Glossary and Notes Glossary and NotesUnderstanding the references often enhances the understanding of the material. Poets often used alternate or ancient names for various locations, and some places have been renamed over the thousands of years. In addition, famous people are mentioned, and it helps to know who they are. Some basic notes on the translations are below, followed by a glossary of important words, and a brief description of major sources.
Anxi “The Pacified West,” this is a reference to Anxi Duhufu, located in present-day Kuqa County, Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. In 663, the khan of the Western Turks surrendered the territory to the Tang and the area was put under the administration of a military commissioner.
Baideng Road The Battle of Baideng was a military conflict between the Han Dynasty and the Xiongnu (a confederation of nomadic peoples from the eastern Asian steppes) in 200 BCE.
Baling The former name of Yueyang, a present-day city in Hunan Province. It is situated on the east bank of the Xiangjiang River, which flows from Dongting Lake, close to where it joins the Yangzi River.
Beigu Mountain Literally, “Northern Fortress,” Beigu Mountain is in Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province. It faces the Yangzi River.
Bluebird Mentioned in “Qingming Feast at the Home of the Plum Flower Taoist Priest,” by Meng Haoran (p. 112), the bluebird is a messenger of the goddess Xi Wangmu or the Queen Mother of the West.
Boyish Mentioned in “Qingming Feast at the Home of the Plum Flower Taoist Priest,” by Meng Haoran (p. 112), this is a reference to the tongzi, or virgin child. Such a child was supposedly pure, unblemished by human society, and immortal.
breath-energy This represents the word qi. Qi means breath, energy, and stamina. A person has breath-energy. The classics also speak of the universe's energy as qi. We are in constant exchange with this universal energy as literally as breathing air, and the Taoist consider that all beings are animated by this universal qi.
Chang'an Literally meaning “Perpetual Peace,” Chang'an was settled in Neolithic times and was the capital of more than ten dynasties. It is one terminus of the Silk Road. The city was renamed Xi'an in the Ming Dynasty and it is known by that name today.
Changshan Taoist Changshan means “the constant mountain,” and the word chang is used frequently in the Daodejing.
Chu A state during the Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BCE), Chu was founded c. 1030 BCE and conquered by the state of Qin in 223 BCE. Chu included most of the present-day provinces of Hubei and Hunan, along with parts of Chongqing, Guizhou, Henan, Anhui, Jiangxi, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, and Shanghai. Chu was Laozi's home state.
Confucius The name Confucius (551–479 BCE) is a Latinized form of Kong Fuzi, meaning “Master Kong.” His personal name was Kong Qiu. He was a teacher, editor, statesman, and philosopher. He is traditionally credited as the author or editor of many Chinese classics, his thought shaped the whole of Chinese history for thousands of years, and his outlook is still a part of Chinese culture today. He had seventy-two major disciples.
dantian Meaning “field of elixir,” the dantian is a point of meditative concentration in the lower abdomen, three fingers’ widths below the level of the navel, and in the center of the body. Elixir is derived from the elixir of immortality. (See elixir.) When no effective physical elixir could be made, people turned to meditative means. The dantian is regarded as the source of the raw energy that is supposed to impart immortality. There are really three dantian: lower, middle (level of the solar plexus), and upper (level of eyebrows). If not specified, references are usually to the lower dantian.
Dayu Mountains A mountain range located between Guangdong and Jiangxi Provinces.
Dongting Lake A large lake in Hunan Province whose name means “Grotto Court.” The lake is part of the flood basin of the Yangzi River. Two provinces have names that reference this lake—Hubei means “north of the lake,” and Hunan means “south of the lake.”
Double Nine Festival The name refers to the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. According to beliefs derived from the Yijing, nine is a yang number, so double nine is doubly yang. This gives rise to the alternate name, “Heavy Yang Festival.” The festival's origin is related to guarding against pestilence. People will climb a high mountain, drink chrysanthemum liquor or tea, and wear cuttings of dogwood to escape disease. It is also an important time for family reunions and to visit ancestral graves.
