NOTES

ABBREVIATIONS

Periodicals

BG	Boston Globe
BS	Baltimore Sun
CR	Congressional Record
CSM	Christian Science Monitor
CT	Chicago Tribune
LAT	Los Angeles Times
NYHT	New York Herald Tribune
NYT	New York Times
ST	Seattle Times
WP	Washington Post
WSJ	Wall Street Journal

Archival Collections

AES	Adlai E. Stevenson Papers, Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
ACHF	Ad Council Historical Files, University Archives, University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois
ACLU	American Civil Liberties Union Records, Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
AL	Records of the American Legion, Video Collection, Library and Museum, American Legion National Headquarters, Indianapolis, Indiana
ALM	Papers of the Americanism Division, Records of the American Legion (Microfilm), Library and Museum, American Legion National Headquarters, Indianapolis, Indiana
AS-DDE	Administration Series, Ann Whitman Files, Dwight D. Eisenhower Papers, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Museum and Library, Abilene, Kansas
AUSCS	Americans United for Separation of Church and State Records, Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
AW	Arthur White Collection, Archives and Special Collections, Odum Library, Valdosta State University, Valdosta, Georgia
AWR	A. Willis Robertson Papers, Special Collections, Earl Gregg Swem Library, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia
BB	Bruce Barton Papers, Wisconsin Historical Society Archives, Madison, Wisconsin
BGCA	Billy Graham Evangelical Association, Crusade Activities Collection, Billy Graham Center Archives, Wheaton, Illinois
BGTO	Billy Graham Evangelical Association Team Office, Executive Assistant Team Activities Records, Billy Graham Center Archives, Wheaton, Illinois
CBD	Cecil B. DeMille Papers, L. Tom Perry Special Collections Library, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
CDJ	C. D. Jackson Papers, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum, Abilene, Kansas
CEB	Charles E. Bennett Papers, Special and Area Studies Collections, George A. Smathers Libraries, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
CF-DDE	Central Files, Dwight D. Eisenhower Papers, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Museum and Library, Abilene, Kansas
CS-DDE	Cabinet Series, Ann Whitman Files, Dwight D. Eisenhower Papers, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Museum and Library, Abilene, Kansas
CUAEL	Collection of Underground, Alternative, and Extremist Literature, Department of Special Collections, University of California, Los Angeles, California
DB	Don Belding Papers, Southwest Collection, Special Collections Library, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas
DSB	Dorothy Stimson Bullitt Papers, Special Collections, University of Washington Libraries, Seattle, Washington
EH	Earl Hankamer Papers, Billy Graham Center Archives, Wheaton, Illinois
EMD	Everett M. Dirksen Papers, The Dirksen Congressional Center, Pekin, Illinois
FAS	Fred A. Seaton Papers, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum, Abilene, Kansas
FBI-CACC	Federal Bureau of Investigation Files, “Christian Anti-Communism Crusade,” Los Angeles File # 62–4580
FEF	Frederic E. Fox Papers, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum, Abilene, Kansas
FF	Fred Friendly Papers, Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Butler Library, Columbia University, New York, New York
FJB	Frank John Becker Papers, M. E. Grenander Department of Special Collections and Archives, State University of New York, Albany, New York
FOE	Fraternal Order of Eagles Museum, Grove City, Ohio
GF-DDE	General Files, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Papers, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum, Abilene, Kansas
HD	Harold Dudley Papers, Special Collections, University of Maryland Libraries, College Park, Maryland
HFP	H. Franklin Paschall Papers, Southern Baptist Historical Library and Archives, Nashville, Tennessee
HH	Individual Correspondence Files, Post-Presidential Period, Herbert Hoover Papers, Herbert Hoover Presidential Library and Archives, West Branch, Iowa
HLB	Hugo L. Black Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
HST	Harry S. Truman Presidential Papers, Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum, Independence, Missouri
JCI	James C. Ingebretsen Papers, Special Collections & University Archives, University of Oregon Libraries, Eugene, Oregon
JFD	John Foster Dulles Papers, Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
JHP	J. Howard Pew Papers, Hagley Museum and Library, Wilmington, Delaware
JML	James M. Lambie Jr. Records, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum, Abilene, Kansas
JWM	John Willard and Alice Sheets Marriott Papers, Special Collections and Archives, J. Willard Marriott Library, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah
JWT-AF	J. Walter Thompson Company, Account Files, Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special Collections Library, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
JWT-NC	J. Walter Thompson Company, Newsletter Collection, Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special Collections Library, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
KC	Knights of Columbus Archives, Knights of Columbus Museum, New Haven, Connecticut
KOW	K. Owen White Papers, Southern Baptist Historical Library and Archives, Nashville, Tennessee
NAE	National Association of Evangelicals Records, Special Collections and Archives, Wheaton College, Wheaton, Illinois
NAM	National Association of Manufacturers Collection, Hagley Museum and Library, Wilmington, Delaware
NS-DDE	Name Series, Dwight D. Eisenhower Papers (Ann Whitman File), Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum, Abilene, Kansas
OF-DDE	Official Files, White House Central Files, Dwight D. Eisenhower Records as President, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum, Abilene, Kansas
OH-DDE	Oral History Collection, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum, Abilene, Kansas
PPF-DDE	President’s Personal File, Records as President, White House Central File, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum, Abilene, Kansas
RF	Ralph Flanders Collection, Special Collections Research Center, Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York
RFF	Records of the Fellowship Foundation, Billy Graham Center Archives, Wheaton, Illinois
RM-RMN	Religious Matters Series, White House Central Files, Richard M. Nixon Presidential Library and Museum, Yorba Linda, California
ROF	Robert O. Ferm Papers, Billy Graham Evangelical Association, Billy Graham Center Archives, Wheaton, Illinois
RPPL-DDE	Reports to the President on Pending Legislation, White House Records Office, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Papers, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum, Abilene, Kansas
RRF	Reading Room Files, Billy Graham Center Archives, Wheaton, Illinois
SBC-CLC	Southern Baptist Convention, Christian Life Commission Resource Files, Southern Baptist Historical Library and Archives, Nashville, Tennessee
SBC-ECR	Southern Baptist Convention, Executive Committee Records, Southern Baptist Historical Library and Archives, Nashville, Tennessee
SRB	J. Walter Thompson Company, Sidney Ralph Bernstein Company History Files, 1873–1964, Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special Collection Library, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
SS-DDE	Speech Series, Ann Whitman Files, Dwight D. Eisenhower Papers, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Museum and Library, Abilene, Kansas
SW	Sinclair Weeks Papers, Rauner Special Collections Library, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire
TCC	Tom C. Clark Papers, Tarlton Law Library, University of Texas, Austin, Texas
USCOC	US Chamber of Commerce Records, Hagley Museum and Library, Wilmington, Delaware
WH	Willis Haymaker Collection, Billy Graham Center Archives, Wheaton, Illinois
WOD	William O. Douglas Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.

INTRODUCTION

1. NYT, 5 June 1952; WP, 6 November 1952; Billy Graham, Just as I Am: The Autobiography of Billy Graham (San Francisco: Harper, 1997), 199.

2. Mrs. Joseph W. Barker to Hugh Scott, 19 December 1952, Box 737, OF-DDE; WP, 21 January 1949, 20 January 1953; Sherman Adams, Firsthand Report: The Story of the Eisenhower Administration (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1961), 65.

3. Norman Grubb, Modern Viking: The Story of Abraham Vereide, Pioneer in Christian Leadership (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1961), 111; Graham, Just as I Am, 199; NYT, 20 January 1953.

4. LAT, 21 January 1953; Dwight D. Eisenhower, inaugural address, 20 January 1953, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1953 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1960), 1; Grubb, Modern Viking, 131; “President Eisenhower’s Inaugural Prayer,” pamphlet, Box 102, JFD.

5. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Mandate for Change, 1953–1956 (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1963), 100; Eisenhower, inaugural address, 20 January 1953, 2–3; CT, 21 January 1953; BG, 20–21 January 1953; NYT, 19 January 1953.

6. Program, International Council for Christian Leadership, Annual Christian Action Conference, 5–9 February 1953, Box 504, RFF; “The Breakfast Groups” newsletter, March 1953, RRF; Dwight D. Eisenhower, “Remarks at the Dedicatory Prayer Breakfast of the International Christian Leadership,” 5 February 1953, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1953 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1960), 37–38; Nancy Gibbs and Michael Duffy, The Preacher and the Presidents: Billy Graham in the White House (New York: Hachette, 2007), 43.

7. Historians have chronicled at length the “moral establishment” of Protestant piety that informed and inflected the United States from its founding, of course, but this religious sensibility was never codified or made nearly as concrete in earlier eras as it would be in the modern one. See Isaac Kramnick and R. Laurence Moore, The Godless Constitution: The Case Against Religious Correctness (New York: W. W. Norton, 1997); David Sehat, The Myth of American Religious Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011).

8. For recent examples of the growing literature on the religious nature of the Cold War, see Andrew Preston, Sword of the Spirit, Shield of Faith: Religion in American War and Diplomacy (New York: Knopf, 2012); Jonathan Herzog, The Spiritual-Industrial Complex: America’s Religious Battle Against Communism in the Early Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011); T. Jeremy Gunn, Spiritual Weapons: The Cold War and the Forging of an American National Religion (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2008); William Inboden, Religion and American Foreign Policy, 1945–1960: The Soul of Containment (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008).

9. A. Roy Eckhardt, The Surge of Piety in America: An Appraisal (New York: Association Press, 1958), 22–23; Stephen J. Whitfield, The Culture of the Cold War, 2nd ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 83; Leo Calvin Rosten, Religions in America (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1963), 327.

10. Steven B. Epstein, “Rethinking the Constitutionality of Ceremonial Deism,” Columbia Law Review (December 1996), 2091; 343 US 312–313.

CHAPTER 1: “FREEDOM UNDER GOD”

1. NYT, 8 December 1940; NYHT, 14 December 1940.

2. Wendy L. Wall, Inventing the “American Way”: The Politics of Consensus from the New Deal to the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 53–54; Kim Phillips-Fein, Invisible Hands: The Making of the Conservative Movement from the New Deal to Reagan (New York: Norton, 2009), 13–14; Elizabeth A. Fones-Wolf, Selling Free Enterprise: The Business Assault on Labor and Liberalism, 1945–1960 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994), 25–26.

3. Frederick Rudolph, “The American Liberty League, 1934–1940,” American Historical Review, 56:1 (October 1950): 20; NYT, 25 August 1934; William E. Leuchtenburg, The FDR Years: On Roosevelt and His Legacy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), 124; transcript, Press Conference #137, Executive Offices of the White House, 24 August 1934, in Complete Presidential Press Conferences of Franklin D. Roosevelt (New York: Da Capo Press, 1972), 4:17–18.

4. For an excellent overview of Roosevelt’s religious faith, see Andrew Preston, Sword of the Spirit, Shield of Faith: Religion in American War and Diplomacy (New York: Knopf, 2012), 315–326.

5. James MacGregor Burns, The Lion and the Fox (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1956), 476; Samuel I. Rosenman, Working with Roosevelt (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1952), 23; transcript, Franklin D. Roosevelt, address accepting presidential nomination at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago, 2 July 1932, and transcript, Franklin D. Roosevelt, inaugural address, 4 March 1933, located in John T. Woolley and Gerhard Peters, American Presidency Project (http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws); Alison Collis Greene, “No Depression in Heaven: Religion and Economic Crisis in Memphis and the Delta, 1929–1941,” Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 2010, 138.

6. James A. Morone, Hellfire Nation: The Politics of Sin in American History (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003), 350–377; NYT, 13 July 1933; Jonathan Herzog, The Spiritual-Industrial Complex: America’s Religious Battle Against Communism in the Early Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 33.

7. CSM, 7 December 1940; NYT, 8 December 1940; WSJ, 9 and 10 December 1940; transcript, H. W. Prentis Jr., “Our American Heritage,” speech before the general session of the US Chamber of Commerce, 4 May 1939, reprinted in Vital Speeches of the Day, 15 June 1939.

8. Ann Fields, “Apostle to Millionaires,” Coronet, August 1944, 84–85.

9. Ralph Lord Roy, Apostles of Discord: A Study of Organized Bigotry and Disruption on the Fringes of Protestantism (Boston: Beacon Press, 1953); Chadwick Hall, “America’s Conservative Revolution,” Antioch Review, Summer 1955, 207; James W. Fifield Jr., The Single Path (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1957), 87.

10. Darren Dochuk, From Bible Belt to Sun Belt: Plain-Folk Religion, Grassroots Politics, and the Rise of Evangelical Conservatism (New York: Norton, 2010).

11. LAT, 14 December 1934, 17 September 1938; Fields, “Apostle to Millionaires,” 85–87; James W. Fifield Jr. with Bill Youngs, The Tall Preacher (Los Angeles: Pepperdine University Press, 1977), 94–109; program, Sunday Evening Club, n.d. [1946], Box 914, CBD.

12. Fields, “Apostle to Millionaires,” 87; LAT, 18 May 1934, 31 October 1934, 25 April 1941; Time, 25 April 1927; NYT, 22 November 1942.

13. Fifield, The Tall Preacher, 95, 112–113; Time, 3 August 1942.

14. Brooks R. Walker, The Christian Fright Peddlers (New York: Doubleday, 1964), 137; Fifield, The Tall Preacher, 141.

15. LAT, 23 December 1939.

16. Roy, Apostles of Discord, 286; Tenth Fall Bulletin, Spiritual Mobilization, n.d. [1944], 2, copy in Box 20, BB.

17. Fifield, “Religious Ideals and the Government’s Program,” number 9, series III, 25 July 1937, copy in Box 59, HH; Fifield, “America’s Future,” number 5, series IV [May 1938], Box 59, HH.

18. Herbert Hoover to Fifield, 28 April 1938, Box 59, HH; Fifield to Hoover, 31 October 1938, Box 59, HH; Fifield, “Christian Ministers and America’s Future,” n.d. [October 1938], Box 59, HH; Hoover to Fifield, 10 November 1938, Box 59, HH.

19. Fifield to Hoover, 14 November 1938, Box 59, HH; Fifield to Hoover, 14 May 1941, Box 59, HH; Fifield, “A Nation Being Led to War,” number 5, series VII, May 1941, copy in Box 59, HH.

20. LAT, 15, 17 June 1940; Tenth Fall Bulletin, Spiritual Mobilization, n.d. [1944], 6, 16, copy in Box 20, BB.

21. Eckhard V. Toy Jr., “Spiritual Mobilization: The Failure of an Ultraconservative Ideal in the 1950’s,” Pacific Northwest Quarterly 61, no. 2 (April 1970): 78; Fifield to Bruce Barton, 8 September 1945, Box 20, BB.

22. Fifield to J. Howard Pew, 14 September 1944, Box 6, JHP; Tenth Fall Bulletin, Spiritual Mobilization, n.d. [1944], 2, 3, 5, 11–12, 15, copy in Box 20, BB.

23. Fifield to Pew, 17 March 1944, Box 6, JHP; Fifield to Pew, 16 January 1945, Box 8, JHP; Fifield to Pew, 15 December 1944, Box 8, JHP; Pew to H. W. Prentis Jr., 13 January 1945, Box 8, JHP; Prentis to Pew, 15 January 1945, Box 8, JHP; Prentis to John Ballantyne, 15 January 1945, Box 8, JHP.

24. Philadelphia Inquirer, 27 April 1992.

25. Pew would spend much of his energy in the postwar era working within the Presbyterian Church and the National Council of Churches to reverse their trend toward liberalism. See E. V. Toy Jr., “The National Lay Committee and the National Council of Churches: A Case Study of Protestants in Conflict,” American Quarterly 21 (Summer 1969): 190–209.

