds., Priesthood and Cult in Ancient Israel (JSOTSup 125; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1991), 57–58.

7. Ibid., 56–57.

8. Ibid., 55–56; Levine, In the Presence of the Lord, 61, 67–69; H. C. Brichto, “On Slaughter and Sacrifice, Blood and Atonement,” 26–28; Kaiser, “The Book of Leviticus,” 1:1012. For an alternative idea that expiation (koper) is not ransom in the sense of the price of a life, but the cost of reconciliation that a faulty party gives to placate and make peace with an injured party, who is free to accept or reject it, see A. Schenker, “kōper et expiation,” Bib 63 (1982): 32–46, esp. 45.

9. Ibid.; Bovati, Re-Establishing Justice, 156–58.

10. Ibid., 137.

11. E.g., L. Morris, The Apostolic Preaching of the Cross (Eerdmans: Grand Rapids, 1955), 143–52; R. L. Harris, “ kāpar,” TWOT, 1:452–53.

12. Cf. Milgrom, “A Prolegomenon to Leviticus 17:11,” JBL 90 (1971): 152–53.

13. However, cf. 1 Sam. 3:14; Ezek. 45:15, 17.

14. Gorman, The Ideology of Ritual, 186–89; A. Schenker, “Das Zeichen des Blutes und die Gewissheit der Vergebung im Alten Testament,” MTZ 34 (1983): 203, 213.

15. Kiuchi, The Purification Offering, 107.

16. H. Gese, Essays on Biblical Theology (transl. K. Crim; Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1981), 96; cf. Kalisch, A Historical and Critical Commentary on the Old Testament: Leviticus, 1:172, 309, 318.

17. See J. H. Walton, Covenant: God’s Purpose, God’s Plan (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1994), 158–61.

18. Minnie Warburton, “Letting the Voice of Leviticus Speak,” STR 37 (1994): 164.

19. S. Paul, Studies in the Book of the Covenant in the Light of Cuneiform and Biblical Law (VTSup 18; Leiden: Brill, 1970), 43.

20. Transl. Milgrom, Leviticus 17–22, 1295.

21. On postbiblical requirements for koshering meat, see, e.g., EJ, 6:28, 39.

22. G. Wenham, The Book of Leviticus (NICOT; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979), 35.

23. M. Luther, A Simple Way to Pray (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2000), 54.

24. H. T. Blackaby, and C. V. King, Experiencing God: How to Live the Full Adventure of Knowing and Doing the Will of God (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1994), 13.

25. Cf. B. Greenberg, “Hear, O Israel: Law and Love in Deuteronomy (Deuteronomy 1–34),” in F. C. Holmgren and H. E. Schaalman, eds., Preaching Biblical Texts: Expositions by Jewish and Christian Scholars (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995), 150–53.

26. Patrick, Old Testament Law, 4.

27. J. H. Walton, Ancient Israelite Literature in Its Cultural Context (LBI; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1989), 90 (emphasis supplied).

28. Cf. Griffith, Looking Up, 41.

29. Ibid., 105.

30. Schlessinger and Vogel, The Ten Commandments, xxix.

1. S. Rattray, “Marriage Rules, Kinship Terms and Family Structure in the Bible,” SBLSP 26 (1998): 542.

2. For less convincing alternative explanations, see T. Meacham, “The Missing Daughter: Leviticus 18 and 20,” ZAW 109 (1997): 254–59. However, Meacham is right that a father who deflowered his daughter could lose the bride price he would receive if she were a virgin (257).

3. Cf. Davidson, Flame of Yahweh, 142–45.

4. Milgrom, Leviticus 17–22, 1567.

5. J. E. Miller, “Notes on Leviticus 18,” ZAW 112 (2000): 401–3.

6. Transl. Milgrom, Leviticus 17–22, 1296.

7. Cf. Maimonides, Guide for the Perplexed 3.49.

8. Milgrom, Leviticus 17–22, 1540, 1542.

9. For the masculine equivalent expression, meaning “one [masculine] to another [masculine]” or “to one another,” see Gen. 37:19; 42:21, 28; Ex. 16:15; 25:20; 37:9; Num. 14:4, etc.

