According to a study undertaken by the Pew Research Center (2012), there were approximately 1.6 billion individuals in the world in 2010 who identified as Muslim, which was 23.2 per cent of the global population of 6.9 billion. Given the enormity of this potential tourism market, it is surprising that there has been so little academic involvement with the subject, and, of the studies that have been published, only a few have touched on cultural or heritage aspects of Islamic tourism (Al-Hamarneh & Steiner 2004; Neveu 2010; Kessler 2015). While one suggested the existence of an Islamic tourism sub-segment focused on mosque visitation (Kessler 2015), this chapter is the first to specifically discuss ‘Islamic heritage tourists’. This newly defined tourist segment can be seen as a potentially profitable new market for European destinations with a history of Islamic rule. However, attracting this tourist segment requires not only a presentation of the Islamic heritage on offer but also a respectful marketing strategy in line with Islamic principles as it is crucial to frame heritage tourism appropriately for this market. Currently, there is no state-driven marketing specifically targeting Islamic heritage tourists in Europe and, therefore, it becomes necessary to discuss the ways in which European nations can best market themselves to this new tourist segment.
Islam is a holistic religion, wherein ‘the holy book Qur’an provides guidance in all aspects of human activity’ (Jafari & Scott 2014: 2). Therefore, all activities become either halal (permissible) or haram (forbidden) with restrictions on how they may or not be performed. This is particularly relevant when discussing tourism as it can often involve the relinquishment of control over certain aspects of daily life (i.e. living space, food, lifestyle). Travel, specifically in the form of pilgrimage, is allowed, particularly as pilgrimage to Mecca is one of the five pillars of Islam. However, other forms of travel are also sanctioned, and even encouraged, in the Holy Qur’an. This is especially evident in Surah Al-‘Ankabut verse 20 when Muhammad says ‘Travel through the land and observe how He began creation. Then Allah will produce the final creation. Indeed Allah, over all things, is competent.’ According to Din (1989: 552) ‘the goal of travel is to help instil the realisation of the smallness of man and the greatness of God.’ While it is clear that the Holy Qur’an permits travel, Sanad, Kassem and Scott (2010: 30) take it one step further by stating that ‘one can conclude that tourism is a human right under Islamic law.’ Thus, there is religious justification for the discussion of Islamic tourism.
It is important to note that, while Islamic tourism and halal tourism are often used interchangeably, this chapter will solely utilise the term Islamic tourism. Henderson (2009) makes a distinction between these two types of tourism, specifically in terms of motivation, with halal tourism being expressly religious in nature. In comparison, she defines Islamic tourism as ‘travel by Muslims for whom compliance with doctrinal structures when away from home is an important consideration … although primary motives may not be directly connected to religion’ (Henderson 2016: 339). Carboni, Perelli and Sistu (2014: 2) provide a slightly diverse understanding of the concept wherein ‘Islamic tourism is defined as tourism in accordance with Islam, involving people of the Muslim faith who are interested in keeping with their personal religious habits while traveling. This definition … does not concern exclusively travel to or within Muslim countries.’ This is similar to Henderson’s but expands on it by emphasising that Islamic tourism can occur anywhere that Muslims travel. In comparison, Jafari and Scott (2014: 9) present a broader conceptualisation with Islamic tourism presented as ‘a new “touristic” interpretation of pilgrimage that merges religious and leisure tourism.’ While most of these authors are in agreement as to what can be considered Islamic tourism, it is necessary to stress that there is currently no official definition of Islamic tourism.
In addition to these general definitions, several authors have included cultural elements to their descriptions of Islamic tourism. For example, Al-Hamarneh and Steiner (2004) conceptualised Islamic tourism as containing three facets (economic, cultural, and religious/conservative), with the cultural component setting their definition apart. This cultural aspect is echoed in Kessler’s (2015: 23) interpretation of the term, for whom Islamic tourism refers to ‘Muslims travelling to Muslim friendly destinations offering Halal Tourism options combining religious and cultural Muslim oriented attractions.’ Al-Hamarneh and Steiner (2004: 180) highlighted the need to ‘[reorient] tourist destinations towards less consumption and “western-culture loaded” sites and toward more Islamic historical, religious, and cultural sites.’ This aligns with the Jordanian definition of Islamic tourism, which, according to Neveu (2010), emphasises the importance of visiting areas that are important to Islamic history in order to enhance visitor knowledge. While these definitions touch on the importance of heritage visitation, they are too narrow in scope for the term, specifically as there are other non-religious reasons for which Muslims may travel (i.e. visit family or friends, business, for stress relief). This is addressed, in part, by Kessler (2015) who identified a subset of Islamic tourism referred to as ‘Mosque Tourism’. This tourism segment is characterised by the targeted visitation of mosques by both Muslims and non-Muslims in Muslim countries for both religious and non-religious purposes. However, while this definition is quite encompassing, it is still very specific to the visitation of one type of Islamic built heritage.
