Index
Addis, Sir Charles, 179
Agricultural machinery, 98, 209n. 25; and Commerce Department, 93–94, 102–3; need for, 69–70, 126–27; for peasant cooperative societies, 48–51
Alexiev, General, 54
Allied Military Missions, 56–57
Allied Military Police Force, 69–70
Allied Resolution, to regulate military transportation, 150
Allies, 68, 84; and Bolsheviks, 57, 72; and Chinese Eastern Railway, 164, 171–72; commercial policies of, 48, 87, 113–14; on currency issues, 104–18, 109, 113–17, 125; economic reforms demanded of Kolchak government, 156–58; fear of Germany, 55–56, 63–64; funding Inter-Allied Railway Committee, 137–39, 141–42, 151–52; and Inter-Allied Railway Committee, 120, 131–33; military intervention in Siberia by, 5, 64–65, 72–86, 120; money owed to Chinese Eastern Railway by, 165, 169, 171–72, 173; rivalry among, 103–18; Russian mistrust of, 70, 135, 146; and Trans-Siberian Railroad, 129–30. See also specific countries
All-Russian Peasant Council, 49–50
All-Russian Railway Employees Union, 49–50
All-Russian Union of Consumers’ Societies, 22
Alternative Paths: Soviets and Americans, 1917–1920 (McFadden), 10
American Commission in Paris: Morris’s report on Kolchak government to, 148; working on peace treaty, 128, 132
American Expeditionary Forces: in north Russia, 136; in Siberia, 120; Wilson defending presence of, 147
American International Corporation, 13, 105
American-Russian Chamber of Commerce, 14–15, 63, 98–99
American-Russian Relations, 1781–1947 (Williams), 10
America’s Secret War Against Bolshevism (Foglesong), 10
America’s Siberian Intervention, 1918–1920 (Unterberger), 10
Amur Railroad, 86, 132–33, 138
Anderson, William, 111–12
Archangel, 29, 113, 115, 135–36
Armistice, 105, 118, 123, 136, 153
Army surplus sales, 137–38, 143, 153
Ashton-Gwatkin, Frank, 170–71
Auchincloss, Gordon, 46, 89–92, 94–95
Aziatskaia Rossiia, 21–22
Baker, Henry D., 13
Bakhmetev, Boris, 32, 45, 96–97, 108
Balance of power, 7
Balfour, Arthur, 86
Bankruptcy commission, for Chinese Eastern Railway, 168–70
Banks, 105; Allied, 113–14; as backing for inter-Allied economic commission, 109, 111; Russian, 111–12; U.S., 13, 122–23, 217n.50
Barter, 93; and need for currency, 104–5; between rail lines, 190–91; regulation of, 99–100; of U.S. manufactured goods, 62–63, 90
Baruch, Bernard, 90–91
Bean crops, and rail rates, 186–90
Beckett, Brig. Gen. W. T. C., 186
Bell, Edward, 167
Benson, Adm. William, 76
Berkenheim, Alexander, 72
Berton, Samuel, 108
Bolshevik Revolution, 19, 38, 204n. 9
Bolsheviks, 34, 56–57, 70, 78; currency of, 107, 123; and Czechs, 66, 73; Germany seen as alternative to, 64, 66–68, 83; and Kolchak government, 6, 145, 154–55; Kolchak government seen as alternative to, 140, 157; and peasant cooperative societies, 49–50; Russian opposition to, 54, 68–69, 72, 81; U.S. opinion of, 4–5, 38–39, 41, 209n. 15, 219n. 96; victory of, 6, 196; vs. bolshevism, 162; Wilson’s handling of, 57, 135–36
Bolshevism, 2, 205n. 34; vs. Bolsheviks, 162; Wilson’s plan to undermine, 134–35
Bond issue, on Chinese Eastern Railway, 176–78
Boynton, Charles H., 14–15
Brest-Litovsk Treaty (1918), 43, 56, 67, 107
Britain, 27, 174; and China, 170–71, 178–79; on control of Chinese Eastern Railway, 166–70, 172, 183–84; and Czecho-Slovaks, 73–74, 212n. 33; in economic rivalries, 1–2, 103, 109, 113–18; on funding for Inter-Allied Railway Committee, 138–39, 146–47; and Japan, 46, 129–30, 178–79, 180–81; and military intervention in Siberia, 44–46, 66, 79, 215n.31; mistrust of, 109, 116; and Railroad Commission, 29, 35; and Siberia, 76–77, 86–88, 103, 119–20, 137, 195; supporting Kolchak government, 6, 130, 144; supporting reactionary forces, 144, 159–60. See also Allies; Imperialists/Great Powers
British and American Commercial Relations with Soviet Russia, 1918–1924 (White), 10
British Imperial Conference, 181
Brittenham, E. A., 125–27
Buchanan, George (British ambassador), 29
Bukowski, Lt. Peter I., 56–57, 210n. 51
Bullitt, William, 46–47, 78, 209n. 15
Caldwell, John K., 92, 94, 102–3, 190
Capitalism, 200–201, 203n.1; development of U.S., 11–13; and Dollar Diplomacy, 196; state, 179–80
Central Union of Consumers’ Societies, 22–23, 58–59,
Chadbourne, Thomas L., 70
Chaikovskii, Nikolai V., 136
Chang Tso-lin, Gen., 177, 182, 190
Chih-t’an, Chang, 178