26. Pew to Alfred P. Haake, 6 April 1948, Box 235, JHP; Niels Bjerre-Poulsen, Right Face: Organizing the American Conservative Movement, 1945–1965 (Copenhagen: Narayana Press, 2002), 105; Fifield to Pew, 28 September 1944, Box 6, JHP.

27. Pew to Fifield, 10 November 1944, Box 6, JHP; flyer, “Spiritual Mobilization,” n.d. [1944], Box 6, JHP; Pew to Haake, 13 July 1945, Box 235, JHP.

28. NYHT, 22 September 1934, 14 September 1938; BG, 18 March 1950; NYT, 3 November 1961.

29. Haake to Pew, 5 February 1945, and Pew to Haake, 8 February 1945, Box 235, JHP; Alfred P. Haake, “Outline for Spiritual Mobilization,” 13 January 1945, Box 235, JHP.

30. Haake to Fifield, 13 August 1945, Box 235, JHP; Spiritual Mobilization in Action: A Crusade for Freedom, booklet, n.d. [September 1945], copy in Box 59, HH; Wall, Inventing the “American Way,” 77–87.

31. Albert W. Hawkes to Pew, 18 March 1946, Box 10, JHP; Dochuk, From Bible Belt to Sun Belt, 116–117; Philips-Fein, Invisible Hands, 53–56; Fifield, “Looking Towards a Better World,” 7 May 1946, 5, copy in Box 10, JHP; Fifield to Pew, 7 January 1947, Box 15, JHP.

32. Fifield to Pew, 27 February 1947, Box 15, JHP; Fifield, “Director to Representatives,” Spiritual Mobilization, n.d. [1946], 1, in Box 10, JHP.

33. Letter from Rev. E. Ray Burchell, Chester, Connecticut, Spiritual Mobilization, n.d. [1946], 4, in Box 10, JHP; “What Can I Do About It?,” Spiritual Mobilization, 15 April 1947, 3, in Box 15, JHP.

34. LAT, 15 July 1947; CT, 16 August 1947; Norfolk Journal and Guide, 11 October 1947; BG, 11 October 1947; Table 1, U.S. Census of Population, 1950, part IV, volume I (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1951); “About National Preaching Program,” Spiritual Mobilization, 28 November 1947, 3, in Box 15, JHP.

35. Fifield to Pew, 4 September 1947, Box 15, JHP; Pew, Form Letter Draft, n.d. [September 1947], Box 15, JHP; Fifield to Pew, 24 September 1947, Box 15, JHP; Spiritual Mobilization Contributors List, n.d. [September 1947], Box 15, JHP; Fifield to Alfred P. Sloan Jr., 16 March 1949, Box 54, JCI; Pew to William M. Rand, 22 October 1947, Box 15, JHP; Pew to Otto D. Donnell, 22 October 1947, Box 15, JHP.

36. Carey McWilliams, “Battle for the Clergy: The Story of ‘Spiritual Mobilization,’ a Growing Protestant Movement,” The Nation, 7 February 1948, 150–152.

37. Charles M. White to “Dear Friend,” 31 March 1948, Box 19, JHP; Patsy Peppers to Pew, 24 May 1948, Box 19, JHP; Fifield to Pew, 2 August 1948, Box 19, JHP.

38. Fifield to Pew, 21 March 1949, Box 24, JHP; Fifield to Martin H. Hannum, 20 January 1950, Box 54, JCI; Pew to Fifield, 22 November 1950, Box 27, JHP.

39. The Freedom Story, pamphlet, n.d. [1949], Box 27, JHP; Ingebretsen to Fifield, 31 January 1950, Box 54, JCI.

40. See episode list and specific summaries for “The South Comes Back” (episode #39B) and “Boy Scouts of America” (episode #40B), available at Radio Gold Index (http://radiogoldindex.com/cgi-local/p2.cgi?ProgramName=The+Freedom+Story; accessed 7 March 2011).

41. Fifield to Bruce Barton, 8 November 1949, Box 20, BB; Fifield to Pew, 30 March 1949, Box 24, JHP; “Memorandum from Dr. Fifield,” 2 September 1949, Box 24, JHP; Faith and Freedom 1 (June 1950): 14; Fifield to Hoover, 31 October 1951, Box 59, HH.

42. Eckard V. Toy, “Faith and Freedom, 1949–1960,” in The Conservative Press in Twentieth-Century America, ed. Ronald Lora and William Henry Longton (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1999), 154–156; Philips-Fein, Invisible Hands, 81–83; Donald T. Critchlow, Phyllis Schlafly and Grassroots Conservatism: A Woman’s Crusade (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005), 25–26; Judith Thurman, “Wilder Women,” New Yorker, 10 August 2009, 74–80; Rose Wilder Lane, Give Me Liberty (n.p.: Liberty Library, 1945), 56.

43. Haake to Pew, 5 February 1945, Box 235, JHP; “The Editor Comments,” Faith and Freedom, December 1949, 1–3.

44. “The Director’s Page,” Faith and Freedom, September 1951, 12; “The Director’s Page,” Faith and Freedom, December 1949, 4; Roy, Apostles of Discord, 292; “The Director’s Page,” Faith and Freedom, September 1951, 12.

45. “The Editor Comments,” Faith and Freedom, May 1952, 2; Irving E. Howard, “The Origins of the Social Gospel,” Faith and Freedom, May 1952, 3–7; Henry C. Link, “A Plea for Religious Intolerance,” Faith and Freedom, October 1950, 3–5.

46. George S. Benson, “The Conch Island Disaster,” Faith and Freedom, June 1950, 3–4; Ludwig von Mises, “The Alleged Injustice of Capitalism,” Faith and Freedom, June 1950, 5–8; R. J. Rushdoony, “Noncompetitive Life,” Faith and Freedom, June 1950, 9–10; Allen W. Rucker, “Human Rights and Property Rights,” Faith and Freedom, June 1950, 12–13; Faith and Freedom, June 1950, 1, 15.

47. Fifield to Alfred P. Sloan [Jr.], 29 November 1950, Box 54, JCI.

48. See, for instance, “The Director’s Page,” Faith and Freedom, March 1951, 14.

49. Los Angeles Examiner, 8 June 1951.

50. Committee to Proclaim Liberty, press release, 11 June 1951, Box 69, JCI.

51. Pew to Fifield, 22 May 1951, Box 28, JHP; Committee to Proclaim Liberty, press release, 11 June 1951, Box 69, JCI; LAT, 1 July 1951; Arthur M. Schlesinger, The Coming of the New Deal, 1933–1935 (Cambridge, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1958), 411; Charles K. McFarland, Roosevelt, Lewis and the New Deal (Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1970), 37.

52. “The Preface to the Declaration of Independence,” Faith and Freedom, June 1951, 3.

53. Committee to Proclaim Liberty, booklet, Box 737, OF-DDE.

54. Faith and Freedom, September 1951, 6; “Proclaim Liberty” packet, n.d. [1951], Box 69, JCI. The worship calendars were available on short notice, but Spiritual Mobilization still claimed it answered requests for more than seventy thousand within a few days’ time. See “The Story Behind the Committee to Proclaim Liberty,” n.d. [1951], Box 69, JCI.

55. “The Story Behind the Committee to Proclaim Liberty”; “Proclaim Liberty Throughout All the Land,” pamphlet, n.d. [1952], Box 69, JCI; Faith and Freedom, September 1951, 6–7.

56. Kenneth W. Sollitt, “Freedom Under God,” Faith and Freedom, September 1951, 8–11.

57. Donald Hayne to Cecil B. DeMille, telegram, 24 May 1951, Box 945, CBD; transcript, “Mr. Ingebretsen’s Telephone Conversation with Mr. Merle Jones and Mr. S. M. Nicholson of Columbia Broadcasting System,” 8 June 1951, Box 69, JCI.

58. Memorandum and handwritten note, Box 945, CBD; transcript, “Telephone Conversation Between Mr. McCray and Mr. Ingebretsen,” 12 June 1951, Box 69, JCI; “Proclaim Liberty” packet, n.d. [1951], Box 69, JCI; “The Story Behind the Committee to Proclaim Liberty”; transcript, General Matthew B. Ridgway, “Freedom Under God,” 1 July 1951, Box 69, JCI.

59. News clippings, Box 69, JCI.

60. Similar “Freedom Under God” proclamations were issued by the governors of the states of Arkansas, Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Idaho, Indiana, Maine, Maryland, Minnesota, Mississippi, Nevada, New York, Ohio, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Utah, and Washington, as well as the territory of Hawaii, and also by the mayors of Birmingham, Charlotte, Cheyenne, Chicago, Indianapolis, Minneapolis, New Orleans, New York City, Norfolk, Phoenix, Providence, St. Louis, Seattle, and Wilmington. See “Proclaim Liberty” packet; “The Story Behind the Committee to Proclaim Liberty”; and transcript, “Telephone Call to Mr. Ingebretsen from Mr. Gamble,” 12 June 1951, all in Box 69, JCI.

61. News clippings, Box 69, JCI; “The Story Behind the Committee to Proclaim Liberty.”

62. “The Story Behind the Committee to Proclaim Liberty”; Fifield to Pew, 9 November 1951, Box 30, JHP; Fifield to Hoover, 9 November 1951, Box 59, HH.

CHAPTER 2: THE GREAT CRUSADES

1. Billy Graham, “We Need Revival,” text reprinted in Billy Graham, Revival in Our Time (Wheaton, IL: Van Kampen Press, 1950), 69–80; LAT, 26 September 1949; Los Angeles Sentinel, 29 September 1949.

2. Graham, “We Need Revival,” 72–73; LAT, 29 September, 31 October, 21 November 1949; Marshall Frady, Billy Graham: A Parable of American Righteousness (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979), 201–204; “A Spiritual Upheaval! The 1949 History-Making Billy Graham Revival in Los Angeles,” pamphlet, Box 1, WH.

3. For recent examples of the growing literature on the religious traits of the Cold War, see Preston, Sword of the Spirit, Shield of Faith; Herzog, Spiritual-Industrial Complex; Gunn, Spiritual Weapons; Inboden, Religion and American Foreign Policy.

4. Billy Graham, “God Before Gold,” Nation’s Business, September 1954, 34 (emphasis in original).

5. William Martin, A Prophet with Honor: The Billy Graham Story (New York: William Morrow, 1991), 140; John Corry, “God, Country, and Billy Graham,” Harper’s Magazine, February 1969, 34.

6. James L. McAllister, “Evangelical Faith and Billy Graham,” Social Action, March 1953, 23; William C. Loughlin, Billy Graham: Revivalist in a Secular Age (New York: Ronald Press, 1960), 99–100.

7. Loughlin, Billy Graham, 99, 102–103.

8. Transcript, Franklin D. Roosevelt, inaugural address, 20 January 1937, located in Woolley and Peters, American Presidency Project (http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws); Abraham Vereide to Franklin Roosevelt, 5 February 1937, President’s Personal File, Container 231, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, cited in Ronald Isetti, “The Moneychangers and the Temple: FDR, American Civil Religion, and the New Deal,” Presidential Studies Quarterly, Summer 1996, 682.

9. ST, 20 October 1917, 29 May 1927, 11 September 1955; Jeff Sharlet, The Family: The Secret Fundamentalism at the Heart of American Power (New York: HarperCollins, 2008): 96; Grubb, Modern Viking, 47–49.

10. William E. Leuchtenburg, Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal (New York: Harper, 1963), 113–114; Sharlet, The Family, 101–108; Kevin Starr, Endangered Dreams: The Great Depression in California (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 93–120.

11. Richard C. Berner, Seattle 1921–1940: From Boom to Bust (Seattle: Charles Press, 1992), 333–348; ST, 27 May 1934; Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 13 May 1934; Bruce Nelson, Workers on the Waterfront: Seamen, Longshoremen, and Unionism in the 1930s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990), 190.

12. Grubb, Modern Viking, 54–56; ST, 15 December 1943; “Christian Leaders: On the Way Up,” Christian Life, August 1955, clipping in Box 456, RFF; Sharlet, The Family, 111.

13. Grubb, Modern Viking, 57; Berner, Seattle, 349–355, 398–401; LAT, 10 March 1938; NYT, 10 March 1938; WSJ, 10 March 1938; Roger Morris, Richard Milhous Nixon: The Rise of an American Politician (New York: Henry Holt, 1991), 726.

14. ST, 14 July 1935; “A National Program for City Chapel, Inc.,” report, n.d. [1942], Box 496, RFF; “The Breakfast Groups, Information and Invitation,” copy, n.d. [1943], Box 496, RFF; Grubb, Modern Viking, 66; Vereide to Walter Bailey, 26 March 1946, Box 497, RFF.

15. “The Breakfast Group,” pamphlet, n.d. [1942], RRF; Grubb, Modern Viking, 69–70; House of Representatives Breakfast Group, program, March 1944, RRF; House of Representatives Breakfast Group, program, September 1945, RRF; United States Senate Breakfast Group, program, May 1945, RRF.

16. The presidency of the House prayer group largely rotated between Democratic and Republican members, for instance, but of the Democrats who held the leadership post in the years between 1942 and 1958, seven of the eight represented southern states. See James B. Utt to Le Roy Anderson, 15 March 1959, Box 407, RFF.

17. House of Representatives Breakfast Group, program, March 1944, RRF; Grubb, Modern Viking, 72.

18. Floyd M. Downs to Vereide, 23 March 1945, Box 497, RFF; Vereide to Downs, 28 March 1945, Box 497, RFF; Harold H. Burton to Downs, 29 March 1945, Box 497, RFF.

19. Grubb, Modern Viking, 71, 74–75, 82, 87, 89; Raymond Willis and Vereide to Joseph N. Pew Jr., 14 June 1945, and J. N. Pew Jr. to Vereide, 18 June 1945, Box 497, RFF.

20. Vereide to Frank [Carlson?], 29 June 1946, Box 497, RFF; Sharlet, The Family, 156–157; The Breakfast Groups Informer, January 1946, RRF.

21. Grubb, Modern Viking, 111.

22. Vereide to Alexander Wiley and A. Willis Robertson, 12 January 1950, Box 466, RFF; Drew Pearson, “A Prayer Dissolves Party Lines,” WP, 5 February 1950.

23. Pearson, “A Prayer Dissolves Party Lines”; John Phillips to Vereide, 9 August 1948 and 10 August 1948, Box 407, RFF; Vereide to Phillips, 19 August 1948, Box 407, RFF; Christianity Today, 14 March 1960; “Christian Leaders: On the Way Up”; 1950 Program of the Annual Meeting of International Christian Leadership, Inc., Box 504, RFF; Christian Leadership News, August 1952, copy in Box 106, RF.

24. [Vereide] to Members of the House of Representatives Breakfast Group, 15 August 1949, Box 407, RFF.

25. Frady, Billy Graham, 216; Martin, Prophet with Honor, 123–124, 133; Gibbs and Duffy, The Preacher and the Presidents, 6–7; Greater Atlanta Evangelistic Crusade, pamphlet, n.d. [1950], Box 1, WH; CSM, 13 April 1950; LAT, 14 September 1950; Greater Fort Worth Evangelistic Crusade, statistical summary, n.d. [March 1951], Box 1, WH; Greater Fort Worth Evangelistic Crusade, press release, n.d. [February 1951], Box 1, WH.

26. Bryan Burrough, The Big Rich: The Rise and Fall of the Greatest Texas Oil Fortunes (New York: Penguin, 2009), 251; Robert A. Caro, The Path to Power (New York: Vintage Books, 1981), 617; John Connally with Mickey Herskowitz, In History’s Shadow: An American Odyssey (New York: Hyperion, 1994), 139; James Reston Jr., The Lone Star: The Life of John Connally (New York: Harper & Row, 1989), 159; Robert A. Caro, Master of the Senate (New York: Knopf, 2002), 305.