Eight Trigrams The Eight Trigrams, or, in Chinese, the “Bagua,” is an octagonal arrangement of trigrams (groupings of three lines apiece). A trigram is made up of some combination of either a straight line (representing yang) or a split line (representing yin). Yin and yang equals two, and 23 equals eight formations of every possible combination of yin and yang lines. Each trigram is a symbol: heaven, earth, water, fire, wind, thunder, lake, and mountain. The Eight Trigrams become a cosmological chart by arranging the trigrams in an octagonal formation.
elixir Called dan in Chinese, this is a reference to the elixir of immortality, which consisted of many rare and esoteric ingredients that had to be fired in a special crucible and stove for long periods. Mentioned in “Qingming Feast at the Home of the Plum Flower Taoist Priest,” by Meng Haoran (p. 112).
Emei Mount Emei is one of the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains of China and is located in Sichuan Province. It is traditionally regarded as the place of enlightenment of the bodhisattva Samantabhadra (Puxian Pusa). The first Buddhist temple was built there in the first century CE.
Fang, Grand Marshall Fang Guan (697–763) was an official of the Tang Dynasty (618–907) and served as chancellor to Emperor Xuanzong (685–762) and Emperor Suzong (711–762). Late in life, he was demoted and sent to low-ranking posts in the provinces, but was recalled to serve as minister of justice. He died during his return journey at a monastery in Langzhou (the capital of Gansu Province, northwestern China).
Five Phases Called Wu Xing and sometimes translated as the Five Elements, the Five Phases are wood, fire, earth, metal, and water. However, these should be considered symbols of types of changing movement rather than matter. Briefly, wood describes that which grows upward; fire, that which is hot, bright, expanding, and consuming; Earth, that which settles, balances, spreads out, and neutralizes; Metal, that which solidifies and grows hard; Water, that which liquefies, cools, and flows downward. The system came to maturity in the first or second century BCE during the Han Dynasty, and became the basis for thought in numerous parts of Chinese culture including cosmology, metaphysics, the calendar, traditional Chinese medicine, music, martial arts, the tea ceremony, and the dynastic traditions.
Four Mystical Animals Mentioned in the Book of Rites, “Applying Ritual,” they are the Qilin (Chinese unicorn), phoenix, tortoise, and dragon.
Fuzhou The capital of Fujian Province. During the Tang Dynasty (618–907), political upheavals prompted a migration of people from the heartland to this coastal area. Prosperity grew and Buddhism was quickly adopted.
Gansu A province located in northwest China.
Great Peak In the poem “Gazing at the Peak” (p. 2), Du Fu is at the base of Mount Tai, or Taishan, located near the city of Tai'an, Shandong Province. It is the eastern member of the Five Sacred Mountains and is considered the first among them. It has been a place of worship and royal ceremony for at least 3,000 years.
Guangling A district in Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province. The distance between Yangzhou and Luoyang is far—about 783 km (487 mi) and if Wei Yingwu was traveling by boat in “Embarking on the Yangzi, Sending a Letter to Officer Yuan” (p. 14), the journey would have been against the current, and much of the route would have been over land.
Guanque Tower With a name that means “Stork Tower,” this is one of the Four Famous Towers of China, and is located in the ancient city of Puzhou in Yongji, Shanxi.
Han (people) The major ethnic group of China, comprising about 92 percent of the population.
Han (river) A river known also as Hanshui or Han Jiang, it is the longest tributary of the Yangzi River. It mostly crosses Shaanxi and Hubei Provinces. The Han people and the Han Dynasty (206–220) take their names from it. The ideograph for Han combines the signs for water with one that means “yellow loam.”
Han Altar A place where the emperors of Han made religious sacrifices.
Heaven In Chinese, this is the word tian, which also means “sky.” It names the broadest, eternal, and supreme power in the world. Although it is regarded as having a will—its actions irresistibly change human and natural life—it is not a personage. It is not the residence of a god or gods nor a place for an afterlife. Although heaven is seen as the highest initiating power, it is not capable of doing everything on its own. That's why it must be paired with earth. What heaven initiates—weather, sun and moon, the seasons—earth must receive, nurture, and grow.
Heaven's Peak A reference to the Qilian Mountains, which divide Qinghai and Gansu Provinces. They are also known as the Tianshan Mountains, which literally means “Heaven's Mountains.”
Hu This was a general term for non-Chinese people living to the north and northwest of China, as well as central Asia.