China: agreements at Far East conference, 181–82; and Britain, 170–71, 174, 181; and Chinese Eastern Railway, 165–67, 172, 174–78, 183–84, 186, 189–91; communist victory in, 201; economy of, 12–13, 118–19, 164; and funding for Inter-Allied Railway Committee, 143, 147; and Japan, 178, 181; resistance to Technical Board’s power, 173, 180, 182, 184–86. See also Manchuria
China Banking Consortium, 163; and Chinese Eastern Railway, 7, 166–71, 178–80
Chinese Eastern Railway, 6–7, 130, 163–94; in agreements at Far East conference, 181–82; barter agreements between rail lines, 190–91; currencies used by, 155, 220n. 6; finances of, 178–80, 186–89; improvements to, 120, 151; under Inter-Allied Railway Committee, 132–33; Japan’s struggle for control of, 86, 100, 121, 129, 134, 146; profitability of, 174, 176, 186; Russian rights over, 189–90; struggle for control of, 181–86; and U.S., 120, 134, 162
Chinese Empire. See China
Civil society, 3–4; relation to state, 24, 205n. 34; Wilson’s concept of, 4, 16. See also Self-government
Civilians, Russian, 90, 95, 148; acceptance of alternative currencies, 123–24; distribution of supplies to, 97–99, 101–2, 115
Coalition Directorate government, overthrow of, 88
Coalition revolutionary government, 190–91
Colby, Secretary of State, 173
Cold War, 200–201
Commerce Department, U.S., 85, 91–94, 100–104
Commercial assistance, 73, 137, 158, 218n. 66; and barter, 62–63; and Britain, 87–88; control of, 93–95, 152; interference with U.S. plans, 87, 89, 120–21; motives for, 69–70; obstacles to, 54–55, 104–19; to Siberia, 15, 19; through cooperative societies, 3–4, 152–54. See also Economic assistance
Commodities, 48, 70, 109, 118; and German purchasing agents, 65–66; keeping away from Germans, 53, 55–57
Commonwealth of Independent Republics, payments union for, 197–98
Congress, U.S.: and appropriations for Russia, 7, 133–34, 143–44, 158–59; and Wilson’s declining popularity, 128–29; and Wilson’s Russian policies, 135–36, 147
Constituent Assembly, 54
Consular network, U.S. in Russia, 48, 53–54
Cooperative movement, in Russia, 22–24
Cooperative societies, 54, 71–72, 87; assistance for, 77–78, 137, 152–54, 160–61; Commerce Department’s negotiations with, 85, 92–94, 100, 102–3; credit for, 124–25, 143; and Germany, 55–56, 72; in reconstruction strategy, 103–4. See also Peasant cooperative societies
Corruption, 151; on Chinese Eastern Railway, 132; in Khorvat government, 186; in Kolchak government, 154, 157; patronage workers on Chinese Eastern Railway, 175, 186
Cossacks, 150; Japanese support for, 120, 129, 130; U.S. defending railroads against, 136, 147
Council of National Defense (CND), 26, 32
Cravath, Paul D., 117
Credit: for cooperative societies, 137, 152–53; given to Russia, 49–50, 58–59, 118–19; gold, 152; need to stabilize currency for, 151, 154; supervising use of, 27, 158; vs. alternative currencies, 124–25
Crosby, Arthur, 114
Currencies, 70, 154; accepted by Chinese Eastern Railway, 164–65, 176, 186, 220n. 6; convertibility of, 197–99, 223n.4; German speculation in rubles, 43–44; hoarding, 119, 122; and Kolchak government, 151, 156; monetary plan of Inter-Allied Railway Committee, 151–55; plans for alternative, 123–25; rate of exchange, 53, 122–23; rivalry over, 104–18, 121–22; stabilizing, 103, 151; vs. barter, 62–63
Cutler, Stanley, 100–102
Czarist government, 26, 28; and Siberian migration, 19–20; and U.S., 13–14
Czech Army Corps. See Czecho-Slovak Corps
Czech National Council, 72
Czecho-Slovak Corps, 99, 105, 148; Allied uses of, 70, 158–59, 212n.33; funding for, 117, 169; priority of support for, 95–96, 100–101; in Russian civil war, 65, 119–20; uprising against Bolsheviks by, 57, 66, 72–84; and U.S. military intervention, 5, 61–62; U.S. relations with, 54, 89–90, 145; used as reason for military intervention, 72–84, 86, 119; withdrawal of, 158–59, 165
Daniels, Josephus, 76
Darien, preferential rail rates to, 188
Darling, William C., 30, 35–36
Davis, Norman H., 173
Democracy: encouraged by cooperatives, 23–24; proposal for recognition of Kolchak government, 144; Wilson’s hope for Russia, 18–19
“Democracy and Efficiency” (Wilson), 18–19
Developmental agencies, multilateral, 7
Diplomatic mission, Root’s, 26, 28
Disarmament agreements, at Far East conference, 181
Distribution system, in Russia, 96–97, 115, 119
Dollar Diplomacy, 196
Dulles, John Foster, 70, 117–18, 124