27. Reston, Lone Star, 159; Randall B. Woods, LBJ: Architect of American Ambition (New York: Free Press, 2006), 145; Alfred Steinberg, Sam Rayburn: A Biography (New York: Hawthorne Books, 1975), 273; Frady, Billy Graham, 231–232; Sam Kashner and Jennifer MacNair, The Bad and The Beautiful: Hollywood in the Fifties (New York: Norton, 2003), 123–124; promotional booklet for Oiltown, U.S.A., n.d. [1954], Folder 3, EH.

28. Loughlin, Billy Graham, 97–98; McAllister, “Evangelical Faith and Billy Graham,” 23; Billy Graham, “God Is My Witness,” McCall’s, June 1964, 64.

29. Frady, Billy Graham, 240; Martin, A Prophet with Honor, 131–133.

30. Merle Miller, Plain Speaking: An Oral Biography of Harry S. Truman (New York: Berkley, 1974), 363; Gibbs and Duffy, The Preacher and the Presidents, 20.

31. Martin, A Prophet with Honor, 144; WP, 15 July 1950; Loughlin, Billy Graham, 108–109.

32. Billy Graham to “Dear Pastor,” 5 January 1952, Box 1, WH; invitation, Business Men’s Luncheon Meetings, Greater Washington Evangelistic Crusade, n.d. [1951], Box 1, WH; WP, 5 May 1951; A. S. Herlong Jr., Clarence G. Burton, Katherine St. George, and Vereide to Members of the House Breakfast Group, 14 December 1951, Box 504, RFF; Donald Scott McAlpine, “Mr. Christian of Washington,” United Evangelical Action, 1 July 1954, 6; Gibbs and Duffy, The Preacher and the Presidents, 26–27.

33. WP, 13, 21, 26–27 January, 16 February 1952; prayer card, n.d. [1952], Box 1, WH; Martin E. Marty, Under God, Indivisible: Modern American Religion (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 3:153; “Rockin’ the Capitol,” Time, 13 March 1952; LAT, 24 January 1952.

34. Gibbs and Duffy, The Preacher and the Presidents, 27; William Martin, With God on Our Side: The Rise of the Religious Right in America (New York: Broadway Books, 1996), 31; CSM, 4 February 1952; BG, 4 February 1952; LAT, 4 February 1952; WP, 4 February 1952.

35. Martin, A Prophet with Honor, 132; Joan M. Morris to Harry S. Truman, 31 July 1950, Box 12, White House Central Files, Public Opinion Mail File, HST.

36. Diary entry, 18 February 1952, in Off the Record: The Private Papers of Harry S. Truman, ed. Robert H. Ferrell (New York: Harper & Row, 1980), 239. In the King James Version of the Bible, the first six verses of the sixth chapter of the Book of Matthew read: “Take heed that ye do not your alms before me, to be seen of them: otherwise ye have no reward of your Father which is in heaven. Therefore when thou doest thine alms, do not sound a trumpet before thee, as the hypocrites do in the synagogues and in the streets, that they may have glory of me. Verily I say unto you, They have their reward. But when thou doest alms, let not thy left hand know what thy right hand doeth: That thine alms may be in secret: and thy Father which seeth in secret himself shall reward thee openly. And when thou prayest, enter into thy closet, and when thou hast shut thy door, pray to thy Father which is in secret; and thy Father which seeth in secret shall reward thee openly.”

37. CR, 5 February 1952, 771; BG, 5 February 1952.

38. Frederic Fox, “The National Day of Prayer,” Theology Today 29, no. 3 (October 1972): 258–259. The quotation within the presidential proclamation cited the language of the resolution. See CR, 14 February 1952, 977–978.

39. Martin, With God on Our Side, 31.

40. Paul Hutchinson, “The President’s Religious Faith,” Life, 22 May 1954, 151–153; Jerry Bergman, “President Eisenhower and the Influence of the Jehovah’s Witnesses,” Kansas History, Autumn 1998, 149–167.

41. Martin, A Prophet with Honor, 147; Paul Hutchinson, “The President’s Religious Faith,” Life, 22 May 1954, 156; Carlo D’Este, Eisenhower: A Soldier’s Life (New York: Holt, 2003), 527.

42. Dwight D. Eisenhower to Clifford Roberts, 29 July 1952, Box 27, NS-DDE; news clipping, “Dwight D. Eisenhower’s Bible-Based Legacy,” Box 48, FEF; NYT, 4 May 1948.

43. Connally, In History’s Shadow, 143; Graham, “God Is My Witness,” 64; Graham, Just as I Am, 188–189; Frady, Billy Graham, 255.

44. Graham, Just as I Am, 190; Martin, A Prophet with Honor, 147; Reston, Lone Star, 164.

45. LAT, 5 June 1952; CSM, 5 June 1952; NYT, 5 June 1952.

46. CSM, 12 July 1952; BS, 12 July 1952; Graham, Just as I Am, 191; Gibbs and Duffy, The Preacher and the Presidents, 38–39; Eisenhower to Arthur B. Langlie, 11 August 1952, Box 966, PPF-DDE.

47. M. J. Heale, American Anticommunism: Combatting the Enemy Within, 1830–1970 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), 161; Loughlin, Billy Graham, 110–112, 115; Frady, Billy Graham, 254.

48. John W. Turnbull to Herman Smith, 29 September 1952, Box 246, AES.

49. For his part, Niebuhr denounced Spiritual Mobilization as a front group for business, an organization that “has a political program identical with that of the National Association of Manufacturers, to which it adds merely a prayer and religious unction.” Reinhold Niebuhr, “U.S. Protestantism and Free Enterprise,” The Reporter 6, no. 4 (19 February 1952): 26. Fifield angrily denied the charges as “untrue” in his own journal; “The Director’s Page,” Faith and Freedom, April 1952, 13. See also Martin E. Marty, “Reinhold Niebuhr: Public Theology and the American Experience,” Journal of Religion 54, no. 4 (October 1974): 332–359, especially 349.

50. John W. Turnbull to Herman Smith, 29 September 1952, Box 246, AES; Christian Action, draft of press release, 24 October 1952, Box 246, AES; Chairman to John W. Turnbull, 30 October 1952, Box 246, AES; Charles W. Phillips to Hermon D. Smith, Box 246, AES; LAT, 31 October 1952.

51. Christian Leadership News, August 1952, 5, copy in Box 106, RF; Sharlet, The Family, 194.

52. “The Christian’s Political Responsibility,” Faith and Freedom, September 1952, 5–8; John Temple Graves, “Eisenhower’s Convictions,” Charleston News and Courier, 10 September 1952.

53. WP, 6 November 1952.

54. Graham, Just as I Am, 199; Frady, Billy Graham, 257.

CHAPTER 3: “GOVERNMENT UNDER GOD”

1. BG, 23 December 1952; LAT, 23 December 1952; NYT, 23 December 1952.

2. For an exhaustive account of the many reactions to, and uses of, Eisenhower’s comment, see Patrick Henry, “‘And I Don’t Care What It Is’: The Tradition-History of a Civil Religion Proof-Text,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion, March 1981, 35–49.

3. William Lee Miller, Piety Along the Potomac: Notes on Politics and Morals in the Fifties (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1964), 34; Robert N. Bellah, “Civil Religion in America,” Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Winter 1967, 1–21; Will Herberg, Protestant-Catholic-Jew: An Essay in American Religious Sociology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983), 84.

4. Paul Hutchinson, “The President’s Religious Faith,” Life, 22 March 1954, 162; Eckhardt, The Surge of Piety, 22–23; Whitfield, Culture of the Cold War, 83; Luther G. Baker, “Changing Religious Norms and Family Values,” Journal of Marriage and the Family 27 (1965): 6; Rosten, Religions in America, 327.

5. NYT, 2 June 1949, 22 April 1950, 23 December 1952, 22 February 1953; LAT, 24 June 1949, 6 April 1951, 23 December 1952; CT, 22 November 1949; Freedoms Foundation Annual Report, “Four Years Work for Freedom,” 31 August 1953, Box 5, DB; WP, 10 February 1950.

6. First Congregational Church, “Fifteenth Anniversary Program,” 8 January 1950, Box 206, CBD; Don Belding to Eisenhower, 18 June 1952, Box 5, DB; National Better Business Bureau, Report on Freedoms Foundation, Inc., 11 December 1952, Papers of the Americanism Division, ALM; LAT, 6 April 1951; Roy, Apostles of Discord, 298; photograph, Freedoms Foundation Medal, “Committee to Proclaim Liberty ‘Freedom Under God,’” 1951, Box 69, JCI; CT, 22 November 1949; Dwight D. Eisenhower, Text of Prepared Remarks, “Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, November 21, 1949,” Box 5, DB.

7. Don Belding, “My First Meeting with General Eisenhower,” 10 September 1948, Box 5, DB; Freedoms Foundation Annual Report, “Four Years Work for Freedom,” 31 August 1953, Box 5, DB.

8. Eisenhower, Notarized Statement, Cook County, Illinois, 28 June 1952, Box 5, DB; Freedoms Foundation Annual Report, “Four Years Work for Freedom,” 31 August 1953, Box 5, DB.

9. Eisenhower to Clifford Roberts, 29 July 1952, Box 27, NS-DDE; Graham, Just as I Am, 191–192.

10. Diary entry, 1 February 1953, in The Eisenhower Diaries, ed. Robert H. Ferrell (New York: W. W. Norton, 1981), 226. For greater detail on Elson’s promises of privacy and the president’s reaction to the unwanted publicity, see Dwight D. Eisenhower to Milton S. Eisenhower, 2 February 1953, copy in The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower, volume XIV: The Presidency: The Middle Way, ed. Louis Galambos and Daun Van Ee (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996).

11. Whitfield, Culture of the Cold War, 88; James Hagerty, interview by Ed Edwin, Columbia University Oral History Project, Interview 7, 17 April 1968, copy of transcript located in Oral History #91, OH-DDE. Emphasis added.

12. American Legion, Digest of Minutes, National Executive Committee Meetings, 24 and 28 August 1952, 84, Reference Room, AL; American Legion, Digest of Minutes, National Executive Committee Meetings, October 1952, 36, Reference Room, AL; American Legion, “Back to God: Grace Before Meals” table card, Papers of the Americanism Division, ALM.

13. American Legion, Reports to the 35th Annual National Convention, August 1953, 126–127, Reference Room, AL; CSM, 30 January 1953; BG, 1 February 1953; CT, 2 February 1953; American Legion, Digest of Minutes, National Executive Committee Meetings, October 1953, 93, Reference Room, AL; American Legion, “Back to God” television program, 1 February 1953, Video Collection, AL, DVD copy in author’s possession.

14. NYT, 8 February 1942; CT, 3 May 1942; American Legion, 1953 “Back to God” program, Video Collection, AL.

15. American Legion, 1953 “Back to God” program, Video Collection, AL; Dwight D. Eisenhower, “Remarks Recorded for the American Legion ‘Back to God’ Program,” 1 February 1953, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1953 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1960), 11–12.

16. Press release, remarks of the president for “Back to God” program, 7 February 1954, Box 6, SS-DDE; Press release, remarks of the president for “Back to God” program, 20 February 1955, Box 11, SS-DDE.

17. Sharlet, The Family, 187; NYT, 22 April 1947, 22 June 1952.

18. Robert Wuthnow, Red State Religion: Faith and Politics in America’s Heartland (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012), 207–210; Frank Carlson to Sherman Adams, 4 December 1952, Box 824, PPF-DDE; Carlson, “Background of the Presidential Prayer Breakfast,” February 1967, Box 456, RFF; Carlson, interview by David Horrocks, 7 March 1975, transcript located in Oral History #488, OH-DDE.

19. Conrad Hilton, “America on Its Knees,” in We Believe in Prayer, Lawrence M. Brings, ed. (Minneapolis: T. S. Denison, 1958), 40–41; International Christian Leadership Bulletin, June 1953, RRF; transcript, International Council for Christian Leadership, Third Annual Prayer Breakfast, 3 February 1955, copy in Box 819, PPF-DDE.

20. Program, International Council for Christian Leadership, Annual Christian Action Conference, 5–9 February 1953, Box 504, RFF; “The Breakfast Groups” newsletter, March 1953, RRF; Eisenhower, “Remarks at the Dedicatory Prayer Breakfast of the International Christian Leadership,” 5 February 1953, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1953 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1960), 37–38.

21. “The Breakfast Groups” newsletter, March 1953, RRF; Grubb, Modern Viking, 131.

22. “The Breakfast Groups” newsletter, March 1953, RRF; Vereide to Thomas E. Stephens, 25 February 1953, Box 819, PPF-DDE; International Christian Leadership Bulletin, September 1954, RRF; news clipping, Christian Life, August 1955, Box 456, RFF; Doug Coe to E. Ross Adair, 10 November 1959, Box 407, RFF.

23. Vereide to Chester McFee, 7 February 1945, Box 497, RFF; International Christian Leadership Bulletin, January 1954, RRF. The Army and Navy Club Breakfast Group featured a steady stream of government officials as speakers. In the months after Chief Justice Warren’s “dedication ceremony,” that particular prayer breakfast featured speeches by Senator John Stennis, Secretary of Labor James Mitchell, Secretary of the Navy Robert Anderson, US District Court Judge Luther Youngdahl, and the heads of the Office of Defense Mobilization and the General Services Administration. See International Christian Leadership Bulletin, May 1954, RRF.

24. Graham, Just as I Am, 202; transcript, “Government Under God,” International Council for Christian Leadership, Annual Christian Action Conference, 4 February 1954, Box 819, PPF-DDE; International Christian Leadership Bulletin, March 1954, RRF.

25. Transcript, International Council for Christian Leadership, Third Annual Prayer Breakfast, 3 February 1955, copy in Box 819, PPF-DDE; Bulletin of International Christian Leadership, March 1955, RRF; program, International Council for Christian Leadership, Annual Christian Action Conference, February 3–5, 1955, Box 504, RFF.

26. Remarks of the President, 2 February 1956, Box 14, SS-DDE; Bulletin of International Christian Leadership, March 1956, RRF; CSM, 2 February 1956, 21 March 1956.

27. Ezra Taft Benson, Cross Fire: The Eight Years with Eisenhower (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1962), 36–38.

28. Ibid., 49; Herbert S. Parmet, Eisenhower and the American Crusades (New York: Macmillan, 1972), 176; Edward L. R. Elson to Eisenhower, 14 January 1953, Box 401, CF-DDE; Eisenhower to cabinet members, 3 February 1953, Box 1, CS-DDE; minutes of cabinet meeting, 6 February 1953, Box 1, CS-DDE.

29. Parmet, Eisenhower and the American Crusades, 168, 186. For an overview of Dulles’s religious faith and its influence on his public life, see Preston, Sword of the Spirit, Shield of Faith, 384–409, 450–464.

30. Committee to Proclaim Liberty, Press Release, 11 June 1951, Box 69, JCI; note, Oveta Culp Hobby [February 1953], Box 1, CS-DDE.

31. Benson, Cross Fire, 47–48; G. Bromley Oxnam to Dulles, 24 June 1952, Box 63, JFD; minutes of National Conference on Maintenance of United States Constitutional Separation of Church and State, 13 October 1947, Box 16, AUSCS; Fulton J. Sheen to Dulles, 2 December 1952, Box 64, JFD; The Secretary of State on Faith of Our Fathers (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1954), 2, 6, copy in Box 58, JFD.

32. Sidney Hatkin to William L. White, 4 February 1954, Box 6, ACLU; Hatkin to White, 18 April 1954, Box 6, ACLU; program, Pentagon Good Friday service, 16 April 1954, Box 6, ACLU; Leo Pfeffer to Herbert Monte Levy, 4 March 1954, Box 6, ACLU; minutes, Free Speech Committee, American Civil Liberties Union, 16 March 1954, Box 6, ACLU; confidential memorandum, Theodore Leskes to Nathaniel H. Goodrich, 2 March 1954, Box 6, ACLU.