Huayin A city in Shaanxi Province. Its name means “North of Hua (mountain)” because yin is the shady side and therefore the north. In the poem “Passing Huayin” (p. 110), Cui Hao refers to people traveling to the capital of Chang'an to seek profit and fame, bypassing Hua Mountain where Taoists taught the ways of wellness and long life.
Huazhou A town and district in Shaanxi Province, east of Chang'an. In “Huazhou” (p. 47), we see Du Fu sorrowfully leaving the area. The rebellion referenced is the An Lushan Rebellion (755–763). In 756, rebels captured Chang'an forcing the emperor and his court to flee. Imperial forces and a new emperor did not recover the city until 757. The new court ousted Fang Guan (see the poem, in “Leaving the Grave of Grand Marshall Fang,” p. 37), and as an ally of Fang's, Du Fu was demoted in 758 to serve as educational commissioner of Huazhou.
immortal The Chinese character combines the words for “person” and “mountain,” thereby alluding to the remote places that the immortals were supposed to have lived. The idea of an immortal is specifically a Taoist concept, and it was believed that one could become an immortal by making and drinking the elixir of immortality, through meditative practices, or by good fortune. A significant part of the cult of immortals was the belief that an island of immortals named Penglai existed in the Pacific Ocean.
immortal peaches A bite of these legendary peaches grown by the goddess Xi Wangmu or the Queen Mother of the West, would grant long life. They are a traditional Taoist symbol mentioned in “Qingming Feast at the Home of the Plum Flower Taoist Priest,” by Meng Haoran (p. 112).
Immortal's Palm A rock formation on Hua Mountain that looks like a gigantic palm print in the cliff.
Jade Gate Pass The Yumen Pass is a pass of the Great Wall west of Dunhuang in what is now northwest Gansu Province. The Silk Road passed through this point during the Han Dynasty (206–220).
Jiang In the poem “The Jiang and Han River” (p. 28), Jiang (“river”) probably refers to the Yangzi River. Since the Han is a tributary of the Yangzi, this places Du Fu at the confluence of the two great bodies of water. The Yangzi River is considered a major dividing line between northern and southern China.
Jiangnan A reference to the lands south of the Yangzi River. It has long been one of the most prosperous and cultured regions of China due to its wealth of natural resources, rich history, and powerful cities. The region includes the southern parts of Jiangsu and Anhui Provinces, the northern part of Jiangxi Province, and the northern part of Zhejiang Province.
Jie, Emperor Ruler of the Xia Dynasty (1728–1675 BCE). He is regarded as a tyrant and oppressor.
junzi This originally meant a ruler or an aristocrat. It was soon expanded to mean a cultivated person who tried to perfect themselves and who would then be an exemplar for that same cultivated life in the world. Older translations use terms such as gentleman and superior person.
Lao Jun Translating to “Lord Lao,” this is another name for Laozi, the author of the Daodejing. Laozi's deified name is Taishang Laojun, or “Supreme High Old Lord.”
Laozi This honorific name means “Old Master” (sixth–fifth centuries BCE). His given name was Li Er; he was an archivist serving the Zhou dynasty, a philosopher, a teacher, and the author of the Daodejing.
Li Duan A native of Zhaozhou and another poet collected in 300 Tang Poems, Li Duan (743–782) was a close friend of Lu Lun, as shown in the poem “Farewell to Li Duan” (p. 39).
Lintao This is present-day Minxian County, Gansu Province. During the Warring States (475–221 BCE) and the Qin Dynasty (221–207), sections of the Great Wall ran through this area.
Lu A vassal state during the Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BCE), founded in the eleventh century BCE. Lu was the home state of Confucius.
Lumen Mountain A mountain southeast of Xiangyang City, Hubei Province. Its name translates to Deer Gate.
Luoyang One of the Four Ancient Capitals of China, Luoyang is situated on China's central plain, where the Luo and Yellow Rivers join. Its name means “The Sunny Bank of the Luo River,” using the term yang, because the northern bank was always lit by sun from the south. The earliest settlements were established in Neolithic times. The first capital in the area was founded in 2070 BCE as the capital of the Xia Dynasty. The first Buddhist temple in China, the White Horse Temple, was built in 68 CE. During the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 CE), Luoyang was as a terminus to the Silk Road. In the Tang Dynasty (618–907), Luoyang was known as the Eastern Capital and its population of about one million was second only to Chang'an, which at that time was the largest city in the world.