Eastern front, reopening, 38, 44, 82; Allies pressing for, 86, 88; threatening Germany with, 74–75;
Wilson’s opposition to, 5, 76–77, 80
Economic assistance, 51–54; alternatives to International Monetary Fund’s plans, 197–99; British vs. U.S. in, 88, 159–60; cost of, 95–96, 98–99; Czecho-Slovak Corps as opening for, 74–78, 120; failure of relief efforts, 125–27; for Kolchak government, 145, 156–58, 160; mechanics of, 49–51, 58–59, 70, 97–98, 100–102; and military intervention, 61–65, 73–76, 82–83; motives for, 2, 63, 68–69, 147; objectives of, 52, 82–83, 96–97; obstacles to, 120; in Poole’s proposal, 161–62; for Siberia, 53–54, 71; to undermine bolshevism, 4–5, 134–35; U.S. policies for, 65, 80, 89–92. See also Commercial assistance
Economic Commission: troops to protect, 77; U.S. plans for, 88–89
Economic commission: Commerce vs. State Department on, 91–95, 100–104; mistrust of motives of, 83, 115–16; Wilson’s goals for, 85. See also Inter-Allied economic commission
Economic reforms, 199; demanded of Kolchak government, 156–58
Economy: in Chinese Empire, 13; reforms demanded of Kolchak government, 156; Russia’s exploited by Germany and France, 14
Education: combined in economic mission, 69, 80, 88; through cooperatives, 23–24
Eliot, Sir Charles, 87–89, 131, 159, 169
Emerson, George, 84, 149–50, 159; training Russian railroad workers, 36, 38–40
Entente powers, and military intervention in Siberia, 45–47
European Payments, Union of, 197
European Russia, 121; food for, 37–38, 66, 72; land tenure in, 20; new rubles in, 107–8; transportation in, 35–36, 53
Exports, 118, 176; currencies for, 109, 124–25; regulation of, 55–56, 98–99, 101, 153; from Russia, 52; to Russia, 203n. 2. See also Trade
Fabian, Constantine, 49–50
Far Eastern republic, 189–91; railroads in, 192–93, 196–97
Foglesong, David, 10–11
Food, 37–38; and Germans, 53, 65; Russian supply of, 49, 90; shortages of, 49, 118, 135; Siberia’s supplies of, 53, 65–66, 118–19; to undermine bolshevism, 135
Food Bill for Europe, 133–34
Foreign assistance programs, U.S., 2, 6; Congress’s discomfort with, 136; funding for, 7, 128–29; justification for, 3–4, 199–200
Foreign debt, Russia’s, 14, 156
Foreign policy, U.S. See under U.S.
Four-Power Treaty, 181
France, 35, 89, 144; and Chinese Eastern Railway, 165, 168–70; and Czecho-Slovak Corps, 73, 86; economic activities of, 1–2, 14, 59, 113–14, 117–18; in Four-Power Treaty, 181; and military intervention in Siberia, 44–46, 66; objectives in Siberia, 195 Francis, David R., 26–27, 29, 37, 57; on economic plans, 42–43, 48, 113; on Russia’s railroads, 30, 32, 35–36, 40
Freight cars, 27, 31–32, 35, 149, 191
Geddes, Sir Auchland, 169, 173
Germany, 71–72, 83; ambitions in Russia, 41–45, 66–68, 84; and Bolsheviks, 41, 56, 70, 72; buying rubles, 43, 105–8, 110, 123; in currency issues, 124–25; domination of Ukraine, 51, 53; economic influence in Russia, 14, 44, 49–50, 61–62, 65–66, 78–79; economic warfare against, 48, 52–53, 55–56, 59–60, 66, 68; Mitteleuropa economic system of, 38; purchasing agents of, 43, 51, 56, 59, 65–66, 84; spring offensive of, 56, 71–72; U.S. declaration of war against, 16, 25–26; U.S. fear of influence of, 1–2, 41–42, 51–52, 63–64, 71, 82–83; and U.S. fears of Japanese intervention, 45–47, 61–62, 64, 69. See also Imperialists/Great Powers
Global economy: Russia’s importance to, 161, 176; U.S. in, 3, 200, 203n.1
Good, James W., 133
Goto, Foreign Minister, 80, 103, 121
Government. See State; specific countries
Gramsci, Antonio, 205n. 34
Graves, Gen. William S., 120–21
Greene, Sir William C., 130–31
Grew, Joseph E., 74
Hanson, G. C., 192–93
Harding administration, 6, 180–81
Harriman, E. H., 6–7
Heid, August, 93, 101; on economic conditions, 118–19, 122–23, 153–54; in Russian Bureau of War Trade Board, 98, 100
Hogan, Michael, 223n. 4
Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, The, 87, 122, 179
Horn, Henry, 37
Hsiao-lien, Sung, 178
Hughes, Charles Evans, 15, 174, 181, 185
Huntington, William C., 23–24, 65, 107
Hurley, 90–91
Imperialists/Great Powers, 7; Japan as autocratic, 46; rivalry among, 12, 159–60, 164, 174, 203n. 1; rivalry over Russia, 1–5, 5, 29, 104–18; and Wilson’s vision, 4, 200. See also Allies; specific countries
Industrial mission, to Russia, 71
Industry, developing Russia’s, 14–15
Inter-Allied banking organization, 115, 152
Inter-Allied board, to oversee economic intervention, 87, 89