33. Peter Lyon, Eisenhower: Portrait of the Hero (Boston: Little, Brown, 1974), 466–467; Parmet, Eisenhower and the American Crusades, 170–171; Ann Fears Crawford and Jack Keever, John B. Connally: A Portrait in Power (Austin, TX: Jenkins, 1973), 81.

34. Parmet, Eisenhower and the American Crusades, 171–172; Benson, Cross Fire, 33–34; Robert H. Ferrell, ed., The Eisenhower Diaries (New York: Norton, 1981), 227; T.R.B., “Washington Wire,” New Republic, 15 December 1952; Adams, Firsthand Report, 62.

35. “The Shape of Things,” The Nation, 24 January 1953, 61; Claude Robinson to Sinclair Weeks, 24 March 1953, Box 48, SW; Opinion Research Corporation, “Business Leaders in Washington,” report, March 1953, Box 48, SW.

36. Eisenhower to Edgar Newton Eisenhower, 8 November 1954, The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower, volume XV, The Presidency: The Middle Way.

37. Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower: The President (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1984), 115, 158, 249–250, 459–460; Eisenhower, Mandate for Change, 501–502, 547–549; Rick Perlstein, Before the Storm: Barry Goldwater and the Unmaking of the American Consensus (New York: Hill and Wang, 2001), 27.

38. Clyde W. Taylor to the President, 10 April 1953, Box 830, PPF-DDE.

39. Memorandum for Mr. Stephens, 19 May 1953, Box 830, PPF-DDE; memo for Betty Sisk, 12 June 1953, Box 830, PPF-DDE.

40. Rutherford L. Decker to Carl F. H. Henry, 25 May 1953, Box 66, NAE; promotional poster, March of Freedom, n.d. [1953], Box 66, NAE. After providing its inspiration, Carl Henry had not been involved in the development of the program and was horrified to see what had resulted. He had envisioned an event with real meaning to evangelical Christianity, but considered this list to be little more than a “promotional gimmick” that was “a big disappointment.” See Henry to Decker, 28 May 1953, Box 66, NAE.

41. R. L. Decker, “March of Freedom,” typescript, 1 June 1953, Box 66, NAE; memorandum, “A Description of the March of Freedom,” Box 66, NAE.

42. Jaeger and Jessen Inc., “Advance File on March of Freedom,” n.d. [1953], Box 66, NAE.

43. National Association of Evangelicals, “March of Freedom News,” n.d. [1953], Box 66, NAE; CSM, 2 July 1953; NYT, 3 July 1953; WP, 3 July 1953; Time, 15 July 1953; Decker, “March of Freedom.”

44. Faith and Freedom, June 1953, 10–12; “Proclaim Liberty Throughout the Land,” pamphlet, Box 69, JCI; Earl Warren, Independence Day proclamation, 29 June 1953, copy in Box 69, JCI.

45. Frederic Fox, “The National Day of Prayer,” Theology Today, October 1972, 260; Fulton J. Sheen to Eisenhower, 6 May 1953, and Eisenhower to Sheen, 13 May 1953; memorandum for Mr. Shanley, 3 June 1953; National Day of Prayer proclamation, June 1953, all in Box 737, OF-DDE.

46. Miller, Piety Along the Potomac, 42; Eisenhower to Francis Joseph Spellman, 8 July 1953, copy in The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower, volume XIV, The Presidency: The Middle Way

CHAPTER 4: PLEDGING ALLEGIANCE

1. CT, 18 May 1954; BG, 18 May 1954; Richard Kluger, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America’s Struggle for Racial Equality (New York: Vintage, 1975), 702, 708; US Congress, 83rd Cong., 1st Sess., S.J. Res. 87.

2. Morton Borden, “The Christian Amendment,” Civil War History, June 1979, 156–167; Kramnick and Moore, The Godless Constitution, 144–149.

3. Ralph E. Flanders, Senator from Vermont (Boston: Little, Brown, 1961), 122–131, 171–178; Flanders, “Business Looks at the N.R.A.,” Atlantic Monthly, November 1933, 625–634; Ben Pearse, “The Case of the Unexpected Senator,” Saturday Evening Post, 31 July 1954, 65; Flanders to Julius C. Holmes, 12 May 1952, Box 106, RF; Flanders to Frank Carlson, 14 May 1952, Box 106, RF.

4. See, for instance, Testimony of Mrs. P. de Shishmareff and A. J. MacFarland, US Congress, Senate, 83rd Cong., 2nd Sess., Subcommittee on Constitutional Amendments, Judiciary Committee, “Proposing an Amendment to the Constitution of the United States Recognizing the Authority and Law of Jesus Christ,” 13 and 17 May 1954 (hereafter cited as “Christian Amendment Hearings”), 3, 25.

5. Testimony of R. E. Robb, Christian Amendment Hearings, 26–31. Robb’s arguments on the “twofold” nature of the Constitution of the United States appear to have been considerably drawn from the work of the nineteenth-century Transcendentalist author Orestes A. Brownson. See Brownson, The American Republic: Constitution, Tendencies and Destiny (New York: P. O’Shea, 1866), especially chapter X.

6. Testimony of J. Renwick Patterson, Christian Amendment Hearings, 44.

7. 343 US 312–313.

8. Epstein, “Ceremonial Deism,” 2091.

9. Ibid.

10. Richard J. Ellis, To the Flag: The Unlikely History of the Pledge of Allegiance (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2005), 24–33.

11. Ibid., 13–19.

12. Ibid., 54–71; Time, 17 May 1954; NYT, 22 April 1953.

13. Christopher J. Kauffman, Faith and Fraternalism: The History of the Knights of Columbus, 1882–1982 (New York: Harper & Row, 1982), 137, 377, 385; “Let’s Get This Clear,” Columbia, August 1955, 3; Knights of Columbus News, 24 May 1954, copy in periodicals collection, KC.

14. WP, 14 November 1961; Ellis, To the Flag, 131; extension of remarks by Louis C. Rabaut, 21 April 1953, CR, Appendix, A2063.

15. ADA World, September 1953, 2A. The ADA charted legislators’ liberalism by scoring their stances on eleven key issues during the 1953 term. With a perfect ADA score, Rabaut took the liberal position on every single issue.

16. The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion, 1935–1971 (New York: Random House, 1972), 2:1140; LAT, 11 May 1953; Ellis, To the Flag, 131–132.

17. George M. Docherty, I’ve Seen the Day (Grand Rapids, MI: William C. Eerdmans, 1984), 139–149, 169–174; WP, 3 February 1952.

18. Program, the Seventh Washington Pilgrimage, “This Nation Under God,” April 1957, Box 1, HD; WP, 10 January 1950, 27 September 1951, 12 January, 19 April, 5 May 1952, 6 July 2002; NYT, 20, 29 September 1951; CSM, 29 September 1951; Docherty, I’ve Seen the Day, 158–159.

19. George M. Docherty, “Under God,” sermon preached at New York Avenue Presbyterian Church, Washington, DC, 7 February 1954, copy located online, www.nyapc.org/congregation/Sermon_Archives/text/1954/undergodsermon.pdf, accessed 21 January 2011; WP, 6 July 2002.

20. Docherty, “Under God.”

21. Ibid. In later decades, Docherty would express reservations about his sermon, especially the comments toward atheists. “I still consider my reasoning to be valid,” he wrote in his 1984 autobiography, “but the times should have overruled my philosophical arguments as irrelevant in light of the greater issues at hand. A false patriotism was being aroused by the bogus threat of Communist encroachment; McCarthyism darkened the airwaves; superpatriots were prone to ask not whether they were on God’s side, but whether God was on theirs.” Politically, Docherty drifted ever more to the left in the ensuing decades, marching with Martin Luther King Jr. in the Selma protests and supporting his criticism of the Vietnam War. See Docherty, I’ve Seen the Day, 160 (quotation), 187–266.

22. Docherty, I’ve Seen the Day, 159; Newsweek, 31 May 1954; Gerard Kaye and Ferenc M. Szasz, “Adding ‘Under God’ to the Pledge of Allegiance,” Encounter 34 (1973): 52; WP, 6 July 2002; Albert J. Drake to Dwight D. Eisenhower, 10 March 1954, Box 10, GF-DDE; Sherman Adams to Edward J. Cronin, 3 June 1954, Box 10, GF-DDE; NYT, 23 May 1954.

23. Christian Century, 26 May 1954; Alan Reitman, memorandum to Washington office, 24 May 1954, Box 1, ACLU; Church and State, June 1954, 7.

24. Specifically, the resolutions and their main sponsors in the 83rd Congress were, in order of bill introduction, H.J. Res. 243 (Louis C. Rabaut, Michigan Democrat); H.J. Res. 334 (John R. Pillion, New York Republican); H.J. Res. 345 (William E. Miller, New York Republican); H.J. Res. 371 (Charles Oakman, Michigan Republican); H.J. Res. 383 (Oliver P. Bolton, Ohio Republican); H.J. Res. 479 (Melvin Laird, Wisconsin Republican); H.J. Res. 497 (Peter J. Rodino, New Jersey Democrat); H.J. Res. 502 (Francis E. Dorn, New York Republican); H.J. Res. 506 (Hugh J. Addonizio, New Jersey Democrat); H.J. Res. 513 (William T. Granahan, Pennsylvania Democrat); H.J. Res. 514 (Barratt O’Hara, Illinois Democrat); H.J. Res. 518 (Thomas J. Lane, Massachusetts Democrat); H.J. Res. 519 (John P. Saylor, Pennsylvania Republican); H.J. Res. 521 (John J. Rooney, New York Democrat); H.J. Res. 523 (John E. Fogarty, Rhode Island Democrat); H.J. Res. 529 (Homer T. Angell, Oregon Republican); H.J. Res. 531 (Frazier Reams, Ohio Independent). Information from Louis C. Rabaut to Dwight D. Eisenhower, 9 June 1954, Box 443, OF-DDE.

25. ADA World, September 1954, 2M-3M.

26. US Congress, House, 83rd Cong., 2nd Sess., CR, 12 February 1954–1700. Oakman’s conservatism was made clear in the ADA rankings for that year’s legislative session. While Rabaut took the progressive side of an issue in eight of the nine votes used by the ADA that year, Oakman only did so in two of the nine. See ADA World, September 1954, 2M.

27. US Congress, House, 83rd Cong., 2nd Sess., CR, 12 February 1954, 1697–1700.

28. WP, 18 May 1954; US Congress, House, 83rd Cong., 2nd Sess., CR, 5 May 1954, 6077–6078; US Congress, House, Report No. 1693, “Amending the Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag of the United States,” 83rd Cong., 2nd Sess., 28 May 1954; US Congress, House, 83rd Cong., 2nd Sess., CR, 7 June 1954, 7758–7766; Kaye and Szasz, “Adding ‘Under God,’” 53.

29. Louis C. Rabaut to Dwight D. Eisenhower, 9 June 1954, Box 22, RPPL-DDE; Homer H. Gruenther to Gerald D. Morgan, 9 June 1954, Box 22, RPPL-DDE; Thomas E. Stephens to Gerald D. Morgan, 10 June 1954, Box 22, RPPL-DDE; CT, 15 June 1954; US Congress, Senate, 83rd Cong., 2nd Sess., CR, 22 June 1954, 8617–8618.

30. WP, 12 June 1955; Chicago Defender, 15 January 1955; LAT, 17 February, 13 October 1955; program, the Seventh Washington Pilgrimage, “This Nation Under God,” April 1957, Box 1, HD.

31. NYT, 28 July 1956.

32. Ibid.

33. Christophers News Notes 59 (May 1954): 2; NYT, 19 November 1986; US Congress, Senate, 83rd Cong., 1st Sess., CR, 27 March 1953, 2370–2371; ADA World, September 1953, 4A; WP, 12 April 1953; NYT, 12 April 1953.

34. NYT, 12 April 1953, 26 February, 4 April 1954; NYHT, 4 April 1954, cited in US Congress, House, 83rd Cong., 2nd Sess., CR, 8 April 1954, 4929–4930; US Congress, Senate, 83rd Cong., 2nd Sess., CR, 8 April 1954, 4867–4869; CT, 4 April 1954.

35. WP, 4 and 7 April 1954; US Congress, Senate, 83rd Cong., 2nd Sess., CR, 8 April 1954, 4867–4869; NYT, 9 April 1954.

36. WP, 21 April 1954; Church and State, May 1954, 1, 6.

37. US Congress, House, 83rd Cong., 2nd Sess., CR, 14 April 1954, 5187; US Congress, House, 84th Cong., 1st Sess., Report Authorizing Special Canceling Stamp “Pray for Peace,” H.R. 692, 7 June 1955; US Congress, Senate, 84th Cong., 2nd Sess., Transcript of Proceedings Before the Committee on the Post Office and Civil Service, H.R. 692, 6 March 1956; Maurice H. Stans to Percival F. Brundage, 13 June 1956, Box 75, RPPL-DDE; Roger W. Jones to Dwight D. Eisenhower, 15 June 1956, Box 75, RPPL-DDE; Miller, Piety on the Potomac, 41.

38. The Numismatist, October 1954, 1064; memorandum, “Re: In God We Trust,” 24 May 1972, Box 6, CEB; Donald K. Carroll to Charles E. Bennett, 28 December 1954, Box 83, CEB.

39. Florida Times-Union, 9 September 2003, 13 December 2010; NYT, 24 September 2010.

40. Donald K. Carroll to Charles E. Bennett, 28 December 1954, Box 83, CEB; James B. Utt to Le Roy Anderson, 15 March 1959, Box 407, RFF; International Christian Leadership Bulletin, February 1954, RRF.

41. CSM, 11 January 1955; Donald K. Carroll to Charles E. Bennett, 13 January 1955, Box 83, CEB; Philip J. Philbin to Frank Carlson, 12 January 1955, Box 407, RFF.

42. George M. Humphrey to Nelson A. Rockefeller, 25 February 1955, Box 565, OF-DDE; Nelson A. Rockefeller, memorandum for the president, 3 March 1955, Box 565, OF-DDE; Eisenhower to Rockefeller, 5 March 1955, Box 31, AS-DDE; W. Randolph Burgess to Charles Bennett, 7 April 1955, Box 83, CEB; Rockefeller, memorandum for the president, 22 April 1955, Box 31, AS-DDE; Eisenhower, memorandum for the secretary of the treasury, 26 April 1955, Box 31, AS-DDE.

43. US Congress, House, Committee on Banking and Currency, 84th Cong., 1st Sess., Miscellaneous Hearings (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1956); ADA World, September 1955, 2M–3M; Religious News Service, “House Unit Approves Motto on Currency,” report, 17 May 1955, Box 83, CEB; US Congress, House, Report No. 662, “Providing That All United States Currency and Coins Shall Bear the Inscription ‘In God We Trust,’” 84th Cong., 1st Sess., 26 May 1955; US Congress, House, 84th Cong., 1st Sess., CR, 7 June 1955, 7795–7796; LAT, 8 June 1955.

44. US Congress, Senate, 84th Cong., 1st Sess., Transcript of Proceedings Before the Committee on Banking and Currency, Nomination of William J. Hallahan to the Home Loan Bank Board and Other Matters, 27 June 1955; CT, 30 June 1955.

45. Typewritten notes for Bennett, n.d. [July 1955], Box 83, CEB; memorandum, H.R. 619, 1 July 1955, Box 565, OF-DDE; Eisenhower to Bennett, 14 July 1955, Box 565, OF-DDE; Murray Snyder to Howard Pyle, 29 March 1956, Box 565, OF-DDE.