Martial Emperor Emperor Wu of Han (141–87). Emperor Wu worshiped the Taoist divinity Tai Yi. The emperor built a “House of Longevity” (shou gong) chapel at his Ganquan palace complex in modern Xianyang, Shaanxi, and dedicated it to that god in 118 BC. Wudi was fascinated with immortality, and he associated with alchemists who were trying to find the elixir of immortality.
Master Chao's Temple When Liu Zongyuan wrote “Visiting Master Chao's Temple at Daybreak to Read a Zen Scripture” in 806 (p. 59), he had just been demoted and was living at the Longxing (Rising Dragon) Temple in Yongzhou, Hunan Province. The Liuzi Temple in Yongzhou was built as a memorial to the Tang poet Liu Zongyuan (773–819).
Mount Mang A mountain in Hubei Province.
Mount Meru In the poem “One Hundred Word Stela” (p. 23), Lu Dongbin references “Xu Mu,” another term for Mount Meru. This is a Sanskrit name for a sacred cosmic mountain with five peaks. It is considered the center of the universe in Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist cosmology.
Nanshan Another name for the Zhongnan Mountain. Simply meaning “South Mountain,” the term can also refer to other places, including mountains in Hubei or Gansu Provinces.
Nanxi There are two Nanxi (“Southern Creek”) in China—one in Yunnan Province, and the other in Zhejiang Province. The places Liu Changqing refers to in “Searching Nanxi for the Reclusive Changshan Taoist” (p. 15) were closer to Zhejiang Province, and he's more likely to have visited there.
noble one See junzi.
Pang Gong Born in Xiangyang during the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–221). He and his wife became recluses rather than serve the provincial governor.
Poshan Temple This temple is now called the Xingfu Temple and is located in Changshu, Jiangsu Province. Ni Denguang, the magistrate of Chengzhou, Hunan province, donated his estate for a temple near the Polong Stream (Breaking Dragon stream) and so the temple was named Poshan (Broken Mountain) Temple. In 869 BCE the emperor gave the temple a large bell along with a board inscribed with “Xingfu Temple” (“Rising Fortune Temple”). The temple is proud of its association with Chang Jian's poem “Inscription behind the Meditation Hall of Poshan Temple” (p. 164). Their Empty Mind Pavilion takes its name from that work.
qin (musical instrument) Also called a guqin (“ancient zither”), the qin is a seven-stringed zither and is the premier instrument for the scholar, recluse, sage, and any cultivated person in classical Chinese society. It is fretless and is often played solo. The qin is considered to be the “father of all Chinese music” and the “instrument of the sages.”
Qin (state) An ancient state during the Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BCE) from the ninth century–221 BCE in the north and west of present-day China. In the third century BCE, under the leadership of Qin Shi Huangdi (259–210 BCE), Qin emerged as the most dominant state among the seven major warring states. By conquering all of them, Qin created the territory of what is roughly modern-day China.
Qin Pass A reference to Tongguan, a pass just east of Hua Mountain. In some contexts, it can refer to the Hangu Pass, which the Qin fortified in 361 BCE. Since Cui Hao is discussing scenes of Hua Mountain in “Passing Huayin” (p. 110), he's more likely referring to Tongguan.
Qinghai Lake The largest lake in the People's Republic of China, it is located in Qinghai Province. Its name, which means “Blue Ocean,” describes its vivid color.
Qingming The festival day where families visit and clean the graves of their ancestors. Literally meaning “clear and bright,” the day usually falls sometime in early April. By titling the poem “Qingming Feast at the Home of the Plum Flower Taoist Priest” (p. 112), Meng Haoran is deliberately setting a contrary scene with many images of Taoist immortality.
Quanjiao Mountain Located in Quanjiao County, Anhui Province.
Red Pine A direct translation of “Chi Song,” he was a legendary Taoist immortal who was Lord of the Rain under Shennong (the Divine Husbandman, said to be born in the twenty-eighth century BCE). He is regarded as the inventor of the cart and plow, first tamer of the ox and horse, and advocate of clearing land with fire. He is also regarded as a pioneer of using medicinal herbs. Mentioned in “Qingming Feast at the Home of the Plum Flower Taoist Priest” (p. 112), by Meng Haoran.
