Page numbers refer to the print edition but are hyperlinked to the appropriate location in the e-book.
Numbers in italics refer to pages on which illustrations appear
Abbasid Empire,
57,
106–108,
128,
191; and Ali’s followers,
107,
118–119,
125,
128; cultural and scientific florescence under,
107–108,
188; decline of,
110–111; establishment of,
106–107Abdulmutallab, Umar Farouq,
280Abraham. See Ibrahim
Abuʾl-Walid Muhammad ibn Ahmad Ibn Rushd. See Averroes
Abyssinian Empire,
26,
50Al-Adala al-ijtimaʿiyya fiʾl-Islam (
Social Justice in Islam; Qutb),
237
al-Afghani, Jamal al-Din,
242Ali ibn Abi Talib,
52–53,
101–102,
119; Ja
ʿfar al-Sadiq on,
124–125; as Muhammad’s follower,
46,
118; and Muhammad’s succession,
118–120,
125,
259; and Portico of the Banu Sa
ʿida events,
117–118; supporters of,
102,
107al-Aqsa Mosque (Jerusalem),
47–48,
48Arabian Nights (
A Thousand and One Nights),
108
al-Ashari, Abu al-Hasan,
192,
193Averroes (Abu
ʾl-Walid Muhammad ibn Ahmad Ibn Rushd),
196–198Avicenna (Ibn Sina, Abu Ali al-Husayn ibn Abd Allah),
196
al-Baghdadi, Abd al-Qahir,
210al-Baladhuri, Ahmad ibn Yahya,
56al-Bistami, Abu Yazid,
167al-Bukhari, Muhammad ibn Isma
ʿil,
62,
209
Camel, Battle of the,
102,
258charity, as one of five pillars,
211–212Chishti Sabiri Order,
177Christianity,
79; Catholic Church,
30,
116,
159; coalescence of,
51,
116; monotheism of,
18,
35–36; in pre-Islamic Arabia,
30–31; Protestantism,
67,
204,
234; and Quran,
20,
34–35,
73,
79Conference of the Birds, The (Attar),
165–166
Constitution of Medina,
29,
52
Decisive Treatise, The (Averroes),
196
diversity: in Islam,
98,
111,
113,
149,
160–161,
226,
275; in Islamic studies,
11–12,
34; in Muslim identity,
10,
87,
226; in religion,
4,
155
expansion–asceticism theory,
158–159
faith, as one of five doctrines,
199Faith Without Fear (Manji),
288
fana (obliteration of self),
165–166
fatiha (sura 1 of Quran),
82,
88,
89
fitra (submitting nature),
32,
33
Fi zilal al-Quran (
In the Shade of the Quran; Qutb),
238
four
rashidun (first caliphs),
99fundamentalism, Islamic,
233,
234–235,
250; origins of,
234–235; and Protestant fundamentalism,
234; as response to modernity,
99,
233,
234–241; and women,
265–266
ghulat (exaggerators),
123
Graham, James William,
157Grand Mosque (Mecca),
206Guadalete, Battle of,
108
hadith qudsi (divine saying),
61–62
hadiths,
7,
158,
210; on Ali,
118,
119; on analogy,
144–145; as genre,
60–62,
111; on law,
136,
138; on predestination,
201; Shi
ʿi–Sunni differences on,
62,
131hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca): establishment of,
28,
220; by Muhammad,
55; as one of five pillars,
210,
213–215Hassaballa, Hesham A.,
187Hawting, Gerald R.,
13n.9hijab, Arabic meaning of,
260,
263.
See also veil
History of Persia, The (Malcolm),
157
Hudaybiyya, treaty of,
55hunafa (monotheists),
30,
43
Ibn abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad,
235Ibn al-Nadim, Abu
ʾl-Faraj Muhammad,
107Ibn Hisham, Abu Muhammad abd al-Malik,
45,
56ibn-Husayn, Abu Muhammad Ali,
121Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad,
29,
56Ibn Kathir, Isma
ʿil,
89,
257Ibn Maja, Abu
ʿAbdillah,
62Ibn Sina. See Avicenna
Ibn Taymiyya, Taqi al-Din Ahmad,
234–235identity, religious,
8–10,
30–31.