10. A. Tosato, “The Law of Leviticus 18:18: A Reexamination,” CBQ 46 (1984): 202–8.

11. Temple Scroll, 57.17–18, transl. Yadin, The Temple Scroll, 2:407; Damascus Document (CD) 4.21, transl. G. Vermes, The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English (New York: Allen Lane/Penguin, 1997), 130; Aaron ben Elijah (14th century Karaite), Keter Torah, on Lev. 18:18; R. du Preez, “Polygamy in the Bible with Implications for Seventh-Day Adventist Missiology” (D.Min. diss., Andrews University, 1993), 62–78.

12. Cf. Milgrom, Leviticus 17–22, 1549.

13. Davidson, Flame of Yahweh, 197.

14. Cf. Patrick, Old Testament Law, 49, on the third commandment of the Decalogue.

15. S. Rattray, cited in Milgrom, Leviticus 17–22, 1551.

16. H. Orlinsky, “The Hebrew Root škb,” JBL 63 (1944): 40.

17. W. Kaiser, “Leviticus 18:5 and Paul: Do This and You Shall Live (Eternally?),” JETS 14 (1971): 28.

18. Blackaby and King, Experiencing God, 14. Compare biblical and practical answers to the contemporary culture that promotes adultery in Schlessinger and Vogel, The Ten Commandments, 207–34.

19. For comprehensive discussion of sexuality in the Hebrew Bible, see Davidson, Flame of Yahweh.

20. R. Gane, “Old Testament Principles Relating to Divorce and Remarriage,” JATS 12 (2001): 35–61.

21. On the idea of unjustifiable divorce in Mal. 2:16, see R. Westbrook, “The Prohibition on Restoration of Marriage in Deuteronomy 24:1–4,” in S. Japhet, ed., Studies in Bible (ScrHier 31; Jerusalem: Magnes, 1986), 402–3.

22. See H. Hoffner, “Incest, Sodomy and Bestiality in the Ancient Near East,” in H. Hoffner, ed., Orient and Occident (Kevelaer/Neukirchen-Vluyn: Butzon & Bercker/Neukirchener, 1973), 81–90.

23. Milgrom, Leviticus 17–22, 1755.

24. W. J. Webb, Slaves, Women & Homosexuals: Exploring the Hermeneutics of Cultural Analysis (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2001), 168–70.

25. Milgrom, Leviticus 17–22, 1788.

26. Ibid., 1786; cf. 1569, citing David Stewart.

27. Ibid., 1790.

28. Ibid., 1788–89.

29. Ibid., 1787–88.

30. J. R. White and J. D. Niell, The Same Sex Controversy: Defending and Clarifying the Bible’s Message About Homosexuality (Minneapolis: Bethany, 2002), 66.

31. Compare D. Wold, Out of Order: Homosexuality in the Bible and the Ancient Near East (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1998), 130.

32. See, e.g., Wold, Out of Order, esp. 207–18; J. B. De Young, Homosexuality: Contemporary Claims Examined in Light of the Bible and Other Ancient Literature and Law (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2000), 59–62, 163; R. A. Gagnon, The Bible and Homosexual Practice: Texts and Hermeneutics (Nashville: Abingdon, 2001), 487–89; against, e.g., A. O. Bellis and T. L. Hufford, Science, Scripture, and Homosexuality (Cleveland: Pilgrim, 2002), 121–22. For recent collections of essays on various sides of the homosexuality question, see, e.g., D. L. Balch, ed., Homosexuality, Science, and the “Plain Sense” of Scripture (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000); R. L. Brawley, ed., Biblical Ethics and Homosexuality: Listening to Scripture (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1996); T. Sample and A. E. DeLong, eds., The Loyal Opposition: Struggling with the Church on Homosexuality (Nashville: Abingdon, 2000).