46. Press release, Treasury Department, 25 July 1957, Box 83, CEB; NYT, 2 October 1957; Bennett to Robert B. Anderson, 27 July 1957, Box 83, CEB; Anderson to Bennett, 2 August 1957, Box 83, CEB; LAT, 20 August 1955; CT, 28 July 1957. After its introduction to the dollar bill in 1957, the motto was gradually applied to the new plates for other denominations, a time-consuming process that was not completed until October 1966. See H. J. Holtzclaw to Bennett, 27 October 1966, Box 6, CEB.

47. Bennett, interview by Don North, 17 December 1970, copy of transcript located in OH-DDE; Bennett to Legislative Reference Service, 28 April 1955, Box 83, CEB; Harold E. Snide, “The Officially Recognized Motto of the United States,” 5 May 1955, Box 6, CEB.

48. Bennett to “Dear Colleague,” 21 July 1955, Box 83, CEB; US Congress, House, 84th Cong., 1st Sess., CR, 21 July 1955, 11193.

49. Bennett to James B. Frazier Jr., 18 January 1956, Box 83, CEB; US Congress, House, Subcommittee No. 4, Judiciary Committee, 84th Cong., 2nd Sess., Hearings, “To Establish a National Motto of the U.S.” (unpublished), 24 February 1956; Ernest S. Griffith to Bennett, 14 March 1956, Box 83, CEB; Bennett to Emanuel Celler, 19 March 1956, Box 83, CEB; ADA World, August 1956, 3A; US Congress, House, Report No. 1959, “National Motto,” 84th Cong., 2nd Sess., 28 March 1956; NYT, 17 April 1956.

50. Louis Joughin, memorandum, “Re: Hennings Committee—Religion Area,” 22 September 1955, Box 1, ACLU; Alan Reitman, memorandum, “Re: In God We Trust Motto,” 8 May 1956, Box 6, ACLU; Reitman, memorandum, “In God We Trust Motto,” 17 May 1956, Box 800, ACLU; memo from Washington office to Reitman, “Re: In God We Trust Motto,” 18 May 1956, Box 800, ACLU; WP, 30 April 1956.

51. Letter Draft, “Dear Senator,” 29 May 1956, Box 6, ACLU; Patrick Murphy Malin to Everett McKinley Dirksen, 25 June 1956, Box 800, ACLU.

52. Bennett to Spessard L. Holland, 26 April 1956, Box 83, CEB; US Congress, Senate, Report No. 2703, “National Motto,” 84th Cong., 2nd Sess., 20 July 1956; US Congress, Senate, 84th Cong., 2nd Sess., CR, 23 July 1956, 13917; NYT, 24 July 1956; memorandum, “H.J. Res. 396, To Establish a National Motto of the United States,” 30 July 1956, Box 85, RPPL-DDE.

CHAPTER 5: PITCHMEN FOR PIETY

1. LAT, 18 July 1955; ABC-TV, Dateline Disneyland, 17 July 1955 (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JuzrZET-3Ew).

2. Robert Pettit, “One Nation Under Walt: Disney Theme Parks as Shrines to American Civil Religion,” paper presented at the 1986 annual conference of the Popular Culture Association, copy in author’s possession; ABC-TV, Dateline Disneyland.

3. Steven Watts, “Walt Disney: Art and Politics in the American Century,” Journal of American History 82 (June 1995): 100–105.

4. Robert De Roos, “The Magic Worlds of Walt Disney,” in Disney Discourse: Producing the Magic Kingdom, ed. Eric Smoodin (New York: Routledge, 1994), 67; Steven Watts, The Magic Kingdom: Walt Disney and the American Way of Life (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2001), 417.

5. NYT, 17 May 1962; Neal Gabler, Walt Disney: The Triumph of the American Imagination (New York: Vintage, 2007), 499, 578; Watts, Magic Kingdom, 392–393; LAT, 9 July 1957; WSJ, 4 February 1958.

6. Robert Griffith, “The Selling of America: The Advertising Council and American Politics, 1942–1960,” Business History Review, Autumn 1983, 389–390; NYT, 14 and 16 November 1941; CSM, 17 November 1941; C. B. Larrabee, “If You Looked for a Miracle,” Printer’s Ink, 21 November 1941, 15.

7. John Carlyle, “How Advertising Went to War,” Nation’s Business, November 1944, 72; Don Wharton, “The Story Back of the War Ads,” Reader’s Digest, July 1944, 103–105; Griffith, “The Selling of America,” 391–402; Wall, Inventing the “American Way,” 190–197; John Vianney McGinnis, “The Advertising Council and the Cold War,” Ph.D. diss., Syracuse University, 1991, 28–68.

8. The J.W.T. News, 30 October 1950, JWT-NC; Griffith, “The Selling of America,” 395–396.

9. “Religion & Madison Avenue,” Bulletin of Religion in American Life, January 1966, copy in Box 6, SRB; Volker R. Henning, “The Advertising Council and its ‘Religion in American Life’ Campaign,” Ph.D. diss., University of Tennessee, 1996, 107–110; advertisement proofs, Religion in American Life campaign, n.d. [1949], File #469, ACHF.

10. The J.W.T. News, 30 October 1950, JWT-NC; Committee for Religion in American Life, 1956 Annual Report, n.d. [June 1957], Box 38, JML; transcripts, public service announcements, Religion in American Life campaign, 1955, File #984, ACHF; J. Walter Thompson Company News, 19 November 1956, 25 November 1957, JWT-NC.

11. Advertising Council, “Radio Fact Sheet,” n.d. [1955], File #984, ACHF; transcripts, public service announcements, Religion in American Life Campaign, 1955, File #984, ACHF; Committee for Religion in American Life, 1956 Annual Report, n.d. [June 1957], Box 38, JML.

12. See generally Craig Allen, Eisenhower and the Mass Media: Peace, Prosperity and Prime-Time TV (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993); John E. Hollitz, “Eisenhower and the Admen: The Television ‘Spot’ Campaign of 1952,” Wisconsin Magazine of History 66 (Autumn 1982): 25–39; Stephen C. Wood, “Television’s First Political Spot Ad Campaign: Eisenhower Answers America,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 20 (Spring 1990): 265–283; Kurt Lang and Gladys Lang, Politics and Television (Chicago: Quadrangle, 1968), 84–91.

13. Advertising Council, “Radio Fact Sheet,” n.d. [1955], File #984, ACHF; Committee for Religion in American Life, 1956 annual report, n.d. [June 1957], Box 38, JML.

14. Committee for Religion in American Life, 1956 Annual Report, n.d. [June 1957], Box 38, JML.

15. Religion in American Life, 1956–57 Promotional Kit, Fall 1956, Box 39, JWT-AF; Committee for Religion in American Life, 1956 Annual Report, n.d. [June 1957], Box 38, JML. Sample ads for the 1956–57 campaign may be found in File #753, ACHF.

16. “Seven Steps to a Successful Local Religion in American Life Program,” Religion in American Life, 1956–57 Promotional Kit, Fall 1956, Box 39, JWT-AF.

17. “Suggested Proclamation by Mayors,” “Sample News Release on Your RIAL Campaign” (emphasis in original), and “Suggested Editorial,” Religion in American Life, 1956–57 Promotional Kit, Fall 1956, Box 39, JWT-AF.

18. Committee for Religion in American Life, 1956 Annual Report, n.d. [June 1957], Box 38, JML; Religion in American Life, “Radio Fact Sheet,” October 1957, File #821, ACHF; J. Walter Thompson Company News, 19 November 1956, JWT-NC.

19. Fred Seaton, transcript, first draft, “RIAL Speech—3/7/57” [28 February 1957], Box 12, Speech Series, FAS.

20. Committee for Religion in American Life, 1956 Annual Report, n.d. [June 1957], Box 38, JML.

21. Douglas T. Miller, “Popular Religion of the 1950’s: Norman Vincent Peale and Billy Graham,” Journal of Popular Culture 9 (Summer 1975): 66–67; Robert S. Brustein, “The New Faith of the Saturday Evening Post,” Commentary 16 (October 1953): 367–369; Dwight D. Eisenhower’s Favorite Poetry, Prose and Prayers, copy in Box 48, FEF.

22. Luccock cited in Eugene Exman, “Reading, Writing and Religion,” Harper’s Magazine, May 1953, 84; Miller, “Popular Religion,” 67; Publishers Weekly, 23 January 1954; Elson, America’s Spiritual Recovery, 51.

23. Miller, “Popular Religion,” 73, 67; Elson, America’s Spiritual Recovery, 41; Whitfield, Culture of the Cold War, 85.

24. Scott Eyman, Empire of Dreams: The Epic Life of Cecil B. DeMille (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2011), 369, 382, 396.

25. LAT, 9 April 1949, 9 January 1950, 25 March 1950, 10 March 1951; Fifteenth Anniversary Program, First Congregational Church, Los Angeles, 8 January 1950, Box 206, CBD; Cecil B. DeMille, “Champion of Democracy,” 8 January 1950, Box 206, CBD.

26. Cecil B. DeMille, “Champion of Democracy,” 8 January 1950, Box 206, CBD; Committee to Proclaim Liberty, press release, 11 June 1951, Box 69, JCI; memorandum and handwritten note, Box 945, CBD; Frady, Billy Graham, 202, 271.

27. Eyman, Empire of Dreams, 372–375, 399; Fifield, Memorandum, Box 15, JHP.

28. BG, 3 August 1952; CSM, 14 August 1952; LAT, 12 February 1956; WP, 24 October 1956.

29. NYT, 31 July 1955.

30. Eyman, Empire of Dreams, 440; Henry S. Noerdlinger, Moses and Egypt: The Documentation to the Motion Picture, The Ten Commandments (Los Angeles: University of Southern California Press, 1956).

31. Trailer and souvenir program, The Ten Commandments, directed by Cecil B. DeMille, 1956, in special edition DVD (Los Angeles: Paramount Studios, 2011); Eyman, Empire of Dreams, 473.

32. LAT, 12 February, 30 December 1956; Chicago Defender, 11 November 1957; NYT, 10 November 1957; Irish Times, 10 July 2009.

33. E. J. Ruegemer to DeMille, 20 June 1955, Box 990, CBD; Manny Meyers, “Spreading the Commandments,” Eagle, July 1954, 18–19, copy courtesy of FOE.

34. Cecil B. DeMille, “I Bare You on Eagles’ Wings,” Eagle, January 1955, FOE; Ruegemer to DeMille, 20 June 1955, Box 990, CBD.

35. Transcript, “Milwaukee Morning Exercises,” n.d. [1955], Box 993, CBD; Yul Brynner, “Ten Commandment Monolith Unveiled,” Eagle, April 1957, FOE.

36. LAT, 12 August 1956; DeMille to Ruegemer, 18 April 1956, Box 490, CBD; press release, Paramount Pictures News, 8 June 1956, Box 469, CBD; Manuel Meyers, “Monolith in the Peace Garden,” Eagle, November 1956, FOE; news release, International Peace Garden Committee, 3 June 1956, Box 490, CBD; news release, Paramount Studios, n.d. [June 1956], Box 490, CBD; Ruegemer to DeMille, 21 June 1956, Box 469, CBD; Manuel Meyers, “Modern Moses,” Eagle, February 1957, FOE.

37. Albert G. Minda to Ruegemer, 31 July 1957, Box 490, CBD; Edwin A. Bennett to Frank X. Kryzan, 21 June 1957, Box 801, ACLU; Minneapolis Star-Tribune, 30 August 2003.

38. Time, 9 February 1962; transcript, CBS Reports: Thunder on the Right, 22 February 1962, Box 177, FF; Frederick Schwarz, Beating the Unbeatable Foe: One Man’s Victory over Communism, Leviathan, and the Last Enemy (Washington, DC: Regnery, 1996), 297–300, 319–322, 326–330, 467–468.

39. Schwarz, Beating the Unbeatable Foe, 104–105.

40. Keith Wheeler, “Who’s Who in the Tumult of the Far Right,” Life, 9 February 1962, 117; Schwarz, Beating the Unbeatable Foe, 154–155, 204; Charles Raper Jonas to Frank B. Fuhr, 26 May 1956, Box 407, RFF.

41. Schwarz, Beating the Unbeatable Foe, 156–157; US Congress, House, Committee on Un-American Activities, 85th Cong., 1st Sess., International Communism (The Communist Mind), Staff Consultation with Frederick Charles Schwarz (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1957).

42. Schwarz, Beating the Unbeatable Foe, 157; CT, 30 December 1957; WSJ, 29 January 1958; CSM, 5 February 1958; Barry Goldwater, “Understanding Communism,” LAT, 8 March 1961; Marty, Under God, Indivisible, 371.

43. Schwarz, Beating the Unbeatable Foe, 162–167; program, School of Anti-Communism, Los Angeles, 11–15 December 1961, Box 43, CUAEL; program, Puget Sound School of Anti-Communism, 12–16 February 1962, Box 22, SBC-CLC; program, Greater New York School of Anti-Communism, 27–31 August 1962, Box 22, SBC-CLC; CACC Newsletter, October 1960; CT, 13 September 1960.

44. LAT, 8, 12 November 1960; registration form, Los Angeles Anti-Communism School, n.d. [1960], Section 1, FBI-CACC. The “small doses” quotation attributed to Khrushchev was widely disseminated in conservative circles, but no proof of its authenticity was ever established. In 1962, Representative Morris Udall (D-Ariz.) sought to determine its provenance, enlisting a range of authorities on the Soviet Union working at the Library of Congress, the Legislative Reference Service, the State Department, and the US Information Agency. None of them could find evidence that Khrushchev had ever said it. See Morris K. Udall, “Khrushchev Could Have Said It,” New Republic, 7 May 1962, 14–15.

45. Program, Greater Los Angeles School of Anti-Communism, 7–11 November 1960, Section 1, FBI-CACC; LAT, 12 November 1960, 9 March 1961.

46. WP, 30 August 1970; Schwarz, Beating the Unbeatable Foe, 192–193, 208–211, 214; NYT, 9 November 1998; memorandum, “SAC, Los Angeles, to Director, FBI,” 29 August 1961, Section 1, FBI-CACC.

47. Los Angeles Examiner, 18 August 1961; LAT, 28 August 1961; program, Greater Los Angeles School of Anti-Communism, 7–11 November 1960, Section 1, FBI-CACC; NYT, 26 July 1960.

48. Program, Southern California School of Anti-Communism, 28 August–1 September 1961, Section 1, FBI-CACC; LAT, 23, 27, 31 August 1961; Los Angeles Herald-Express, 30 August, 7 September 1961; Los Angeles Mirror, 31 August 1961; Samuel Lawrence Brenner, “Shouting at the Rain: The Voices and Ideas of Right-Wing Anti-Communist Americanists in the Era of Modern American Conservatism, 1950–1974,” Ph.D. dissertation, Brown University, 2009, 11, 236; Dochuk, From Bible Belt to Sun Belt, 223–224.

49. Los Angeles Herald-Express, 7 September 1961; Los Angeles Examiner, 4 September 1961; LAT, 29 September, 13 October 1961; NYT, 3 September 1961.

50. NYT, 16 October 1961; LAT, 17 October 1961; press release, KING News, 9 October 1961, Box 36, DSB; press release, KGW-TV Promotion Department, 10 October 1961, Box 36, DSB; telegram, Fred M. Jordan to Otto P. Brandt, 6 October 1961, Box 36, DSB.

51. CSM, 19 October 1961; LAT, 17 October 1961; Los Angeles Herald-Express, 17 October 1961; Los Angeles Examiner, 17 October 1961; Los Angeles Mirror, 17 October 1961; Schwarz, Beating the Unbeatable Foe, 226–229.

52. Robert Welch to Fred Schwarz, 6 September 1960, Box 94, CDJ.

53. Los Angeles Herald-Express, 7 September 1961; memorandum, SAC, Los Angeles, to director, FBI, “Re: California School of Anti-Communism (CSAC),” 18 October 1961, Section 1, FBI-CACC; [name redacted] to William G. Simon, 8 September 1961, Section 1, FBI-CACC.