Inter-Allied Council on War Purchases and Finance, 114
Inter-Allied currency plans, 114–17, 125
Inter-Allied economic commission, 109, 146
Inter-Allied Purchasing Committee, 191
Inter-Allied purchasing company, 48. See also Tovaro-Obmien (purchasing company)
Inter-Allied Railway Agreement, 159, 206n.17; end of, 164, 189
Inter-Allied Railway Committee, 128–29, 131–33, 184, 189; and Chinese Eastern Railway, 166–68, 185; and currencies in Chinese Eastern Railway zone, 165, 176; funding for, 137–38, 141–42, 146–47, 158; monetary plan of, 151–55. See also Technical Board
Inter-Allied trading company, for distribution of supplies, 115
International Banking Corporation (IBC), 111
International conservancy, for Chinese Eastern Railway, 183–84
International economy. See Global economy
International Harvester, 49–51, 54, 65, 126, 196, 211n. 9
International law, Wilson’s vision for, 4
International Monetary Fund (IMF), 7; alternative to plans of, 197–99
International relations, Wilson’s vision for, 4
International trusteeship, proposed for Chinese Eastern Railway, 166–68, 173
Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), 189
Investments: funding for Chinese Eastern Railway from, 179–80; need for foreign outlets, 12–13; in Russia, 2, 32; third-world limitations on, 200–201
Ishii, Viscount Kikujir, 76, 103, 115–16
Italy, 44–45
Jack, Col. Archibald, 131
Jameson, J. Paul, 179
Japan, 39, 89, 118–19, 159; in agreements at Far East conference, 181–82; ambitions in Siberia, 45–47, 52–53, 103, 137, 195; and Britain, 170–71, 174, 180–81; causing Siberia’s worsening economic conditions, 119–20, 154; and Chinese Eastern Railway, 163–69, 176–78, 183–84, 188, 190–91; influence on China, 132, 170–71, 178, 183–84; and Inter-Allied Railway Committee, 132–33, 150–51, 173; and Kolchak government, 130–31, 160–61; manipulating trade, 188–89; and military intervention in Siberia, 44–46, 54, 61–62, 75–76, 78–80, 85–86, 185–86, 215n. 31; military intervention in Siberia by, 45–46, 61, 64, 66, 69, 78, 189; plans for Far East, 130–31; relations with Russians, 74, 116; in rivalry over currencies, 112, 118, 121–22; role with Czecho-Slovak Corps, 74–75; support for Cossacks, 129–30, 150; and Trans-Siberian Railroad, 120–21, 129, 134, 136, 140–41; and U.S., 6, 83; U.S. fear of influence of, 1–2, 42, 44, 72; vs. U.S. on railroads, 121, 147. See also Imperialists/Great Powers
Jenkins, Douglas, 84
Johnson, Benjamin O., 150, 175–76; and Chita railroad, 191–92, 196–97; and coalition revolutionary government, 190–91
Johnson, Hiram, 136
Judson, Gen. William V., 48
Kadet party (Constitutional Democrats), 30, 67–68
Kautsky, Karl, 203n. 1
Kennan, George F., 9
Kerensky, Aleksandr, 34, 144–45
Kerensky government. See Provisional Government
Khorvat, Gen. Dmitri, 81, 130, 166, 174
Khorvat government, corruption in, 186
Killen, Linda, 10
Knight, Adm. Austin M., 74, 93, 105, 110–11
Knox, Gen. Alfred W. F., 87–88, 131
Knox, Philander, 6–7
Knox Neutralization Plan of 1909, 6–7, 121
Koenig, George W., 50
Kolchak, Aleksandr, 6, 88, 130
Kolchak government, 81, 122, 129–31, 166, 217n. 50; British support for, 159–60; defeated by Bolsheviks, 155; evaluation by Morris, 147–48; and monetary plan of Inter-Allied Railway Committee, 151–55; Technical Board demanding reforms of, 155–56; and U.S., 140–42, 144–46, 160–61; weaknesses of, 120, 151, 154, 157–60
Koo, V. K. Wellington, 171
Kornilov, Gen. L. G., 35, 54, 207n. 40
Krivoshein, Aleksandr, 20
Lake Baikal region, 130–31
Lamont, Thomas, 163, 166, 168–71
Land tenure, in Siberia vs. European Russia, 20
Lansing, Robert, 26, 28, 89, 115–16, 133; on commercial assistance, 48, 94; and Czecho-Slovak Corps, 74–75, 119–20; and economic warfare against Germany, 55–57; on Germany, 42, 72; on military intervention in Siberia, 44–45, 47, 75–76; on recognition of Kolchak government, 145, 160; on Siberian policies, 64, 90–92
Lansing-Ishii Agreement, 171
League of Nations, Wilson’s belief in, 16
Lee, Franck C., 59
Leffingwell, Russell C., 108
Liberal capitalism, 135
Liberal democracy: after March Revolution, 13, 16–18; as reason to keep Japan out of Siberia, 46–47; Wilson’s protectiveness of, 29
Liberal worldview, influence of, 96–97
Liberal-internationalist system, 4, 121
Lindley, Francis O., 113
Link, Arthur S., 10
Liu, C. S., 178
Liverovskii, A. V., 35–36, 207n. 40
Locke, John, Natural Law of, 17