See also Muslim identity
idolatry,
33,
175; Muhammad portrayals as,
63Ihya ulum al-din (
The Revival of the Religious Sciences; al-Ghazali),
171
Imagined Communities (Anderson),
8
inheritance, religious,
3,
9–10Iran,
245,
280; medieval,
31,
128,
198; revolution in,
232,
239–241,
275; women in,
26,
240,
262,
266,
269–270Islam
CRITICAL ASSESSMENTS AND ASSOCIATIONS: as anti-Western,
2,
18–19; attacks on Muhammad,
59–60,
258,
285; colonialist view of,
228,
231; and Islamophobia,
284–288; medieval polemics against,
228; and September 11 attacks,
59,
284,
285; as violent,
1,
226
HETEROGENEITY AND DIVERSITY: conservatism in,
63,
148–149,
156,
167,
175–176,
218–219,
263,
267; debates in,
113,
135,
185–186,
219,
282,
283; diversity in,
98,
111,
113,
149,
160–161,
226,
275; liberal and pluralistic vision of,
2,
87,
232,
289–290,
291–292; as not monolithic,
204,
226,
275; quest for normative,
2–3,
115,
117,
130,
226
IDEOLOGY AND POLITICS: and civil society,
293; and democracy,
145,
243,
250; and feminism,
266–267; as ideology of oppressed,
231,
232; Islamic state, aim for,
24,
232,
234,
239,
243; and nationalism,
231,
239; as patriarchal,
263; transnational Islam vision,
231,
242,
248
ORIGINS AND GROWTH: as centuries-long process,
18,
52,
95–96,
105,
106,
115–116; early Muslim accounts of,
17,
117; historical approach to,
42; and Judaism and Christianity,
18,
20,
73; later Muslim accounts of,
32–33; and leadership paradigms,
121–122; outsider and skeptical approaches to,
33–36; role of sword in,
105,
106; scholarship on,
18–19; synthetic approach to,
36–37; traditional accounts of,
20–21,
34,
35,
37; winning converts to,
46,
57,
96,
101,
105–106,
159
PRACTICES AND RITUALS,
203–220; charity,
211–212; fasting,
60–61,
137,
212–213,
220; five pillars,
157,
174,
204,
208–215; hajj,
210,
213–215; and jihad,
215–217; as marker of identity,
220; and mosques,
205–207,
211,
256; Muhammad’s Birthday,
58,
218; politicization of,
208,
220; of “popular Islam,”
156,
175,
218–219; prayer,
82,
137,
207,
210–211,
270; in Shi
ʿism,
217–218; in Sufism,
219; veil,
204–205,
254,
260–263,
265–267; witness to faith,
210
THEOLOGY AND BELIEFS,
183–201; and Asharites,
192–193; and culture,
183–184; five doctrines,
198–201; free will and predestination,
188,
189–190,
193; “grave sinner” debate,
186–187; and Maturidis,
193–194; and medieval Islamic philosophy,
194–198; monotheism,
13,
17,
20,
33,
81,
183; and Mutazilites,
189–191; orthodoxy in,
185–186; Quran doctrine,
189–191; and reform,
233,
275; rise of,
171,
185–186.
See also Quran
Islam: A Short History (Armstrong),
292
islam (surrender),
32,
34
Islamic Association (Pakistan),
238,
239Islamic law. See sharia
Islamic studies: authenticity debate in,
2,
6–7,
13nn.