33. Cf. Gagnon, The Bible and Homosexual Practice, 489.

34. P. Yancey, The Jesus I Never Knew (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1995), 259.

35. Minnie Warburton, “Letting the Voice of Leviticus Speak,” 166–67.

1. Transl. T. Jacobsen, The Harps That Once . . . : Sumerian Poetry in Translation (New Haven, Conn: Yale Univ. Press, 1987), 128.

2. For the idea of divine perception in the Bible, cf. 1 Kings 8:39; Ps. 1:6; 44:20–21; 94:11.

3. Mules were not likely included in the scope of this verse because the Pentateuch does not include horses among livestock bred by Israelites (S. Rattray, cited by Milgrom, Leviticus 17–22, 1658).

4. See ibid., 1657–65.

5. Cf. Laws of Eshnunna, law 26; Laws of Hammurabi, law 130. For translations, see ANET, 162, 171; M. T. Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor (SBLWAW 6; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995), 63, 106.

6. Levine, Leviticus, 130.

7. Milgrom, Leviticus 17–22, 1671. For detailed discussion of the four main interpretations (indemnity, punishment, inquest, distinction) of biqqoret, which only appears here, see 1668–71.

8. Ibid., 1672, 1674–75; J. Milgrom, “The Betrothed Slave-girl, Lev 19:20–22,” ZAW 89 (1977): 43–50.

9. Wenham, Leviticus, 271.

10. Milgrom, Cult and Conscience, 16–25, 84–117; idem, Leviticus 1–16, 345–56, 365–73.

11. Milgrom, Leviticus 17–22, 1679.

12. Compare Laws of Hammurabi, law 60, where the owner of a Babylonian orchard and the gardener who develops it begin to utilize the fruit in the fifth year. For translations, see ANET, 169; Roth, Law Collections, 93.

13. Milgrom, Leviticus 17–22, 1679, 1684.

14. J. Grintz, “Do Not Eat on the Blood,” ASTI 8 (1972): 78–105; cf. Ramban on Lev. 19:26.

15. See H. Hoffner, “Second Millennium Antecedents to the Hebrew ʾob.,” JBL 86 (1967): 401.

16. Cf. W. M. Greathouse, Wholeness in Christ: Toward a Biblical Theology of Holiness (Kansas City: Beacon Hill, 1998), 17.

17. Schlessinger and Vogel, The Ten Commandments, xxii.

18. J. Muilenberg, “Holiness,” IDB, 2:616.

19. Cf. R. Otto, The Idea of the Holy, transl. J. W. Harvey (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1958).

20. Greathouse, Wholeness in Christ, 23, 25; W. Kaiser, “The Book of Leviticus,” NIB, 1:1131.

21. P. Schaff, ed., The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, series 2, 11:420.

22. See J. Bergman, A. O. Haldar, and Gerhard Wallis, “ ʾāhabh,” TDOT, 1:103.

23. Author unknown, in Water, The New Encyclopedia, 632.

24. Thomas à Kempis, The Imitation of Christ, transl. L. Sherley-Price, 1993 ed. (New York: Barnes & Noble, 1952), 97.

25. Hans Küng, Global Responsibility: In Search of a New World Ethic (New York: Continuum, 1993), 34.

26. Gane, Altar Call, 88.

27. In Water, The New Encyclopedia, 633.

28. P. Yancey, Reaching for the Invisible God: What Can We Expect to Find? (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000), 17–18.

29. Author unknown, in Water. The New Encyclopedia, 632.

30. Gane, Altar Call, 137–38.

31. J. Wesley, Plain Account of Christian Perfection (Chicago: Christian Witness, 1921), 99.

32. b. Šabb. 31a, transl. H. Freedman, Shabbath, ed. I. Epstein, Hebrew-English Edition of the Babylonian Talmud (London: Soncino, 1972).

33. F. Holmgren, “The Way of Torah: Escape from Egypt (Leviticus 19:1–37),” in F. C. Holmgren and H. E. Schaalman, eds., Preaching Biblical Texts: Expositions by Jewish and Christian Scholars (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995), 127.