Ruoye Creek A stream in Shaoxing, Zhejiang Province.
sage The shengren is an enlightened and wise person. The word sheng combines the signs for “person” with the signs for “speech” and “listening.” A sage is a person who is good at speaking and listening. China has a long tradition of positing a sage-king who is the ideal ruler. Paradoxically, such people always decline the appointment.
Shanyin A county in Shanxi, China.
Shu Another name for Sichuan Province, Shu refers to one of the Three Kingdoms to emerge after the fall of the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE). The state of Shu was established in 221 and was conquered in 263.
Shun Emperor Shun (r. 2233–2184 BCE) was a legendary emperor known for his humility and filial piety. He served under Emperor Yao in several important posts and was appointed as his successor. Shun declined at first, but Yao eventually abdicated his throne to him.
Son of Heaven Literally, the “child of heaven,” this was a reference to the emperor.
South Mountain In “Returning at Year's End to South Mountain” (p. 53), by Meng Haoran, Nanshan may be Zhongnan Mountain in Shaanxi Province. Other sources assert that it was Meng's birth area, which would have placed it in Xiangyang in Hubei Province. The Qilian Mountains in Gansu Province are also known as South Mountain.
supreme ultimate This is the translation of “Taiji” and can also be interpreted as “the supreme limit.” Taiji had an independent philosophical meaning long before it was borrowed as the name of the martial art. Taiji means yin and yang together. When Laozi wrote “one birthed two” (p. 11), the number two implies Taiji, which is the sum of yin and yang. When Wang Zongyue writes of the supreme ultimate being born from the limitless in Shanxi Wang Zongyue's Taijiquan Treatise (p. 11), he is saying that taiji (supreme limit) is born from wuji (no limit, or limitless). This is just one of the many ways that the Taiji fighters borrowed Taoist theory.
Taihang Mountains A Chinese mountain range in Shanxi Province. The name means “The Great Running Mountains.”
Taihua Taihua Shan, or the Great Hua Peak (“Hua” means “magnificent”), is the southernmost and highest peak of Hua Mountain, located in Shaanxi Province. Hua Mountain is the western member of the Five Sacred Mountains and is an important center of Taoism. A temple was established there as early as the second century BCE and the mountain remained a prominent center of Taoist internal alchemy until modern times.
Taiyi Taiyi is an alternate name for the Zhongnan Mountains.
Tongguan A fortified mountain pass in Shaanxi Province south of the confluence of the Wei and Yellow Rivers. It was an important checkpoint protecting the capital city of Chang'an (present-day Xi'an). During the Tang Dynasty (618–907), the fall of Tongguan (“high pass”) to rebels led directly to the capture of Chang'an. If the poet Xu Hun was at Tongguan in the poem, “On an Autumn Day, Inscribed at Tongguan Staging Post on My Way to the Capital” (p. 17), he would have been traveling from east to west and passing Hua Mountain on his way to Chang'an. Xu was not a healthy man, and so his longing for Hua Mountain, where methods of long life were studied, and his dream of being a fisherman or woodsman take on a poignant contrast to his career as an official.
Wencheng A district of Xianyang City, Shaanxi Province, just northwest of the modern city of Xi'an.
West Lake The West Lake is in the city of Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province. Considered one of the most beautiful places in China, the freshwater lake is divided by three causeways, and its shores are lined with temples, pagodas, and gardens. It influenced poets and painters throughout Chinese history.
Wu One of the states during the Western Zhou Dynasty (1046–771 BCE), Wu was founded in the eleventh century BCE and ended in 473 BCE. Wu was located at the mouth of the Yangzi River and east of the state of Chu.
Xian Mountain Its full name is Xiangyang (“High Yang”) Mountain and it is located in Hubei Province.
Xiang River This is chief river draining Dongting Lake. The Xiang (the name is also an abbreviation for Hunan Province) is the largest river in Hunan Province. The river flows generally northeast through Guangxi and Hunan Provinces, and its tributaries reach into Jiangxi and Guangdong Provinces.