54. LAT, 17 October 1961; prepared remarks, C. D. Jackson, “Hollywood’s Answer to Communism,” 16 October 1961, Box 94, CDJ.

55. George Murphy to C. D. Jackson, 18 October 1961, Box 94, CDJ.

56. In a frank but friendly exchange, Jackson repeated his newfound belief that the Australian was not the extremist he had originally believed him to be, but begged him “to disassociate yourself and your Crusade in a clear and cleancut way from the John Birch Society, which I frankly consider beyond the pale.” In response, Schwarz insisted he did not agree with the far-right views of Robert Welch but had “been trying to avoid fighting with other organizations thus wasting time and energy.” Despite their different stance on the Birchers, Schwarz concluded, the two men were clear allies in the fight to defend America. Jackson to Schwarz, 24 January 1962, Box 94, CDJ; Schwarz to Jackson, 27 January 1962, Box 94, CDJ.

57. Jackson to H. E. Christiansen, 31 October 1961, Box 94, CDJ.

58. Brenner, “Shouting at the Rain,” 3–4; LAT, 29 September, 8, 16 October 1961; George Murphy to Jackson, 18 October 1961, Box 94, CDJ; NYT, 29 October, 3 November 1961.

59. Schwarz, Beating the Unbeatable Foe, 230; CACC Newsletter, February 1962; Joseph Crespino, Strom Thurmond’s America (New York: Hill and Wang, 2012), 123–124.

60. Otto Brandt to Walter Wagstaff and Bob Temple, 28 September 1961, Box 36, DSB; Brandt to Kai Jorgensen, 2 October 1961, Box 36, DSB; memorandum from Bob Schulman to Mrs. Bullitt et al., 29 September 1961, Box 36, DSB; Memorandum from Lee Schulman to Mrs. Bullitt, Otto Brandt, and Bob Schulman, 9 October 1961, Box 36, DSB; Saturday Review, 27 January 1962; Patrick Murphy Malin to Fred Thrower, 3 February 1962, Box 36, DSB; ST, 17 October 1961; Mrs. Payne Karr to Mrs. Scott Bullitt, 25 October 1961, Box 36, DSB.

61. Time, 9 February 1962; “Evangelicals and the Right-Wing Renascence,” Christianity Today, 22 December 1961, 25–26; “Contra the Schwarz Crusade,” Christian Century, 7 February 1962, 170–171; “T.R.B. from Washington,” New Republic, 1 January 1962, 3; Schwarz, Beating the Unbeatable Foe, 274–283; National Review, 5 and 19 June 1962, 31 July 1962.

62. Program, School of Anti-Communism, Los Angeles, 11–15 December 1961, Box 43, CUAEL; Fred Schwarz to “Dear Friend,” 6 September 1962, Box 10, SBC-CLC; CACC Newsletter, May 1962, August 1962; Schwarz, Beating the Unbeatable Foe, 13–14.

CHAPTER 6: “WHOSE RELIGIOUS TRADITION?”

1. M. A. Henderson, Sowers of the Word: A 95-Year History of the Gideons International, 1899–1994 (Nashville, TN: The Gideons International, 1995), 53, 100–105.

2. Ibid., 4–5, 37; Leo Pfeffer, “The Gideons March on the Schools,” Congress Weekly, 5 October 1953, 7; NYT, 22 August 1949.

3. Pfeffer, “The Gideons March on the Schools,” 7.

4. Typewritten copy of original letter, John Van Der Ems to Guy Hilleboe, 10 May 1951, Box 800, ACLU; Rutherford Public Schools, “To All Parents,” memorandum, 21 November 1951, Box 800, ACLU; meeting minutes, Rutherford Board of Education, 10 December 1951, Box 800, ACLU.

5. Meeting minutes, Rutherford Board of Education, 10 December 1951, Box 800, ACLU; meeting minutes, Rutherford Board of Education, 14 January 1952, Box 800, ACLU.

6. 14 N.J. 31, 100 A. 2d 857 (1953); NYT, 17 March 1953, 4 and 6 October 1953; Church and State, November 1953, 5; Pfeffer, “The Gideons March on the Schools,” 8–9; Kevin M. Schultz, Tri-Faith America: How Catholics and Jews Held Postwar America to Its Protestant Promise (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 128–134; Church and State, January 1954, 6.

7. Henderson, Sowers of the Word, 105–106; Donald G. Paterson to Dean M. Schweickhard, 29 March 1957, Box 801, ACLU; Schweickhard to Paterson, 2 April 1957, Box 801, ACLU; Robert Satter to Lewis Joughin, 16 June 1955, Box 800, ACLU; press release, “Education Board Approves Bible Distribution in Miami Schools,” 3 September 1956, Box 801, ACLU.

8. Richard B. Dierenfield, Religion in American Public Schools (Washington, DC: Public Affairs Press, 1962), 83–87.

9. State Board of Regents, “The Regents Statement on Moral and Spiritual Training in the Schools,” 30 November 1951, Box 809, ACLU.

10. William Lee Miller, “The Fight over America’s Fourth ‘R,’” The Reporter, 22 March 1956, 20; NYT, 29 March 1955.

11. Miller, “The Fight over America’s Fourth ‘R,’” 21.

12. Ibid., 21–22; NYT, 5 August 1956; New York Board of Rabbis, “An Analysis of the New York Board of Superintendents’ Guiding Statement for Supervisors and Teachers on Moral and Spiritual Values and the Schools,” Box 22, SBC-CLC; “New York ACLU Warns School’s ‘Moral-Spiritual’ Program Invades First Amendment,” press release, 9 April 1956, Box 809, ACLU.

13. NYT, 13 January, 12 October 1952; [Max J. Rubin and Frank E. Karelsen], “Arguments For and Against the Regent’s Recommendation for Public School Prayer,” 21 February 1952, Box 799, ACLU.

14. Fred W. Friendly and Martha J. H. Elliot, The Constitution: That Delicate Balance (New York: Random House, 1984), 110; Theodore Powell, “Caesar, God and the Public Schools,” unpublished manuscript, Chapter III, 2–4, copy in Box 807, ACLU.

15. Powell, “Caesar, God and the Public Schools,” Chapter III, 3–5.

16. Ibid. Chapter III, 6–10; “The Court Decision—and the School Prayer Furor,” Newsweek, 9 July 1962, 43; Joshua Hammer, “The Sly Dog at Fox,” Newsweek, 25 May 1992, 62.

17. Powell, “Caesar, God and the Public Schools,” Chapter III, 10; Friendly and Elliott, The Constitution, 118–119.

18. NYT, 27 January, 25 February, 31 March, 25 August 1959; DVD recording, CBS Reports: Storm over the Supreme Court: The School Prayer Case (Princeton, NJ: Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2004); Theodore Leskes and Sol Rabkin, memorandum for American Jewish Committee, “Engel v. Vitale, New York Public School Prayer Case,” Box 1365, ACLU; “New York Court Hands Down Compromise Decision,” press release, 30 November 1959, Box 1365, ACLU; Friendly and Elliott, The Constitution, 120; 206 N.Y.S. 2d 183 (1960) 188.

19. 10 N.Y. 2d 174 (1961) 180–181.

20. Some assumed the justices would simply let the lower courts’ rulings stand without review, but in January 1962 a strong majority—seven out of nine—voted to hear arguments in the case that term. Justice Charles Whittaker was the sole vote against, with no vote recorded for Justice Potter Stewart. See notes, “Engel et al. v. Vitale et al.,” 23 January 1962, Box 1276, WOD.

21. CBS Reports: Storm over the Supreme Court; audio recording, oral arguments, Engel v. Vitale, 370 U.S. 420 (1962), Oyez Project, Chicago-Kent College of Law (www.oyez.org/cases/1960–1969/1961/1961_468/); Michal R. Belknap, “God and the Warren Court: The Quest for a ‘Wholesome Neutrality,’” Seton Hall Constitutional Law Journal 9 (1999): 404; Friendly and Elliott, The Constitution, 121–122.

22. Oral arguments, Engel v. Vitale, 370 U.S. 420 (1962).

23. Ibid.

24. Ibid.

25. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 30 March 1962; Roger K. Newman, Hugo Black: A Biography (New York: Fordham University Press, 2006), 482, 520–521; William O. Douglas, handwritten notes, “Conference, April 3, 1962, No. 468—Engel v. Vitale,” Box 1276, WOD.

26. Newman, Black, 521; Wayne Flynt, “Justice Hugo Black, Judge Roy Moore, the Ten Commandments, and Southern Identity: The Supreme Court and Southern Evangelicalism,” paper in author’s possession; Wayne Flynt, Alabama Baptists: Southern Baptists in the Heart of Dixie (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1998), 246–262; Hugo Black Jr., My Father: A Remembrance (New York: Random House, 1975), 172–174.

27. Newman, Black, 361–365.

28. Hugo L. Black and Elizabeth Black, Mr. Justice and Mrs. Black (New York: Random House, 1986), 95; Flynt, “Justice Hugo Black”; Newman, Black, 521–522.

29. Black and Black, Mr. Justice and Mrs. Black, 95; “While Most Believe in God . . . ,” Newsweek, 9 July 1962, 11; Flynt, “Justice Hugo Black”; Newman, Black, 522–523; James E. Clayton, The Making of Justice: The Supreme Court in Action (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1964), 21; Theodore Powell, “The School Prayer Battle,” Saturday Review, 20 April 1963, 63.

30. 370 U.S. 435, n. 21.

31. William O. Douglas to Hugo [Black], n.d. [1962], Box 1276, WOD; 370 U.S. 436; 370 U.S. 436 n. 1.

32. 370 U.S. 450.

33. Friendly and Elliot, The Constitution, 125; Powell, “The School Prayer Battle,” 62; William A. Hachten, “Journalism and The Prayer Decision,” Columbia Journalism Review, Fall 1962, copy in Box 11, SBC-CLC.

34. Hachten, “Journalism and The Prayer Decision,” copy in Box 11, SBC-CLC.

35. Washington Post, 13 September 1960; CSM, 30 January 1961.

36. “While Most Believe in God . . . ,” 11; Hachten, “Journalism and The Prayer Decision,” copy in Box 11, SBC-CLC; US News and World Report, 9 July 1962.

37. Barry Goldwater, “Blow to Our Spiritual Strength,” LAT, n.d. [1962], Box 358, HLB; Friendly and Elliot, The Constitution, 125; US Congress, House, 87th Cong., 2nd Sess., CR, 27 September 1964, 21100–21102; Religious Herald, 18 October 1962; news clippings, Fred Marshall Papers, Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul, Minnesota.

38. Mary D. Carter to Black, 19 April 1962, Box 355, HLB; Petition to Justices of the Supreme Court, n.d. [1962], Box 355, HLB; Mrs. Shadwell S. H. Bowyer to Black, 10 December 1963, Box 357, HLB.

39. Mary K. Woolpert to Black, 26 June 1962, Box 361, HLB; Mrs. A. C. McGill Sr., to Black, 4 March 1963, Box 355, HLB; Eula Phillips to Black, n.d., Box 361, HLB; R. W. Ricketts to Black, n.d. [1962], Box 362, HLB; Mary Crum to Black, 4 July 1962, Box 359, HLB.

40. Newman, Black, 523–524; Black and Black, Mr. Justice and Mrs. Black, 95.

41. Edward O. Miller, “True Piety and the Regents’ Prayer,” Christian Century, 1 August 1962, 934; NYT, 21 September 2000.

42. NYT, 26 June 1962; Reinhold Niebuhr, “A Dissenting Opinion,” New Leader, 9 July 1962, 3; William J. Butler and James A. Pike, “Has the Supreme Court Outlawed Religious Observance in the Schools?” Reader’s Digest, October 1962, 78–85.

43. Religious News Service, Bulletin, “The Week in Religion,” 21 July 1962, Box 1365, ACLU; Executive Committee of the National Association of Evangelicals, “Statement on the Supreme Court Ruling Regarding ‘Regents’ Prayer,’” n.d. [1962], Box 66, NAE; Charles D. Burge to the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association, 2 August 1962, Box 4, ROF; Robert O. Ferm to Mrs. William Gunnet, 24 August 1962, Box 4, ROF.

44. “The Court Decision—and the School Prayer Furor,” Newsweek, 9 July 1962, 45; Daniel K. Williams, God’s Own Party: The Making of the Christian Right (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 63; Christian Beacon, 13 September 1962.

45. As of 1956, Bible reading was required by law in Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, the District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Kentucky, Maine, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee. It was permitted by law or judicial decision in Colorado, Iowa, Indiana, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, and Texas. Bible reading was permitted, under general terms of the law or by judicial silence, in Connecticut, Maryland, Missouri, New Hampshire, North Carolina, Oregon, South Carolina, South Dakota, Rhode Island, Vermont, Virginia, and West Virginia. The states that had banned the practice were Arizona, California, Illinois, Louisiana, Nevada, New Mexico, New York, Utah, Washington, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. See Dierenfield, Religion in American Public Schools, 21.

46. Dierenfield, Religion in American Public Schools, 51.

47. Handbook, State of Idaho, Department of Education, “List of Selections from the Standard American Version of the Bible,” n.d. [1950s], Box 801, ACLU; Handbook, Board of Education, Little Rock Public Schools, “Character and Spiritual Education,” September 1954, Box 800, ACLU.

48. These were Colorado, Georgia, Florida, Iowa, Kentucky, Maine, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Nebraska, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and Texas.

49. These were Illinois, Louisiana, South Dakota, Washington, and Wisconsin.

50. The quoted opinions come from Wilkerson v. City of Rome, 152 Ga. 652 (1921) and People v. Board of Education of District 24, 92 N.E. 251 (Illinois, 1910), both cited in Dierenfield, Religion in American Public Schools, 34–35.

51. Joseph Lewis to Stanley C. Fellows, 3 May 1950, Box 1669, ACLU; George Soll to Joseph Lewis, 19 July 1950, Box 1669, ACLU; Spencer Coxe, draft statement, “Re: Schempp Case,” 13 February 1958, Box 1669, ACLU; CT, 18 June 1963; DVD recording, CBS Reports: Storm over the Supreme Court: Bible-Reading in the Public Schools (Princeton, NJ: Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2004); [unknown], address on Schempp case, 17 June 1962, Box 1669, ACLU.

52. Spencer Coxe, office memorandum, “Re: Bible Reading in Public Schools,” 11 March 1957, Box 1669, ACLU; Spencer Coxe, draft statement, “Re: Schempp Case,” 13 February 1958, Box 1669, ACLU; “Weekly Bulletin,” 23 June 1958, Box 1669, ACLU; [unknown], address on Schempp case, 17 June 1962, Box 1669, ACLU.

53. Sol Rabkin and Theodore Leskers, memorandum, “Schempp v. School District of Abington Township,” 2 October 1959, Box 1669, ACLU; “Weekly Bulletin,” 20 February 1961, Box 1669, ACLU; [unknown], address on Schempp case, 17 June 1962, Box 1669, ACLU; “Weekly Bulletin,” 7 May 1962, Box 1669, ACLU.

54. Helen H. Ludwig, “The Baltimore Lord’s Prayer Court Case,” Background Reports, copy in Box 805, ACLU; Irving Murray to Leanne Golden, 21 October 1963, Box 806, ACLU; Roland Watts to Harold Buchman, 12 January 1961, Box 805, ACLU; Madalyn E. Murray to Harold Buchman, 18 January 1961, Box 805, ACLU; Harold Buchman to Madalyn E. Murray, 23 January 1961, Box 805, ACLU; Roland Watts to Ludlow P. Mahan Jr., 17 May 1961, Box 805, ACLU.

55. Sol Rabkin and Theodore Leskes, memorandum, “Murray v. Board of School Commissioners of Baltimore City,” n.d. [1962], Box 1952, ACLU; Ludwig, “The Baltimore Lord’s Prayer Court Case.”