Locomotives, 55; poor condition of Far Eastern republic’s, 191, 193; replacement of Russian with American, 33–35; Russian need for, 27, 31–32
Long, Breckinridge, 44; on military intervention in Siberia, 45, 47; on monetary crisis, 105, 107–8; in Siberian policy debate, 89–91
McAddo, William Gibbs, 27
McCormick, Cyrus, 50, 52–53, 62
McCormick, Vance C., 87, 125; on commercial assistance, 70, 90–91, 95, 101, 115, 120–21, 158–59; on recognition of Kolchak government, 145–46; and Russian Bureau, 133, 137, 144
MacDermid, Reuben R., 102–3
McFadden, David, 10
MacGowan, David B., 189
McKinstry, A. E., 50
MacMurray, John V. A., 173
Manchuria, 6, 164; British vs. Japanese interests in, 170–71, 174; Japanese control of, 146, 168, 177, 189
March, Gen. Peyton C., 76
March Revolution, 149; U.S. response to, 13–17, 25–26, 204n. 9
Market: China as, 12–13; Russia as, 14–15, 161, 163–64, 203n. 2
Market economy, helping to develop, 197–98
Marshall, Arthur G., 48
Marshall, Thomas R., 136
Marshall Plan, 7, 152, 199, 223n. 3; successes of, 197, 199
Masaryk, Thomas, 72
Matsuda Bank, 112
Mayer, Carl, 189
Metals/ores: Germany’s desire for, 55, 57, 65; in trade, 48, 53
Miles, Basil, 74, 160; and cooperative societies, 48–49, 51–54, 71, 87; on Germany, 42, 56, 71; on Japan, 47, 120; on Siberian policies, 71, 89–90, 140–41
Military: demanding priority use of railroads, 149–51, 156; Russian, 34, 37–38
Military assistance, 48; to anti-Communist governments, 201; for Kolchak government, 158; offered to Provisional Government, 25–27, 145
Military interference, on railroads, 140–41, 171–72
Military mission, U.S., 54
Military supplies, 48, 158; evacuated from Petrograd, 56–57; shipping, 99, 131
Military Transportation Board, 131–32, 149–51
Ministry of Communication. See Ministry of Ways of Communication
Ministry of Ways of Communication, Russian, 30, 32–34, 36–37, 150–51
Mirbach, Baron Wilhelm von, 42, 66–68
Mitteleuropa economic system, 38, 42
Monarchists, Russian, 66–67
Morality: of military intervention in Siberia, 46–47, 72–73, 75; and Wilsonianism, 16, 18; of Wilsonianism, 201
Morgan, J. P., 179–80
Morris, Roland, 81, 100, 101, 121–22; and Inter-Allied Railway Committee, 131–33, 206n. 17; on Japan and Trans-Siberian Railroad, 120, 129–30, 140–41; and Kolchak government, 130–31, 144–45, 147–48, 155–59, 217n. 50
Moscow Committee, 55
Moscow District Supply Committee, 49–50
Moscow-Donets Basin lines, 33
Moscow-Omsk line, 37–38
Moscow-Petrograd line, 33
Multinational corporations, and sovereignty, 198
Mumm, Baron Philip, 68
Municipalities, 54, 124–25, 157
Murmansk, 113
Narodny (Peoples) Bank, 22–23, 50–51; and cooperative societies, 87, 126; and new rubles, 107–8; and sale of furs, 93, 102
National City Bank, 54, 92; debt of Russian Embassy to, 139–41, 143; loans to Russia, 13, 59; Russian branch of, 105, 111–12, 122–23
National liberation movements, 200–201
National Security and Defense, 133
Nationalism: Chinese, 164–66, 179, 182; Russian, 66. See also Sovereignty
Nation-building, 201, 205n. 33
Natural Law (John Locke), 17
Natural resources, 17, 71–72; barter of, 62–63; in Chinese Empire, 12–13; Germany’s access to Russia’s, 41–43, 63–64, 78, 82
Noninterventionism, of Railroad Commission, 34–35
North Korea, 201
North Russia: British in, 114, 118; U.S. troops in, 136
Novitskii, Vladimir, 108, 118, 156
October Revolution. See Bolshevik Revolution
Omsk, line to Moscow, 37
Omsk government. See Kolchak government
Open Door policies, 2, 42–44, 47, 200; in China, 174; Knox Neutralization Plan of 1909 in, 121; railroads in, 6, 163, 180; reasons for U.S. support of, 12, 25; U.S. commitment to, 16, 134, 162
O’Reilly, W., 159–60
Ostroumov, Boris, 174–75, 186–89, 192
Owen, William H., 107, 123, 125, 215n. 24
Paris Peace Conference. See American Commission in Paris
Parker, Maj. F. B., 149
Payments union, for Commonwealth of Independent Republics, 197–98
Peace Conference, after Armistice, 125
Peace treaty, 7, 128, 158, 161. See also Brest-Litovsk Treaty
Peasant cooperative societies, 5, 51; agricultural machinery for, 48–50; in Siberia, 22–24; U.S. support for, 3–4, 48, 51. See also Cooperative societies
Peasants, 17; bartering by, 65–66, 70; hoarding by, 122; in Siberia, 19–22
Petrograd, evacuating military supplies from, 56–57
Policing operations: by Allied Military Police Force, 69; by Allied troops, 75; by Czecho-Slovak Corps, 70, 79