8–9; and diversity,
11–12,
34; and identity,
9–11; insider and outsider accounts of,
19–20; on Islam origins,
18–19; theological approach to,
1isnad (first part of hadith),
60,
61,
62,
140
jahiliyya (period of ignorance),
33,
34,
238,
255,
Jami
ʿat al-Qarawiyyin,
150Judaism: and founding of Islam,
35; monotheism of,
18,
35–36,
51; in pre-Islamic Arabia,
29,
30,
31; and Quran,
54,
77–78,
80,
81,
85,
91n.20; rabbinic law in,
136–137; and women,
263Jyllands-Posten (Danish newspaper),
63
Ka
ʿba (Cube; Mecca),
27,
205; during hajj,
28,
213,
214,
215; as main holy site of Islam,
103–104; and Muhammad,
47,
55; origins of,
26–27Kitab al-fihrist (Ibn al-Nadim),
107
Kitab al-shifa (
The Book of Healing; Avicenna),
196
Luxenberg, Cristoph (pseud.),
78–79
Maʿalim fi-l-tariq (
Milestones; Qutb),
238
madhhab (school of law),
146–147; Hanafi,
147–148,
206,
261; Hanbali,
148–149,
261; Maliki,
148,
261; Shafi
ʿi,
148,
261
Al-Madina al-fadila (
The Virtuous City; al-Farabi),
195–196
mahabba (ecstatic love),
168
Majlisi, Muhammad Baqir,
124marriage and divorce,
265matn (second part of hadith),
60,
61,
62
Matta b. Yunus, Abu Bishr,
190Mawdudi, Mawlana Abu
ʾl-Ala,
238–239Mecca,
19,
31,
35,
54; and direction of prayer,
54,
207,
211; Muhammad at,
45–51,
55; pilgrimage to (hajj),
28,
55,
210,
213–215,
220; in pre-Islamic times,
25–28,
34Memorial of God’s Friends (Attar),
164–165
modernity,
225–250; definitions of,
227–228; and Islam,
227–228,
230–232,
250; modernism as response to,
233; and Muslim identity,
225–226; Muslim responses to,
99,
226,
233,
234–241monotheism: of Islam,
13,
17,
20,
33,
81,
183; of Judaism and Christianity,
18,
35–36,
51,
73; and Muhammad,
46,
51; in pre-Islamic Arabia,
25,
28–31Mother Mosque of America (Cedar Rapids),
207muhajirun (immigrants),
97,
98,
118
Muhammad,
10,
41–63; asceticism of,
158; biographical literature (
sira) on,
7,
43,
44–45,
53–54,
55–56,
57,
256; birthday of,
58,
183,
218,
235; clothing of,
61; commentary on Quran by,
88–89; death of,
55,
59,
97–98,
99–100; and divine revelation,
41,
44–45; fasting by,
212; and hadith genre,
60–62,
144–145; and Islamic mysticism,
154,
158; and Jews,
53–54; at Mecca,
45–51,
55; at Medina,
51–53; modernist portrayals of,
59,
226,
256; and monotheism,
46,
51; negative portrayals of,
258,
285; night journey of,
46–48,
57,
158; perfection of,
49,
57,
136; poetry to,
58–59; polemical literature against,
59–60; as prophet,
33,
35,
46,
47–48,
57,
63,
75,
80,
133; purported illiteracy of,
71–72; Quran and personality of,
41,
43,
57–58,
63,
67,
71; representations of,
63,
285; and “satanic verses” incident,
48–51; and September 11 attacks,
282–283; sinlessness of,
57–58,
71; sources on,
42,
43–45,
55–56,
59,
63; succession of,
97,
116,
118–120,
125,
130,
259; and Sufism,
158; tomb of,
56; as trope,
35,
42; wives and marriages of,
54–55,
75–76,
256–259Muhammad Is Not the Father of Any of Your Men (Powers),
75–77
Muslim identity,
35,
73,
226,
293; debate over,
9–11; desire to create,
26–27,
233; diversity in,
10,
87,
226; fluidity of,
31,
37,
154,
250; gradual emergence of,
37,
51–52,
185; and modernity,
225–226; “orthodox,”