56. Peter Irons and Stephanie Guitton, eds., May It Please the Court: The Most Significant Oral Arguments Made Before the Supreme Court Since 1955 (New York: The New Press, 1993), 61–69.

57. “Supreme Court Hears Religion Cases,” Church and State, April 1963, 6.

58. Memorandum, “No. 142,” Box 1295, WOD; conference notes, “No. 142—School Dist. of Abington Township v. Schempp,” 1 March 1963, Box 1295, WOD; Michal R. Belknap, “God and the Warren Court,” 435.

59. Ed Cray, Chief Justice: A Biography of Earl Warren (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2008), 387; Mimi Clark Gronlund, Supreme Court Justice Tom Clark: A Life of Service (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2010), 212; Alvin Warnock, “Associate Justice Tom C. Clark: Advocate of Judicial Reform,” Ph.D. diss., University of Georgia, 1972, 259; Ellis M. West, “Justice Tom Clark and American Church-State Law,” Journal of Presbyterian History 54 (1976): 387–388, 400; Newman, Black, 523.

60. Belknap, “God and the Warren Court,” 436; 374 U.S. 206, 208.

61. “The Meaning of the Supreme Court Decision,” news clipping [1963], Box 11, SBC-CLC; Gronlund, Supreme Court Justice Tom Clark, 197; 374 U.S. 222.

62. 374 U.S. 212–213.

63. Memorandum, clerk [“MJF”] to Justice Tom Clark, 22 May 1963, Tom C. Clark Papers, Tarlton Law Library, University of Texas, Austin, Texas; online collection (http://tarlton.law.utexas.edu/clark/schempp.html; accessed 14 August 2012); Paul G. Kauper, “The Warren Court: Religious Liberty and Church-State Relations,” Michigan Law Review 67 (December 1968): 282–283; 374 U.S. 306; 374 U.S. 303, 304.

64. “The Meaning of the Supreme Court Decision,” news clipping, Christianity Today [1963], Box 11, SBC-CLC; CT, 18 June 1963; CSM, 19 June 1963; “The Supreme Court: Bible Reading and Prayer,” reprint, The Dialogue [1963], Box 11, SBC-CLC.

65. CSM, 19 June 1963; “The Supreme Court: Bible Reading and Prayer.”

66. “The Supreme Court: Bible Reading and Prayer”; Williams, God’s Own Party, 65; Billy James Hargis, “America: Let’s Get Back to God!” Christian Crusade, August 1963, 26.

67. “Impact of the Ruling,” news clipping, Christianity Today [1963], Box 11, SBC-CLC; Time, 19 June 1964; William M. Beaney and Edward N. Beiser, “Prayer and Politics: The Impact of Engel and Schempp on the Political Process,” Journal of Public Law 13 (1964): 484.

CHAPTER 7: “OUR SO-CALLED RELIGIOUS LEADERS”

1. CT, 2 October 1963; LAT, 2 October 1963; Donald H. Gill, “Will the Bible Get Back into School?,” Eternity, May 1964, 9; petition, Citizens Congressional Committee [October 1963], Drawer 72, AWR.

2. LAT, 2 October 1963; Charles W. Winegarner to “Dear Congressman,” 25 September 1963, Drawer 72, AWR; Winegarner to A. Willis Robertson, Drawer 72, AWR.

3. Rowland Evans and Robert Novak, “Inside Report,” NYHT, 12 May 1964; Gerald L. K. Smith, “We Are in Trouble!!!,” The Cross and the Flag, December 1963, 3, 21; WP, 17 May 1964.

4. WP, 17 May 1964; Group Research Report, “Prayer Amendment Draws Extremist Support,” 1 May 1964, Box 808, ACLU; Beaney and Beiser, “Prayer and Politics,” 486–487; Milwaukee Journal, 6 August 1963.

5. NYT, 4 July 1962, 25 July 1963; Time, 19 June 1964; US News and World Report, 4 May 1964; Beaney and Beiser, “Prayer and Politics,” 492; Donald R. Reich, “The Supreme Court and Public Policy: The School Prayer Cases,” Phi Delta Kappan, September 1966, 30; Gill, “Will the Bible Get Back into School?,” 9.

6. Biographical sketch, FJB; Beaney and Beiser, “Prayer and Politics,” 494; H. J. Res. 752, 87th Cong., 2d Sess.

7. Beaney and Beiser, “Prayer and Politics,” 494–495.

8. WP, 27 June 1962; BG, 27 June 1962.

9. US Congress, House, 88th Cong., 1st Sess., CR, 19 June 1963, 10557; Belknap, “God and the Warren Court,” 446.

10. US Congress, House, 88th Cong., 1st Sess., CR, 14 August 1963, A5156–A5157; annual report, Association for the Advancement of Atheism, n.d., Box 2, Series IV, FJB; US Congress, House, 88th Cong., 1st Sess., CR, 19 August 1963, 14477; news clipping and speech transcript, “Extension of Remarks,” 19 September 1963, Box 2, Series IV, FJB; Beaney and Beiser, “Prayer and Politics,” 496.

11. Program, School Prayer Amendment Rally, 22 September 1963, Box 2, Series IV, FJB; Rev. George T. Cook, prepared remarks, 22 September 1963, Box 2, Series IV, FJB; US Congress, House, 88th Cong., 1st Sess., CR, 17 October 1963, A6536–A6537.

12. US Congress, House, 88th Cong., 2nd Sess., CR, 20 February 1964, A799; James E. Powers, “The Roots of Americanism Are Spiritual,” American Legion Magazine, September 1963, copy in ALM; American Legion, news release, 20 December 1963, Box 4, Series IV, FJB; American Legion, National Legislative Commission, “Voluntary Prayer in Schools,” 10 January 1964, ALM; Maurice T. Webb to members, National Americanism Commission, 19 December 1963, Box 4, Series IV, FJB; memorandum to department legislative chairmen, American Legion Auxiliary, 13 January 1964, ALM; “American Legion Fact Sheet,” n.d. [January 1964], ALM; WSJ, 22 April 1964.

13. BG, 1 December 1963; report, Constitutional Prayer Amendment, Inc., n.d. [1963], Box 809, ACLU.

14. Report, Constitutional Prayer Amendment, Inc., n.d. [1963], Box 809, ACLU; Robert L. Mauro to Daniel Foley, 28 March 1964, ALM; BS, 5 October 1963, 18 February 1964.

15. NYT, 23 April 1964; Beaney and Beiser, “Prayer and Politics,” 495–496; WSJ, 22 April 1964; Belknap, “God and the Warren Court,” 446.

16. NYT, 20 March 1964; WP, 21 March 1964; Beaney and Beiser, “Prayer and Politics,” 497; Becker, “The Prayer Hearings: Bane or Blessing?,” press release, 25 March 1964, ALM.

17. Leanne Golden to affiliates, 12 March 1964, Box 808, ACLU; WP, 21 March 1964; Beaney and Beiser, “Prayer and Politics,” 497; “A Discussion of Efforts to Amend the First Amendment,” confidential report, 17 March 1964, Box 808, ACLU.

18. Though attendance at their meetings varied, they typically included representatives of Protestant bodies such as the National Council of Churches, United Presbyterian Church, Baptist Joint Committee, Seventh-day Adventists, Friends Committee, and Unitarian Fellowship for Social Justice; Jewish organizations such as the Anti-Defamation League, American Jewish Congress, and Union of American Hebrew Congregations; and civil libertarians aligned with the ACLU. See “Meeting in Washington to Discuss Efforts to Amend the First Amendment,” confidential report, 4 April 1964, Box 809, ACLU.

19. NYT, 14 May 1997; WP, 18 May 1997; WSJ, 22 April 1964; Beaney and Beiser, “Prayer and Politics,” 495–497.

20. “Report of a Second Meeting to Consider Measures to Oppose Amendment of the First Amendment,” confidential report, 1 April 1964, Box 809, ACLU; “Meeting in Washington to Discuss Efforts to Amend the First Amendment,” confidential report, 4 April 1964, Box 809, ACLU; “Action Meeting on Becker Amendment,” report, 20–21 April 1964, Box 809, ACLU.

21. Memorandum, “U.S. House of Representatives Committee on the Judiciary,” n.d. [1964], Box 809, ACLU; “Report of a Second Meeting to Consider Measures to Oppose Amendment of the First Amendment,” confidential report, 1 April 1964, Box 809, ACLU; “Meeting in Washington to Discuss Efforts to Amend the First Amendment,” confidential report, 4 April 1964, Box 809, ACLU; memorandum, “Opinions on the Becker Bill,” 21 April 1964, Box 808, ACLU; Alan Reitman to Mr. Speiser, 2 April 1964, Box 808, ACLU.

22. “Report on Hearings on Becker Amendment,” Report from the Capital, April–May 1964, 4; Beaney and Beiser, “Prayer and Politics,” 499; NYT, 23 April 1964.

23. Dean Kelley, “Analysis of Hearings on Constitutional Amendments to Permit Prayer and Bible-Readings in Public Schools” [April 1964], Box 808, ACLU; Clay Risen, The Bill of the Century: The Epic Battle for the Civil Rights Act (New York: Bloomsbury, 2014), 141–158.

24. US Congress, House, 88th Cong., 2nd Sess., Committee on the Judiciary, “Proposed Amendments to the Constitution Relating to Prayers and Bible Readings in the Public Schools,” 22–24 and 28–30 April; 1, 6–8, 13–15, 20–21, and 27–28 May; 3 June 1964 (hereafter cited as “Becker Amendment Hearings”), Pt. I, 212, 215–216, 219–221, 230, 244, 259.

25. Becker Amendment Hearings, Pt. I, 309, 376–377, 437, 375.

26. Becker Amendment Hearings, Pt. I, 314, 427, 320–321, 306.

27. Dean Kelley, “Analysis of Hearings on Constitutional Amendments to Permit Prayer and Bible-Readings in Public Schools” [April 1964], Box 808, ACLU; Becker Amendment Hearings, Pt. I, 420, 424, 520, 594.

28. Becker Amendment Hearings, Pt. I, 660, 667, 666.

29. Becker Amendment Hearings, Pt. I, 774, 778; Pt. II, 1077, Pt. III, 2096.

30. Becker Amendment Hearings, Pt. III, 1973, Pt. II, 1192, 979, Pt. III, 2233.

31. CSM, 30 March 1964; Christian Century, 1 April 1964.

32. Becker Amendment Hearings, Pt. I, 829; Pt. II, 975–976.

33. Becker Amendment Hearings, Pt. I, 902; Pt. II, 987, 1008, 1560.

34. Becker Amendment Hearings, Pt. II, 1039, 1041–1042.

35. Becker Amendment Hearings, Pt. II, 1209–1210, 1211, 1213, 1229–1232.

36. Louisville Journal-Courier, 11 May 1964.

37. NYT, 28 May 1964; Time, 19 June 1964; Louisville Journal-Courier, 11 May 1964; WSJ, 16 July 1964; report, Department of Religious Liberty, National Council of Churches, 15 July 1964, Box 809, ACLU.

38. “Becker Challenges Celler,” press release, 11 August 1964, Box 6, Series IV, FJB; LAT, 7 July 1964; WSJ, 16 July 1964; report, Department of Religious Liberty, National Council of Churches, 15 July 1964, Box 809, ACLU; WP, 9 July 1964; BS, 28 June 1964.

39. E. V. Toy Jr., “The National Lay Committee and the National Council of Churches: A Case Study of Protestants in Conflict,” American Quarterly 21 (Summer 1969): 190–209.

40. C. Emanuel Carlson, executive director’s report, Baptist Joint Committee on Public Affairs, 5–6 October 1965, Box 8, SBC-ECR; Becker Amendment Hearings, Pt. III, 2227; K. Owen White to C. Emanuel Carlson, 27 March 1964, Box 1, KOW; K. Owen White to C. Emanuel Carlson, 2 April 1964, Box 1, KOW; K. Owen White to Rev. Krama Fay DeSha, 8 April 1964, Box 1, KOW.

41. K. Owen White, “Southern Baptists at the Crossroads,” article draft, Box 1, KOW; “Religious Liberty Resolution,” 22 May 1964, Box 11, SBC-CLC; WP, 23 May 1964; CT, 23 May 1964.

42. Ray M. White to Francis B. Burch, 5 January 1965, Folder 2064, EMD; Strom Thurmond to Burch, 6 January 1965, Folder 2064, EMD; George Murphy to Burch, 8 March 1965, Folder 2065, EMD; J. Caleb Boggs to Burch, 4 January 1965, Folder 2064, EMD.

43. James O. Eastland to Burch, 13 April 1965, Folder 2066, EMD; Hugh Scott to Burch, 2 February 1965, Folder 2065, EMD.

44. Robert F. Kennedy to Burch, 25 July 1965, Folder 2066, EMD; Wayne Morse to Burch, 12 April 1965, Folder 2066, EMD; Vance Hartke to Burch, 17 February 1965, Folder 2065, EMD; Daniel K. Inyoue to Burch, 5 January 1965, Folder 2064, EMD.

45. William Barry Furlong, “The Senate’s Wizard of Ooze: Dirksen of Illinois,” Harper’s Magazine, December 1959, 44–49; Dirksen to Burch, 8 March 1965, Folder 2065, EMD; Everett Dirksen, The Education of a Senator (Pekin, IL: Dirksen Center, 1998), 6; WP, 4 July 1966.

46. US Congress, Senate, 89th Cong., 2nd Sess., CR, 22 March 1966, 1700; 6176–6277; LAT, 23 March 1966; NYT, 23 March 1966; CT, 23 March 1966.

47. LAT, 24 March 1966; Baptist Press, “Dirksen Amendment Set for Hearings,” report, 17 July 1966, Box 14, HFP; Everett Dirksen to Birch Bayh, 7 April 1966, Folder 2158, EMD.

48. Burch to Clyde Flynn, 30 March 1966, Folder 2066, EMD; WP, 7 April, 10 August 1966; CT, 19 June, 27 August 1966; BS, 20 April 1966; LAT, 22 July 1966.

49. US Congress, Senate, 89th Cong., 2nd Sess., Judiciary Committee, Subcommittee on Constitutional Amendments, “School Prayer,” 1–5, 8 August 1962 (hereafter cited as “Dirksen Amendment Hearings”).

50. Dirksen Amendment Hearings, 9–10, 12.

51. Ibid., 13, 19; LAT, 2 August 1966; NYT, 27 April 1999.

52. Dirksen Amendment Hearings, 36–37.

53. Ibid., 211–212, 276; WP, 3 August 1966.

54. Dirksen Amendment Hearings, 279, 283–285.

55. Ibid., 213–214; Thomas G. Cash to Pascall, n.d. [August 1966], Box 14, HFP; Eva A. Simmons to Paschall, 26 August 1966, Box 14, HFP; Paschall to Simmons, 10 September 1966, Box 14, HFP; Paschall to Anna Caughron, 28 September 1966, Box 14, HFP.

56. CT, 7 August 1966; LAT, 29 August 1966.

57. LAT, 17 September 1966; CT, 17 and 20 September 1966; BS, 21 September 1966; WP, 24 September 1966.

58. NYT, 22 September 1966; CT, 20–21 September 1966; BG, 20 September 1966.

59. BG, 21–22 September 1966; CT, 22 September 1966.

60. NYT, 22 September 1966; CSM, 26 September 1966.

CHAPTER 8: “WHICH SIDE ARE YOU ON?”

1. Hackensack Record, 8 February 1965.

2. Newark Star-Ledger, 13 November 1964; WSJ, 11 December 1964; “Super Silly Season in Religion Is Upon Us,” press release, 18 December 1964, Box 808, ACLU; Hackensack Record, 8 and 9 February 1965.