Politics: among rival Russian factions, 81, 135; British influence in Siberia, 87–88; over foreign assistance programs, 199–200; over U.S. policies on Russia, 135–36, 143–44, 158–59, 162
Polk, Frank, 31–32, 88–89, 134, 136; on Germany’s economic ambitions, 42–43, 52–53; and Inter-Allied Railway Committee, 143–44
Poole, Dewitt C., 72, 191, 219n. 96; on Tovaro-Obmien, 58–59; on U.S. economic policies, 66, 161
Preston, Charles L., 92–93, 102
Prinkipo Conference, 135
Prisoners, 119; Czecho-Slovaks as, 73; German, 64, 79
Profiteering, 119, 126; U.S. commitment to avoid, 99, 101–2
Provisional Government of Russia, 23, 38, 45; after March Revolution, 25; of Chaikovskii, 136; collapse of, 1, 125; currencies for, 107, 113, 151; Kolchak government as, 158–59; and railroads, 29–30, 36–38; U.S. relations with, 2, 54; U.S. support for, 25–27, 29; weakness of, 34, 35
Purchasing agents. See under Germany
Railroad Commission, 26–28, 36; recommendations from, 31, 32–34; role of, 28–30, 34–35
Railroads, Russian, 136, 155; Allied troops protecting, 75; condition of, 26, 32, 154; financing for, 138–40; and Japanese, 86, 100, 120–21; military vs. commercial uses of, 156, 174; U.S. aid to, 100–101, 149–50. See also Chinese Eastern Railway; Trans-Siberian Railroad; Workers, railroad
Railway Advisory Committee, of Council of National Defense, 26
Railway Service Corps, Russian, 39–40, 53, 69, 120, 132–33, 149
Railway Workers Union, link to credit societies, 51–52
Ranney, G. A., 50
Reading, Marquis of, 77
Reconstruction, of Russia, 151; in current times, 197–98; methods of, 54, 63, 154; need for, 69, 76; need for railroads in, 119, 120, 140, 142; obstacles to, 104, 128–29, 195; role of Czechs in, 74, 77, 80–81; role of multinational corporations in, 198; U.S. commitment to, 161, 192; U.S. goals for, 4–5, 146; U.S. motives for, 3, 48, 96–97, 147; Wilson’s plan for, 80–81, 103–4, 135
Redfield, William C., 62, 91–92, 94
Reforms: of Chinese Eastern Railway, 175–76; economic, 156–58, 199
Reinsch, Paul, 62–64, 74, 77–78, 83
Repression, 162; by Kolchak government, 6, 154, 157
Robins, Raymond, 57
Root, Elihu, 26–28, 45–46, 51–52, 184, 185; and Stevens, 28, 186
Root mission, 32
Rosenberg, William C., 30
Rubles, 58–59, 121–22, 123, 222n. 78; on Chinese Eastern Railway, 164–65, 176, 220n. 6; collapse of, 49–50, 62, 70, 220n. 6; getting more into circulation, 151, 154; and rival currencies, 105–18, 109–11, 176
Ruddock, A. B., 178–79
Ruggles, James A., 57
Russia, 39, 135, 139, 161, 166; belief in democratic nature of, 17, 204n. 9; and Chinese Eastern Railway, 166–67, 174–75, 190–91; current need for reconstruction of, 197–98; Empire, 1–2, 12, 20, 61–62, 125; Germany’s designs on, 38, 41–44, 66–68, 72; imperialists’ rivalry over, 1–3, 5, 29, 104–18, 159–60; as market, 14–15, 161, 163–64, 203n. 2; mistrust of Allies’ motives, 70, 87, 115; parallels seen to U.S. history, 13–14, 17–18; popularity of Czechs with, 73–74, 78–79, 99; and Railroad Commission, 26–31, 34, 159, 206n. 17; rivalry over currencies in, 105–18; studies of U.S. policies toward, 9–10; U.S. aid to, 62–63, 133–34, 147; U.S. motives in, 3, 25, 82, 147. See also Reconstruction, of Russia; Siberia
Russian Army, 34, 38, 88, 205n. 33
Russian Bureau: A Case Study in Wilsonian Diplomacy, The (Killen), 10
Russian Bureau, of War Trade Board, 52; funding for, 133–34, 143–44; obstacles to, 104, 118–20, 125–27; role of, 104, 152–54, 161; War Trade Board’s relationship with, 98, 137
Russian civil war, 68, 136; Allies avoiding involvement in, 75, 81; Czecho-Slovak Corps in, 65, 119–20
Russian Embassy, bankruptcy of, 139–43, 145
Russian government, future: currency decisions of, 107, 114–15, 154; need to resolve monetary problems, 109–10, 123, 151; repaying railroad costs, 133, 191
Russian Maritime Provinces, 181, 185–85, 190
Russian Revolution, 12, 15, 29. See also Bolshevik Revolution; March Revolution
Russo-American Committee of the Far East, 93
Russo-Asiatic Bank, 111–12, 118; and Chinese Eastern Railway, 166–67, 172, 174, 176
Sands, William F., 42
Schurman, Jacob G., 183–86
Second China Consortium Banking Group, 7
Self-government, 96, 210n. 37; Wilson trying to foster, 18–19, 80–81, 104, 196. See also Civil society
Semenov, G. M., 54; Japanese support for, 120, 130; and railroads, 150, 165
Sherman, Isaac J., 93–94