Xianjing Originally referring to the Qin capital of Xianyang. It is located in Shaanxi and is just west of Chang'an (now Xi'an). The term was also used to refer to Chang'an itself.
Xie, General Xie Shang (308–357) was a general stationed near Bull Island (a stopping place on the Yangzi near present-day Dangtu County, Anhui Province). One moonlit autumn night, he heard someone chanting poems while on a boat. It turned out to be a poet named Yuan Hong (328–376). The general invited the poet to board his own boat, and the two of them spent the night in delighted conversation. In “Recalling the Past during a Night-Mooring at Bull Island” (p. 30), Li Bai laments the absence of such a friend with whom he can discuss poetry.
Xie, Tutor Xie An (320–385) was a scholar and statesman of the Jin Dynasty (265–420). He was appointed overseer of imperial secretariat affairs after having served as minister of education. He oversaw the construction of a new palace in Jiankang and played a leading role in establishing a national university. Eventually, Xie became the prime minister. When the country was invaded by a large army, Xie organized seven armies in opposition. He was granted the posthumous title of senior mentor and is commonly addressed as Tutor Xie, as he was in Du Fu's poem, “Leaving the Grave of Grand Marshall Fang” (p. 37).
Xu, Lord This is a reference to a governor of Xuzhou (today, the fourth largest prefecture-level city of Jiangsu Province). Du Fu's reference in “Leaving the Grave of Grand Marshall Fang” (p. 37) depends on understanding Ji Zha (576–484 BCE). Ji Zha, descended from royalty, was a scholar, statesman, and diplomat. He is considered by some to be a sage equal in fame to Confucius. Once he visited Xuzhou on a diplomatic mission and the governor admired his sword. Ji Zha inwardly resolved to make a gift of his sword when his duties were complete. However, when he returned, the governor had already died. In great regret, Ji Zha hung his sword at the governor's grave.
Yan (state) An ancient state during the Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BCE) from the eleventh century–221 BCE. Its capital eventually became the current capital city of Beijing.
Yan Mountain A mountain located in Gansu Province with a cave where the sun was thought to sink at night.
Yang Gate The full Chinese name is Yangguan. It was a fortified pass in what is now Duhuang County, Gansu Province, and it was an important landmark along the Silk Road. It was the westernmost administrative center of ancient China. When Wang Wei says farewell to his friend in “Seeing Yuan Er Off on a Mission to Anxi”(p. 8), he knows his friend is embarking on an uncertain and dangerous mission.
Yang, General Yang Hu (221–278) was a general of the Western Jin Dynasty (265–317). He was known for his humility and foresight. At first, he advocated the conquest of the rival state of Eastern Wu, but when that was not immediately possible, Yang sought détente with the Eastern Wu while he was stationed at the border region of Xiangyang. He impressed everyone with his kindness and goodwill. Years later, the people of Xiangyang built a monument for him on Mount Xian. Visitors wept so often upon reading of his benevolence that the monument became known as the Stela of Tears. This is the scene in “Climbing Xian Mountain Together with Friends” (p. 16), by Meng Haoran. The Jin finally conquered Eastern Wu in 280.
Yao, Emperor Traditionally believed to have lived c. 2356–2255 BCE, Yao was one of China's legendary rulers, and a member of a group called the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors. He is held as a paragon of the sage-king.
Yellow River A river in northern China. Along with the Yangzi River, the Yellow River, or Huang He, is one of the two major rivers in China. It flows through nine provinces before emptying into the Bohai Sea off Shandong Province. Its basin is the birthplace of Chinese civilization.
Youzhou An ancient city in northern China and the capital of the State of Yan (eleventh century–222 BCE). It was located where the modern city of Beijing now stands. Youzhou (“Serene Prefecture”) was an important commercial and military hub during the Tang Dynasty (618–907) when Chen Zi'ang wrote “Song of Climbing the Youzhou Terrace” (p. 70).
Yueyang Gate Tower With a name meaning “Mountain Sun,” this tower is on the shore of Dongting Lake in Yueyang, Hunan Province. It's one of the three famous towers south of the Yangzi. Its three levels of roofs are covered in yellow tile and are said to look like a general's helmet.