3. Coatesville (PA) Record, 17 November 1964; Emil Oxfeld to the mayor and council, 28 January 1965, Box 812, ACLU; Hackensack Record, 8 and 10 February 1965; CT, 27 August 1965.

4. Walter J. Lantry to Commander Johnson, 26 May 1965, ALM; Paul F. Hart to John E. Davis, 19 April 1967, ALM; Rutgers Daily Targum, 18 October 1965; Marilyn B. Young, The Vietnam Wars, 1945–1990 (New York: HarperCollins, 1991), 139, 197.

5. Hackensack Record, 10 February 1965; Interplay of European-American Affairs 2 (1968): 47; WP, 19 October 1968.

6. Martin, Prophet with Honor, 278–280; Rick Perlstein, Nixonland: The Rise of a President and the Fracturing of America (New York: Scribner, 2008), 59.

7. David Aikman, Billy Graham: His Life and Influences (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2007), 207; Martin, Prophet with Honor, 350–355.

8. Walker Percy, Lancelot (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1977), 220; Gibbs and Duffy, The Preacher and the Presidents, 199; Frady, Billy Graham, 452; Martin, Prophet with Honor, 360–361.

9. Martin, Prophet with Honor, 355.

10. LAT, 21 January 1969.

11. Charles P. Henderson Jr., The Nixon Theology (New York: Harper & Row, 1972), 3–4; Bulletin of International Christian Leadership, March 1957, RRF; LAT, 19 January 1969; NYT, 15 January 1969.

12. NYT, 18 and 21 January 1969. The West Auditorium has since been renamed the Dean Acheson Auditorium.

13. Henderson, Nixon Theology, 5; NYT, 21 January 1969; Aikman, Billy Graham, 211; Newsday, 24 January 1969; Gibbs and Duffy, The Preacher and the Presidents, 174; text of Billy Graham’s inaugural prayer, Billy Graham Evangelical Association (http://www2.wheaton.edu/bgc/archives/inaugural05.htm).

14. CT, 20 January 1969; WP, 20 January 1969.

15. Henderson, Nixon Theology, 5–6; CT, 21 January 1969; NYT, 21 January 1969.

16. CT, 20 January 1969; Newsday, 20 January 1969; NYT, 21 January 1969.

17. Henderson, Nixon Theology, 19; BS, 31 January 1969; WP, 31 January 1969; H. R. Haldeman, The Haldeman Diaries: Inside the Nixon White House (New York: Putnam, 1994), 24.

18. WP, 31 January 1969; Frady, Billy Graham, 455.

19. Gibbs and Duffy, The Preacher and the Presidents, 175; WP, 27 January 1969.

20. Martin, Prophet with Honor, 357; WP, 27 January 1969; BS, 27 January 1969; CT, 27 January 1969; Newsday, 27 August 1969; Haldeman, Haldeman Diaries, 22.

21. Gibbs and Duffy, The Preacher and the Presidents, 175; NYT, 28 April 1969.

22. Martin, With God on Our Side, 98–99; Gibbs and Duffy, The Preacher and the Presidents, 175; WP, 27 January 1969; Ollie Atkins to Ron Ziegler, 17 September 1969, Box 7, RM-RMN; Larry Higby to Haldeman, 30 June 1969, Box 7, RM-RMN.

23. Haldeman to Bud Wilkinson, 1 July 1969, Box 7, RM-RMN; Nixon to Haldeman, 30 June 1969, Box 7, RM-RMN; Nixon to Ehrlichman, 16 June 1969, Box 7, RM-RMN; Haldeman to Dwight Chapin, 21 May 1969, Box 7, RM-RMN.

24. Martin, Prophet with Honor, 356; Frady, Billy Graham, 452; Charles B. Wilkinson to Billy Graham, 24 January 1969, Box 6, RM-RMN; memorandum, “Check List for Sunday Services,” n.d. [1969], Box 7, RM-RMN.

25. Martin, Prophet with Honor, 358; Henderson, Nixon Theology, 29–30; WP, 2 and 3 February 1969, 30 June 1969; Jim Atwater to Ken Cole, 26 June 1969, Box 7, RM-RMN.

26. Martin, Prophet with Honor, 357–358; Harry Dent to Lucy Winchester, 29 April 1970, Box 12, RM-RMN; Gibbs and Duffy, The Preacher and the Presidents, 176–177; Constance Stuart to George Bell, 23 July 1970, Box 12, RM-RMN.

27. LAT, 29 September 1969; BS, 29 September 1969; Charles B. Wilkinson to Haldeman, 1 July 1969, Box 7, RM-RMN; Jim Atwater to Ken Cole, 25 September 1969, Box 7, RM-RMN; WP, 4 February 1970; WSJ, 2 April 1970; NYT, 8 August 1971; Dwight Chapin to Lucy Winchester, 9 July 1970, Box 12, RM-RMN.

28. Dwight L. Chapin to Bryce Harlow and Rose Mary Woods, 20 July 1969, Box 7, RM-RMN; Bill Timmons to Bryce Harlow, 28 June 1969, Box 7, RM- RMN; NYT, 8 August 1971; White House Church Services Permanent Invitation List, n.d. [1969], Box 12, RM-RMN.

29. Bud Wilkinson to Rose Mary Woods and Lucy Winchester, 2 June 1969, Box 7, RM-RMN; Dwight Chapin to Rose Mary Woods, 7 July 1969, Box 7, RM-RMN; CT, 27 January 1969; WP, 3 February, 17 March 1969; LAT, 29 September 1969; Martin, Prophet with Honor, 356–357.

30. Perlstein, Nixonland, 358; WP, 17 March 1969; CT, 17 March 1969.

31. CT, 16 March 1970; WP, 16 March 1970.

32. Nixon to Herb Klein, 16 June 1969, Box 7, RM-RMN; “First Priority List for Church Services,” n.d. [June 1969], Box 7, RM-RMN; WP, 17 March, 1 July 1969.

33. Reinhold Niebuhr, “The King’s Chapel and the King’s Court,” Christianity and Crisis, 4 August 1969; NYT, 7 August 1969; BS, 7 August 1969.

34. NYT, 10 August 1969.

35. Newsday, 27 August 1969; NYT, 8 August 1971; WSJ, 2 April 1970; Garry Wills, Nixon Agonistes: The Crisis of the Self-Made Man (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2002), 183.

36. James Patterson, Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945–1974 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 753–755; Young, Vietnam Wars, 248; Perlstein, Nixonland, 496.

37. LAT, 10 May 1970; NYT, 11 May 1970; WP, 11 May 1970; Perlstein, Nixonland, 497; Wicker, One of Us, 634.

38. Guest list, “Worship Service, Sunday, May 10, 1970,” Box 12, RM-RMN; Dwight Chapin to Connie Stuart and Lucy Winchester, 28 April 1970, Box 12, RM-RMN; Haldeman to Constance Stuart, 29 April 1970, Box 12, RM-RMN; WP, 11 May 1970; Statement of Faculty and Students, Calvin Theological Seminary, n.d. [May 1970], copy in Box 12, RM-RMN; Martha Doss to Noble Mellencamp, 11 May 1970, Box 12, RM-RMN.

39. As another token of his appreciation, Nixon appointed Brennan as secretary of labor in his second term. Perlstein, Nixonland, 488–499; Jonathan Schell, Time of Illusion (New York: Vintage, 1975), 101–102.

40. Memorandum, Richard Nixon to Bob Haldeman, 25 May 1970, reprinted in Bruce Oudes, ed., From the President: Richard Nixon’s Secret Files (New York: Harper and Row, 1988), 139–140; Haldeman, Haldeman Diaries, 165, 168.

41. Frady, Graham, 452; CT, 29 May 1970; Garry Wills, “How Nixon Used the Media, Billy Graham, and the Good Lord to Rap with Students at Tennessee U,” Esquire, September 1969, 119; Newsday, 29 May 1970.

42. Perlstein, Nixonland, 500–501; CT, 29 May 1970; Wills, “How Nixon Used the Media,” 122; Martin, Prophet with Honor, 369.

43. Newsday, 29 May 1970; WP, 29 May 1970; Perlstein, Nixonland, 501–502; CT, 29 May 1970.

44. Perlstein, Nixonland, 501–503; Newsday, 29 May 1970.

45. BG, 29 May 1970; Perlstein, Nixonland, 502; Wills, “How Nixon Used the Media,” 122; Henderson, Nixon Theology, 42.

46. Frady, Graham, 453; Martin, Prophet with Honor, 369–370; Perlstein, Nixonland, 503; Gibbs and Duffy, The Preacher and the Presidents, 187.

47. WP, 5 June 1970; BS, 19 June 1970; NYT, 24 June 1970.

48. Gibbs and Duffy, The Preacher and the Presidents, 188; WP, 28 June 1970; BS, 28 June 1970.

49. WP, 5 June 1970; handwritten memorandum, “Contributing Corporations,” n.d. [June 1970], JWM; memorandum, Larry Higby to H. R. Haldeman, 19 June 1970, reprinted in Oudes, ed., From the President, 142; memorandum, “Contributors—Corporations,” n.d. [June 1970], Box 173, JWM.

50. Gibbs and Duffy, The Preacher and the Presidents, 188; transcript, exit interview with Ronald H. Walker, conducted by Susan Yowell, 29 December 1972, Richard M. Nixon Presidential Library (www.nixonlibrary.gov/virtuallibrary/documents/exitinterviews/walker.php; accessed 20 November 2013); NYT, 4 July 1970.

51. WSJ, 3 July 1970; BG, 2, 12, 16, 26, 27, 28 April, 14 June 1970; BS, 27 April 1970; program, Honor America Day, 4 July 1970, Box 178, JWM.

52. LAT, 30 June 1970.

53. NYT, 3, 4 July 1970; Gibbs and Duffy, The Preacher and the Presidents, 188; WP, 3 July 1970.

54. Newsday, 3 July 1970; BS, 5 July 1970; Time, 13 July 1970; WP, 5 July 1970.

55. WP, 5 July 1970; program, Honor America Day, 4 July 1970, Box 178, JWM.

56. Billy Graham, “The Unfinished Dream,” speech transcript, 4 July 1970, Box 222, BGCA.

57. Ibid.

58. Newsday, 6 July 1970; Arthur White, telex report, “Honor America Day—Take 7,” 4 July 1970, Box 16, AW; WP, 5 July 1970.

59. Arthur White, telex report, “Honor America Day—Saturday Updating—Take V,” 4 July 1970, Box 16, AW; Newsday, 3 July 1970; schedule, “Honor America Day,” n.d. [July 1970], Box 178, JWM.

60. Newsday, 3 and 6 July 1970; BS, 5 July 1970; BG, 5 July 1970; Arthur White, telex report, “Honor America Day—Saturday Updating—Take Six,” 4 July 1970, Box 16, AW.

61. Arthur White, telex report, “Honor America Day—Saturday Updating—Take V,” 4 July 1970, Box 16, AW; Newsday, 6 July 1970; Arthur White, telex report, “Honor America Day—Saturday Updating—Take Six,” 4 July 1970, Box 16, AW.

62. Audio recording, “Proudly They Came to Honor America,” 1970, copy in author’s possession; CT, 5 July 1970.

63. Newsday, 6 July 1970.

64. WP, 6 and 7 July 1970; LAT, 6 July 1970; Kenneth Shaw to “Dear Member,” n.d. [1970], Box 177, JWM; Capitol Record Club, “Reservation Certificate,” n.d. [1970], Box 177, JWM; “Proudly They Came . . . ,” advertisement, Nation’s Business, July 1971, copy in Box 179, JWM.

65. Newsday, 7 July 1970; BG, 6 July 1970; WP, 5 July 1970.

EPILOGUE

1. LAT, 18 July 1980; CSM, 16 July 1980; WSJ, 18 July 1980.

2. BG, 18 July 1980; BS, 18 July 1980; NYT, 27 May 1980.

3. WP, 16, 18 July 1980; “Reagan’s ‘Crusade’ Begins,” Newsweek, 28 July 1980.

4. David Domke and Kevin Coe, The God Strategy: How Religion Became a Political Weapon in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 48, 61–64.

5. Newsweek, 25 October 1976; Michael Lienesch, Redeeming America: Piety and Politics in the New Christian Right (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993), 1–2; Newsday, 12 October 1980.

6. Williams, God’s Own Party, 187; Martin, With God on Our Side, 220.

7. CT, 21 January 1981, 4 February 1983; LAT, 27 February 1982; Newsday, 14 February 1984; WP, 5 February 1982; CSM, 4 February 1983.

8. WP, 20 December 1981, 19 September 1982; CT, 8 February 1981.

9. NYT, 3 February 1984; WP, 5 February 1984; Newsday, 14 February 1984.

10. LAT, 21 July 1984; David R. Shepherd, ed., Ronald Reagan: In God I Trust (Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House, 1984); NYT, 28 September 1984.

11. LAT, 23 August 1984; NYT, 24 August 1984; BS, 9 September 1984.

12. Newsday, 23, 27 August 1984; LAT, 29 December 1984.

13. Gibbs and Duffy, The Preacher and the Presidents, 285–298; NYT, 24 April 1986; WP, 28 April 1986; LAT, 6 March 1988.

14. CT, 18 July 1988; NYT, 19 August 1988.

15. WP, 24 August, 10 September 1988; NYT, 26 August, 10 September 1988; Sidney Blumenthal, Pledging Allegiance: The Last Campaign of the Cold War (New York: HarperCollins, 1990); BS, 21 September 1988; LAT, 9, 13, 22 September 1988.

16. Blumenthal, Pledging Allegiance, 308; CSM, 21 September 1988; LAT, 11 September 1988.

17. LAT, 30 June 1989; CT, 9 July 1989.

18. LAT, 4 July 1989; NYT, 3 July 1989; WSJ, 5 July 1989; CT, 22 October 1989.

19. Williams, God’s Own Party, 231–232; NYT, 18 August 1992; WP, 18 August 1992; NYT, 1 February 2007.

20. Garry Wills, Under God: Religion and American Politics (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1990), 60; WP, 29 June, 12, 17, 18 July 1992.

21. WP, 24 August 1992; NYT, 24, 30 August 1992; Domke and Coe, God Strategy, 133–134.

22. WP, 4 February 1994, 7, 12, 17 February 1997; NYT, 3 February 1995, 7 February 1997; 6 February 1998; Philadelphia Tribune, 14 February 1997.

23. NYT, 15 December 1999; David Frum, The Right Man: An Inside Account of the Bush White House, 2nd ed. (New York: Random House, 2005), 5–6; Lou Cannon and Carl M. Cannon, Reagan’s Disciple: George W. Bush’s Troubled Quest for a Presidential Legacy (New York: Public Affairs, 2008), 81.

24. NYT, 21 January, 4 February 2001; Philadelphia Tribune, 2 February 2001; Kevin M. Kruse, “Compassionate Conservatism: Religion in the Age of George W. Bush,” in The Presidency of George W. Bush: A First Historical Assessment, ed. Julian E. Zelizer (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010), 227–251.

25. NYT, 12, 18 September 2001.

26. NYT, 27 June 2002.

27. NYT, 22 March 2004; brief for the Christian Legal Society et al., as amici curiae, Elk Grove Unified School District v. Michael A. Newdow (www.clsnet.org/document.doc?id=256).

28. Esther Kaplan, With God on Their Side (New York: New Press, 2004), 156–161; NYT, 31 October 2004; LAT, 12 August 2004; Amy Sullivan, The Party Faithful (New York: Scribner 2008), 116–117.

29. WP, 27 July 2004

30. Jerusalem Post, 16 March 2008; NYT, 15, 19 March, 1 May 2008; Irish Times, 25 March 2008.

31. NYT, 7 October, 8 November, 7 December 2007; Jerusalem Post, 17 December 2007.

32. NYT, 6, 7 December 2007.