Siberia, 1, 64. See also Russia; in agreements at Far East conference, 181–82; Allies’ policies in, 64–65, 70–71, 87–88; as democratic, 21; economic and social conditions in, 97–98, 118–20, 125–30, 137, 154; economic assistance for, 53–54, 95, 101–2, 125–27; economics of, 22–23, 66, 117; and Germany, 53, 63–64; governments of, 81, 122; importance of, 2–3, 20–21, 44, 164; influence on Russia, 17, 20–21; and Japanese, 52–53, 69, 120–21, 121, 185; military intervention in, 5, 44–47, 69, 72, 162, 185–86; motives for U.S. policies, 52–53, 68, 70–71; Open Door policies in, 44, 134; and railroads, 129–30, 136; settlement of, 18–22; struggle over U.S. policies on, 61, 89–92; vs. European Russia, 20, 107–8
Siberian Conference, 54
Siberian Creamery Association, 72, 153
Siberian Intervention (White), 10
Smith, Charles H., 139, 146–47, 151, 154, 166
Social welfare, encouraged by cooperatives, 23–24
Socioeconomics, in Wilson’s concept of self-government, 4
South Manchurian Railway, 6–7, 121, 177, 185, 188
Sovereignty: China’s, 13, 172, 184; and currency plans, 108, 113; and financing of Trans-Siberian Railroad, 139, 142; and multinational corporations, 198; Russia’s, 29, 40, 72, 75, 80, 135, 165, 172
Soviet-American Relations (Kennan), 9
Soviets, 3, 193; building fear of, 199–200; and Chinese Eastern Railway, 166, 186; U.S. cooperation with, 197, 210n. 51
Speculation, 42–44, 103, 119, 126, 151
Spheres of influence, 1; in China, 13, 164, 174; collapse of system, 7–8; and currencies in Russia, 108, 112–15; in Manchuria, 120; Open Door vs., 2–5; in Russia, 29, 42, 44, 195
Stanert, William R., 137
State: relation to civil society, 24, 205n. 34; role in economic assistance, 63, 123, 196
State Department, U.S., 40, 45, 67–68, 74, 118, 192; and Chinese Eastern Railway, 167–69, 172–74, 179–80; countering Germany, 52–53, 55–56, 65–66, 71–72; and currency issues, 109, 114–15, 117; and economic assistance, 90, 54, 153, 158–59, 196; and Far East policies, 181–83, 190–91; and Inter-Allied Railway Committee, 133–34, 139, 166, 206n. 17; and recognition of Kolchak government, 141–42, 160; and Trans-Siberian Railroad, 140–41; vs. Commerce, 91–94, 100–104
Stevens, John F., 31–32, 69, 95, 208n. 48; background of, 27–28; and Chinese Eastern Railway, 163, 166, 171–74, 177–78, 180, 182, 185–87; and Chita railroad, 192, 196–97; funding for, 137, 143; and Inter-Allied Railway Committee, 138, 189–90; and Japanese, 86, 120, 121, 164, 182; priority of work, 37, 100; Railroad Commission, 25, 28, 30, 34–36; reconciling military vs. commercial transportation, 149–50; role of, 35–37, 53, 128–29, 131–32; and Russian politics, 155, 159, 189
Stevens, R. R., 48
Stolypin, Petr, 20–21
Sukin, John, 45, 122, 148, 154, 156, 159
Supreme Allied War Council, 73–75, 78
Taft, William H., 27
Technical Board, of Inter-Allied Railway Committee, 131–32, 138–39, 155, 172; and Chinese Eastern Railway, 167–68, 172–75, 180, 182, 184–89; and Russian government, 155–56, 159
Technical Committee: Britain’s dissatisfaction with, 146; reconciling military vs. commercial transportation, 149–50; Ustrugov interfering with, 150–51
Tenney, Charles, 167
Tereschenko, Mikhail, 35–36, 208n. 48
Third world, and U.S. foreign strategy, 200–201
Thorne, Lt. Landon K., 123–25
Titus, F. M., 39–40
Tools, as economic assistance, 97–98
Tovaro-Obmien (purchasing company), 48, 52, 54, 57–58
Trade, 3, 52–53; among gold-standard countries, 115; controlling through railroads, 121, 163; currencies for, 58–59, 124–25; need to stabilize currency for, 151; interrepublic, 197–98; of manufactured goods for raw materials, 62–63, 69–70; in monetary plan of Inter-Allied Railway Committee, 152–55; Open Door vs. spheres of influence, 2–3; U.S. with Russia, 39, 70–71, 137
Trans-Baikal Railroad, 190–91
Trans-Baikal region, 120
Transportation issues, 32, 56; effects of breakdown, 70, 119; military vs. commercial traffic on, 54, 148–51; rate reductions, 186–87; from U.S. to Russia, 56; for war effort, 26, 38
Trans-Siberian Railroad, 71, 100, 104, 128–29, 149; barter agreements between rail lines, 189–91; and Britain’s interest in, 130–31; Czecho-Slovak Corps on, 5, 66, 72–84; financing, 138–44, 146, 191; importance of, 20, 119, 127, 134; improvements in, 35, 150–51, 208n. 48; inefficiency of, 30–31, 33, 149–50; and Japanese, 86, 120–21, 134, 140–41; motives for assistance to, 25–27, 53, 69; in Russian reconstruction, 119, 161; U.S. commitment to, 3–4, 6, 39, 120–21, 134, 146; U.S. troops on, 136, 162