Yuezhi An ancient people first reported as nomads living in the grasslands of present-day Gansu Province during the first millennium BCE. Over the centuries, they were a fundamental part of trade during the Silk Road. After centuries of war and migration, one branch of the Yuezhi settled in Tibet.
Zhongnan Mountains These mountains are a branch of the Qin Mountain Range in Shaanxi Province, south of the city of Xi'an. The Zhongnan (“End of the South”) Mountains have been a popular place for Taoist as well as Buddhist recluses. The Complete Perfection Sect of Taoism was founded in the mountains. Since the mountains were close to Chang'an (Xi'an), disgraced officials often fled there to escape disgrace or punishment. See “Returning at Year's End to South Mountain” (p. 53) by Meng Haoran.
Zou A minor state that existed during the Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BCE). It was conquered by King Xuan of Chu (r. 369–340 BCE). The state was located in the southwest of modern-day Shandong Province.
NOTES ON PRIMARY BIBLIOGRAPHIC SOURCES
Analects Known in Chinese as Lunyu, or Edited Conversations, this is a collection of sayings and ideas attributed to Confucius. The book was compiled by his followers in the Warring States era (475–221 BCE).
Book of Lord Shang Called Shangjunshu, this is a central book of the Legalism school of philosophy. Lord Shang was Gongsun Yang (390–338 BCE).
Book of Rites Known in Chinese as Liji, this collection of texts describes the social forms, administrative standards, and ceremonial rites of the Zhou Dynasty (c. 1046–256 BCE). The book was first compiled in the Warring States era (475–221 BCE) and was revised several times.
Classic of Poetry Known in Chinese as Shijing, this oldest collection of poetry dates from the eleventh–seventh centuries BCE and contains 305 poems. It is said to have been edited by Confucius.
Daodejing This book is one of the primary texts of Taoism and has become a part of world philosophy. It is also known as the Tao Te Ching (an earlier transliterated title) or referenced after its author's name as the Laozi. The name Daodejing literally translates to “Tao-Virtue-Classic,” with the word jing or classic being the designation for a canonical work of Chinese culture. The book of roughly 5,000 words, divided into eighty-one chapters, is a fundamental text for both philosophical and religious Taoism, and it strongly influenced other schools, such as Legalism, Confucianism, and Chinese Buddhism, especially Chan or Zen Buddhism, which uses many Taoist words and concepts. Chinese poets, painters, calligraphers, and even garden designers have used the Daodejing as a source of inspiration. Its influence has also spread widely outside of Asia, and it is among the most translated works in world literature.
Yijing Also known as the I Ching, or the Classic of Changes, the Yijing is popularly labeled as a book of divination. While it can be used in that fashion, the book is really a repository of centuries of accumulated wisdom. The Eight Trigrams upon which it is based were created by Fu Xi (2852–2737 BCE) in the earliest stages of Chinese civilization. A feudal prince named Ji Chang, and posthumously known as King Wen (1152–1056 BCE), created one major section of the Yijing called “The Statement.” One of his sons, the Duke of Zhou (Zhou Gong; eleventh century BCE), created commentaries for each line of the hexagrams called “The Lines.” Confucius (551–479 BCE) himself is credited with writing “The Images,” and these are the portions of the Yijing incorporated into this book. Later commentators added the Ten Wings, including the “Great Treatise.” These sections explain various aspects of the Yijing.
Three Hundred Tang Poems This anthology was compiled about 1763 as Tangshi Sanbai Shou. The poems of the Tang Dynasty are considered to be the apex of Chinese poetry.
Shanxi Wang Zongyue's Taijiquan Treatise Written by Wang Zongyue (c. fifteenth century?) as Shanyou Wang Zongyue Taijiquan Lun, this work contains many of the key theories of the martial art, Taijiquan.
Sunzi's Art of Strategy Sunzi Bingfa is commonly known as The Art of War. This military treatise dates from the fifth century BCE. The book has remained one of the primary sources of strategy since then, and it has influenced military studies, business tactics, and legal strategy.
Mengzi This book was named after its author, Mengzi (372–289 BCE), whose named was Latinized as Mencius. He is considered the second most prominent Confucian philosopher after Confucius himself. The Mengzi is a collection of anecdotes and records of conversations between Mengzi and the rulers of several of the Warring States regarding moral and political philosophy.