34. Cf. A. Heschel, The Sabbath: Its Meaning for Modern Man (New York: Farrar, Straus and Young, 1951), 8–24.

35. P. Tillich, Theology of Culture, ed. R. C. Kimball (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1959), 9.

36. Alan Greenspan, quoted in Time (July 29, 2002), 14.

37. Küng, Global Responsibility, 32–33.

38. Ibid., 33; see also 30.

39. S. Freud, Collected Papers, ed. James Strachey (New York: Basic Books, 1959), 5:284.

40. Cf. K. Stendahl, “Hate, Non-Retaliation, and Love: 1QS X, 17–20 and Rom 12:19–21,” HTR 55 (1962): 343–55.

41. M. Lucado, When God Whispers Your Name (Dallas: Word, 1994), 92.

42. Ibid., 95.

43. For comparison between the Joseph story and the law of the betrothed slave woman in Lev. 19, see C. Carmichael, “A Strange Sequence of Rules: Leviticus 19.20–26,” in Sawyer, Reading Leviticus, 187–90.

44. Alex Perry and Mae Sai, “How I Bought Two Slaves, to Free Them,” Time (March 11, 2002), 7. Compare the words of Akhtar Muhammad, an Afghan father who sold two of his sons for bags of wheat: “I miss my sons, but there was nothing to eat” (“Verbatim” section, Time [March 18, 2002], 29).

45. Perry and Sai, “How I Bought Two Slaves,” 7.

46. “Only in America” column, Reader’s Digest (September 2002): 19.

47. J. Ortberg, The Life You’ve Always Wanted (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1997), 146

48. Ibid.

49. W. Durant, The Life of Greece (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1939/1966), 2:195.

50. A. Cohen, “A Curse of Cliques,” Time (May 3, 1999), 45.

1. Milgrom, Leviticus 17–22, 1765.

2. Ibid., 1744.

3. Cf. 1 Kings 11:5, 7, 33; 2 Kings 16:3; 17:17; 21:6; 23:10, 13; 2 Chron. 33:6; Jer. 32:35. Regarding this hideous practice, see J. Day, Molech: A God of Human Sacrifice in the Old Testament (UCOP 41; Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1989).

4. Cf. P. Yancey, Finding God in Unexpected Places (Ann Arbor: Servant Publications, 1997), 9.

5. Regarding the penalty of being “cut off,” see comments on 7:20–21.

6. See, e.g., D. Hoffmann, Das Buch Leviticus (Berlin: M. Poppelauer, 1905–1906), 2:80; D. Daube, “Codes and Codas in the Pentateuch,” JR 53 (1941): 242–61.

7. Blackaby and King, Experiencing God, 17.

8. Probably resulting in death or being “cut off” (v. 19; cf. v. 17); see Schwartz, “The Bearing of Sin in the Priestly Literature,” 13.

9. M. Greenberg, “Some Postulates of Biblical Criminal Law,” in M. Haran, ed., Yehezkel Kaufmann Jubilee Volume (Jerusalem: Magnes, 1960), 12–13; A. Phillips,“Another Look at Adultery,” JSOT 20 (1981): 3–25.

10. Cf. Greenberg, “Some Postulates,” 12; J. J. Finkelstein, “Sex Offenses in Sumerian Laws,” JAOS 86 (1966): 355–72.

11. For translations, see ANET, 159–88; M. T. Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor (SBLWAW 6; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995), 13–35, 57–142, 153–94.

12. Transl. Milgrom, Leviticus 17–22, except that I have added “to Molek,” which was somehow left out.

13. J. Milgrom, “The Paradox of the Red Cow (Num. XIX),” VT 31 (1981): 71; Kiuchi, The Purification Offering in the Priestly Literature, 124.

14. Gane, Cult and Character, ch. 7.

15. J. Milgrom, “Israel’s Sanctuary: The Priestly Picture of Dorian Gray,” RB 83 (1976): 392–94; idem, Leviticus 1–16, 256–58; cf. idem, “Two Kinds of ḥaṭṭāʾt,” VT 26 (1976): 336. Interestingly, long ago A. F. Ballenger generalized from the same passages (Lev. 20; Num. 19) to the same conclusion that expiable sins defile the sanctuary when they are committed (Cast Out for the Cross of Christ [Riverside, Calif.: A. F. Ballenger, 1911?], 58–62).