Treadgold, Donald, 19–21
Treasury Department, U.S., 27; on currency issues, 108–9, 124, and debt of Russian Embassy, 140, 143, 145
Tretiakov, S. N., 36
Truman administration, 199–200, 201
Trusteeship, suggestion that U.S. take over Russia as, 40
Turchaninov, N. V., 21
Turner, Frederick Jackson, 17
Uchida, Viscount Yasuya, 129–30, 169
Ukraine, 59, 70; German domination of, 49, 51, 53, 68
Union of Cooperative Unions (Zakupsbyt), 92–94, 101–2
Union of Siberian Cooperative Associations, 153
Union of Siberian Cooperative Unions, 72
Union of Siberian Creamery Associations, 205n.33
Union of Siberian Creamery Unions, 153
Unterberger, Betty M., 10, 215n. 31
Ural Mountains, metal deposits in, 65
U.S., 39, 174; and Chinese Eastern Railway, 163–66, 186; community of interests with Russia, 32, 40; cooperation with Soviets, 197, 210n. 51; distancing itself from Allies, 70–71, 115; economic assistance by, 22–24, 59, 62–63, 122–25; economic warfare against Germany, 52–53, 59–60; Far East policies of, 146, 174, 180–82; foreign policy of, 7, 9–12, 196, 204n.1; historical parallels with Russia, 14, 17–19; international commitments of, 7, 200, 203n. 1, 205n. 19; and Japan, 100, 121; and Kolchak government, 140–42, 157–60; and military intervention in Siberia, 44–45, 76, 162; Russian policies of, 61–62, 81–83, 133–34, 163, 198; and Trans-Siberian Railroad, 140–42, 146; trying to demonstrate goodwill, 26, 39, 70, 190–92
Ustrugov, L. A., 131, 139, 150, 156
Van Sinderen, Henry B., 95–97, 124
Vladivostok, 29, 112, 122; assembly shops at, 32, 35, 39; Czech take-over of, 73–74, 76; Japanese troops in, 185–85; National City Bank branch at, 111–12; shipping business ruined, 188
Vologodskii, P. V., 81
Vtorov, Leonidas, 49–50
Walker, Martin, 197–99
Wang, 186
Wang, C. C., 176
War Department, U.S., 217n. 50; selling army surplus, 137–38, 143, 153
War Industry Board, 56
War Trade Board, 53, 90–91, 139, 196; control of commercial assistance by, 94–96, 99–101; distribution system for supplies, 97, 115; export regulations of, 98–99, 153–54; and German economic influence in Siberia, 68, 71; on rival currency plans, 109, 117–18, 123, 125; and Russian bureau, 52, 98, 137; and U.S. trade with Russia, 70–71, 93, 101–2, 143. See also Russian Bureau
Washburn, Stanley, 26
Washington Conference: effects of, 188–89; on Far East policies, 180–86; U.S. trying to demonstrate goodwill at, 190, 191
Washington Naval Conference, 17, 181
Western front, 54, 56, 64; Czecho-Slovak Corps going to, 73, 212n. 33
White, John A., 10
Willard, Daniel, 26, 31, 35–36, 40; and Stevens, 37–39
Williams, E. T., 53
Williams, William A., 10
Wilson, Woodrow, 5, 125, 160, 205n. 19, 223n. 2; and Bolsheviks, 41, 49, 57; and British commercial proposals, 88–89; and Commerce Department, 93–94; and commercial assistance, 15, 19, 62–63, 90–92, 100–104; concept of self-government, 4, 18–19; on Czecho-Slovaks, 73–75, 119–20; and debt of Russian Embassy, 140, 142; declining political fortunes, 128–29; on economic assistance, 103, 109, 125; economic assistance plan of, 199; formation of Russian policies of, 76–78, 80; and Kolchak government, 6, 141, 144–46, 160; and military assistance, 25–27; and military intervention in Siberia, 44–47, 61–62, 64–66, 72, 76, 89; objectives of Russian policies of, 25–27, 83–84; paralysis of, 61; politics around Russian policies of, 133–36, 147, 158–59, 195–96; and Russian governments, 2, 16–17, 81; Russian policies of, 49, 54; and Russian reconstruction, 7, 161–62; and status of Railroad Commission, 28–30
Wilsonianism: ethics of, 201; studies of, 9–10
Wiseman, William, 64
Woodrow Wilson and a Revolutionary World (Link), 10
Woodrow Wilson and World Politics (Levin), 10
Workers, railroad: difficulty of paying, 133, 155; lack of middle management, 30–31; patronage, 175, 186; urged to increase productivity, 3; U.S. in Russia, 54, 69; U.S. training Russian, 31, 35–36, 38–40
World Bank, 7
World War I, 1, 13, 29, 33; Russian withdrawal from, 34, 41–42
World War II, 3, 7–8. See also Marshall Plan
Wright, J. Butler, 65, 68–71, 74
Yen, 164
YMCA, 69; efforts combined with economic mission, 112
Yun-p’eng, Gen. Chin, 178
Yurenev, Kadet P. P., 34
Zakupsbyt. See Union of Cooperative Unions
Zeiler, Thomas, 203n. 2