36; and religious practices,
204,
220al-Mutanabbi, Abu al-Tayyib,
86al-Mutawakkil (caliph),
191
Najm al-Din al-Ghaiti (Imam),
47al-Nasafi, Najm al-Din,
194
Old Testament (Hebrew Bible),
73,
79–80
Palestine Liberation Organization,
232Park 51, controversy over,
284,
285pilgrimage to Mecca. See hajj
poetry,
28,
33; to Muhammad,
58–59; in pre-Islamic Arabia,
25prayer: daily,
82,
137; direction of,
51,
54,
205,
211; Friday,
207,
211,
270; and gender separation,
207; as one of five pillars,
210–211,
212predestination,
188; as one of five doctrines,
200–201prophets and scriptures, as one of five doctrines,
200
Al-Qanun fi-al-tibb (
The Canon of Medicine; Avicenna),
196
Quran,
67–90; ambiguities of,
84–85; amendments and alterations to,
75–77; on angels,
199; borrowing in,
69–70,
77–78; on charity,
211–212; and Christianity,
20,
34–35,
73,
79; commentary on,
88–89,
90; as created,
189–191; critical view of,
72–77,
80; dating of,
67–68,
74,
76; on Day of Judgment,
83–84; on five pillars of Islam,
209–210; on freedom, equality, and rights,
267,
268; on God’s omnipotence and unity,
81–82,
193; on hajj,
213; inimitability of,
86; interpretive traditions on,
67,
86,
139; and Islamic legal tradition,
138,
142–144,
145; on Jesus’s crucifixion,
85,
91n.20; on jihad,
215; and Judaism,
54,
77–78,
80,
81,
85,
91n.20; language of,
77–78; on Muhammad’s night journey,
46–47; and Muhammad’s personality,
41,
43,
57–58,
63,
67,
71; in Muslim daily life,
88,
90; and Muslim self-definition,
73; mystical meanings in,
89–90,
158; organization of,
68–69; on pre-Islamic deities,
24–25; problematic verses of,
86–87; and prophecy,
75,
84–85; on Ramadan fast,
212–213; recitation of,
67,
71,
85,
88; redaction of,
49,
68,
72,
73–74,
131; religious heritage of,
18,
20,
32,
34–35,
70,
73,
77,
79,
81; scholarship on,
69,
72–73,
77–79; as scripture,
35,
78,
80,
81,
200; seafaring imagery in,
74; and September 11 attacks,
282–283; sources of,
70,
74; traditional accounts of,
71–72; translation of,
71,
76,
247; on veiling,
260–261; on women,
255,
260–261; as word of God,
71,
79,
80–81,
85,
88
religion,
18,
184; diversity in,
4,
155; and identity,
3,
10; maximalist and minimalist understandings of,
229–230; and mysticism,
155; patriarchal structure of,
267; and science,
243religious studies,
18,
204,
283; “critics” and “caretakers” in,
6; insider–outsider debate in,
4–5,
17; and theology,
4Rida, Muhammad Rashid,
231Ridda (Apostasy) Wars,
99ritual. See Islam: practices and rituals
Sadr al-Din Muhammad Shirazi (Mulla Sadra),
198Safiyya bint Huyayy,
54–55Satanic Verses, The (Rushdie),
50,
241
Schleiermacher, Friedrich,
292schools of law. See madhhab
scripture: Judeo-Christian,
34–35,
81; and prophets,
200; Protestant model of,
67,
86; Quran as,
35,
78,
80,
81,
200September
11, 2011, attacks on,
2,
226,
274; and anti-Muslim views,
59,
284,
285; conspiracy theories about,
279–280; religious justifications for,
281–283sharia: analogy in,
144–145; Arabic meanings of,
162; and consensus,
145; hadiths on,
61; independent reasoning in,
145–146; in Iran,
240–241; and Islamic mysticism,
167; jihad in,
216;
naskh concept in,