16. Against Maccoby, Ritual and Morality, 171, 176, 191–92.

17. Rodriguez, Substitution in the Hebrew Cultus, 105 n. 1. On the seriousness of such cases, see Wright, “The Spectrum of Priestly Impurity”, 161–63.

18. Gane, Altar Call, 212.

19. E.g., A. Green, The Role of Human Sacrifice in the Ancient Near East (ASORDS 1; Missoula, Mont.: Scholars Press, 1975). W. Durant, The Life of Greece (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1939/1966), 2:193–94.

20. D. Richardson, “Redemptive Analogy,” in R. D. Winter and S. C. Hawthorne, eds., Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A Reader, 3d ed. (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 1981), 398.

1. Cf. Milgrom, Leviticus 17–22, 1841.

2. ANET, 139 (Ugaritic mythic poetry about Baal and Anath). On such burial and mourning customs, see, e.g., M. Farbridge, Studies in Biblical and Semitic Symbolism (LBS; New York: KTAV, 1970), 226–39.

3. Milgrom, Leviticus 17–22, 1807, 1819, also citing LXX and the Samaritan Pentateuch, which provide the conjunction “and” between the terms for the two kinds of women in 21:14.

4. E.g., Ehrlich, Randglossen Zur Hebräischen Bibel, 2:74; W. Kornfeld, Levitikus (NEchtB; Würzburg: Echter, 1983), 84.

5. Cf. A. J. Phillips, “Another Look at Adultery,” JSOT 20 (1981): 10.

6. When Nadab and Abihu died, the Lord laid these prohibitions on Eleazar and Ithamar (ordinary priests), as well as Aaron (the high priest), because of the gravity of the situation (Lev. 10:6).

7. For such high sensitivity to impurity, compare a Babylonian high priest, who is defiled by merely viewing the purification of a temple (ANET, 333, lines 364–65).

8. H. W. Wolff, Anthropology of the Old Testament (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1974), 20. (See also p. 25: “n. is never the author of specific spiritual activities.”)

9. Gerstenberger, Leviticus, 314.

10. Milgrom, Leviticus 17–22, 1811.

11. Cf. C. Meyers, Discovering Eve: Ancient Israelite Women in Context (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1988), 163.

12. Milgrom, Leviticus 17–22, 1811.

13. Meyers, Discovering Eve, 163.

14. Cf. J. Doukhan, “Women Priests in Israel: A Case for Their Absence,” in N. Vyhmeister, ed., Women in Ministry: Biblical and Historical Perspectives (Berrien Springs, Mich.: Andrews Univ. Press, 1998), 31; Davidson, Flame of Yahweh, 106–7.

1. While published English versions translate qrb here with the literal meaning “approaches/comes near,” this does not make good sense. Why would an impure priest be culpable for merely coming near a sacred object? On technical use of qrb or its synonym ngš for encroachment beyond boundaries of legitimate access, see J. Milgrom, Studies in Levitical Terminology, I: The Encroacher and the Levite; the Term ʿAboda (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1970), 33–43; R. Gane and J. Milgrom, “ qārab,” TDOT, 13:140, 143; Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 351–56.

2. Regarding words for liability and reparation from the root ʾšm, see comments on 5:1–13.

3. For physiological details, see Milgrom, Leviticus 17–22, 1876–80.

4. Compare the fact that a male Israelite infant receives the covenant sign of circumcision only on the eighth day (Gen. 17:11–12), remaining in his natural uncircumcised state for the first week of his life.

5. See also Deut. 22:6, which prohibits taking a mother bird and its young (cf. also, “Do not cook a young goat in its mother’s milk,” Ex. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).

6. Cf. B. Schwartz, The Holiness Legislation: Studies in the Priestly Code (Jerusalem: Magnes/Hebrew University, 1999 [Hebrew]), 298; Knohl, The Sanctuary of Silence, 118–19.