142–143; in Ontario,
272n.22; origins and emergence of,
133–134,
135–136; schools of,
146–149; and al-Shafi
ʿi,
139–140; sources for ascertaining,
143–144; and Sunnism,
133,
134–135,
136,
137;
ulama as guardians of,
141–142; ultimate goal of,
137; on warfare,
216; and women,
207,
240,
265,
267–268Shi
ʿism,
115–131,
210; denominations of,
128–130; distinctive doctrine of,
130–131; and Fatima,
258–259; and free will–predestination debate,
188; and hadiths,
62,
131; Imams in,
124,
125–126,
130–131; and Ja
ʿfar al-Sadiq,
123–125; and Karbala events,
120–122; and Khomeini,
240; and law,
136,
137,
149; and Portico of the Banu Sa
ʿida events,
117–119; ritual practice in,
217–218; and Sunnism,
116,
117,
126,
130,
138,
150–151; and Twelfth Imam,
122,
127–128,
129; Twelver,
128–129,
130,
149,
217al-Sirafi, Abu Sa
ʿid,
190Sirat Rasul Allah (
Biography of the Messenger of God),
52–53
Spain, Muslim (al-Andalus),
108–110Succession to Muhammad, The (Madelung),
116–117
Sufism,
154–177; criticism of,
156,
175–176; and daily lives,
156–157,
176–177; definition of,
157,
158; emergence of,
156,
158; expansion–asceticism theory on,
158–159; geographic diversity of,
160–161; institutional,
173–175; key figures in,
167–173; key terms and concepts of,
161–164; master and disciple in,
155,
173–174; and Muhammad,
158; and New Age movement,
174; ritual practices of,
219; “sober” and “intoxicated,”
167,
168–169; and spread of Islam,
156,
176; stations of progression in,
164–166; and women,
259al-Suhrawardi, Shihab al-Din,
198Suleiman the Magnificent,
112Sunna: and hadiths,
61,
140; and Islamic jurisprudence,
134,
136,
138–139,
140,
141,
143,
144,
145Sunni Islam,
133–151; emergence of,
137–139; on “grave sinner,”
186–187; and hadiths,
62; and Islamic law,
133,
134–135,
136,
137; name of,
134; not normative version of Islam,
115,
130; and Shi
ʿism,
116,
117,
126,
130,
138,
150–151Syria,
231,
248; in pre-Islamic Arabia,
21
al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir,
49,
56,
89Tahafut al-falasifa (
Incoherence of the Philosophers; al-Ghazali),
196
Tahafut al-tahafut (
The Incoherence of the Incoherence; Averroes),
198
taqiyya (pious dissimilation),
128
Tarjuman al-Quran (journal),
239
al-Tawhidi, Abu Hayyan,
190taʾwil (esoteric interpretation),
89–90
Ten Practices of Religion,
217theology: feminist,
267; and religion,
4.
See also Islam: theology and beliefs
al-Tirmidhi, Abu
ʿIsa,
62,
118Trouble with Islam Today, The (Manji),
287–288
United Arab Republic,
248
al-Wahhab, Muhammad ibn abd,
187al-Waqidi, Abdullah ibn Umar,
56Was hat Mohammad aus den Judenthume aufgenommen? (Geiger),
77–78
wilayat al-faqih (legal mandate),
240
women,
254–271; circumcision of,
219; and fundamentalism,
265–266; as imams,
256,
270; in Iran,
240,
262,
266,
269–270; and Islamic feminism,
267–270; and Islamic law,
207,
240,
265,
267–268; and mosque prayer,
207,
256,
270; as mystics,
259–260; in Saudi Arabia,
261,
266; sex segregation of,
207,
261,
263–264; status of, in flux,
264; in time of Muhammad,
255–259; and veil,
204–205,
254,
260–263,
265–267; violence against,
264; and Western feminism,
266–267
zahir–
batin dichotomy,
162