The concept of Islamic heritage tourism presented in this chapter builds on the previously discussed definitions of Islamic tourism, with particular attention paid to the previously mentioned cultural aspects. While all prior descriptions of the Islamic tourism market segment agree on the importance of travel that follows Islamic principles and includes visits to Islamic destinations, it is of interest to further delineate potential Islamic tourists. This is due to the various motivations for travel sanctioned in the Holy Qur’an, which are particularly relevant to the discussion of an Islamic heritage tourist segment. For instance, travelling to better understand the history of mankind is highlighted in Surah Muhammad verse 10, which states ‘Have they not travelled through the land and seen how was the end of those before them?’ This sentiment is echoed several times in different surahs (i.e. Surah Al-An’am: 11, Surah Yusuf: 109, Surah An-Naml: 69). Muslims are thus encouraged to bear witness to past civilisations in order to learn from them (Timothy & Iverson 2006; Jafari & Scott 2014). Additionally, Surah Al-Hujurat verse 13 says ‘O mankind, indeed We have created you from male and female and made you peoples and tribes that you may know one another.’ This encourages Muslims to travel in order to interact with different cultures (Din 1989; Sanad et al. 2010; Jafari & Scott 2014). As can be seen, heritage tourism is a halal form of travel that is supported by the Holy Qur’an. Thus, based on the established religious endorsement of travel as well as the previous literature, Islamic heritage tourism is best described as the purposeful visitation of places of historical and cultural import, with a particular emphasis on those sites which pertain to Islamic heritage, while following Islamic tourism principles.
Based on the definition of the newly identified Islamic heritage tourist market segment, marketing strategies in line with Islamic ethics will be needed in order to ensure compliance with the segment’s religious requirements. It should be noted that while general principles of Islamic marketing exist, the Islamic market is incredibly diverse (El-Fatatry, Lee, Khan & Lehdonvirta 2011; Prokopec & Kurdy 2011; Temporal 2011). However, this does not preclude the usage of general marketing tactics which are based in the tenants of Islam as this is an integral aspect of this market. Prokopec and Kurdy (2011: 212) refer to it as the ‘“think sharia (or halal), act local” approach.’ This is particularly important as ‘advertising that does not take into account the sensitivities of Islamic values and culture, may result in lost sales and perhaps loss of company image’ (De Run, Butt, Fam & Jong 2010: 29). Therefore, it is unsurprising that marketing would have ‘to be consistent with [Muslim] religious understanding, knowledge, and feelings’ (Haque, Ahmed & Jahan 2010: 73).
According to Dean (2013: 25), Islamic marketing is ‘the promotion of a product that appeals in any way to the Muslim values of either the producer or the consumer, or both.’ Furthermore, according to Ali (2011), Islamic ethics play a strong role in daily life and therefore have an impact on marketing initiatives. This has resulted in the creation of specific, recommended guidelines that align with general ethical considerations related to Islamic business transactions, which are identified by Ali (2011) as effort, competition, transparency, and morally responsible conduct. For Ali (2011), morally responsible conduct is the crux of these four principles. He notes that, without a moral underpinning, transparency, competition, and effort may not be sustainable in the long term. Thus Islamic morality, which greatly impacts on intent and purpose, is woven into the other three ethical principles, which are elaborated in the following paragraphs.
The first of these principles, effort, is best expressed in relation to its purpose, which requires that ‘marketing in Islam should be to meet societal demands and be in line with societal goals’ (Ali 2011: 21). The emphasis, then, is on societal benefit and not maximising profits (Saeed, Ahmed & Mukhtar 2001; Marinov 2007; Ali 2011; Prokopec & Kurdy 2011). In fact, Temporal (2011: 7–8) stresses that marketing to create demand ‘is at odds with Islamic economics, which espouses moderation and a resource-based view of consumption.’ Rice and Al-Mossawi (2002: 82–83) referred to this as ‘balanced consumption’ wherein ‘social responsibility is preferred to conspicuous consumption and profit-seeking.’ This societal-focused marketing then stresses the importance of the consumer’s individual humanity and not just as a source for profit (Arham 2010). However, this does not imply that Islamic marketing must be reactionary. Instead, it should endeavour to forecast the consumers’ needs and wants in order to effectively fulfil potential demand (Ali 2011).
This focus on societal benefit is also an important aspect of Ali’s (2011) second principle, competition, which is encouraged in Islam. However, competition should be based on the concept of Adl, or justice, which emphasises ‘the fair treatment of competitors’ in advertising (Turnbull, Howe-Walsh & Boulanouar 2016: 8). According to Cader (2015: 181), ‘defaming competition is a violation of Islamic etiquette and considered reprehensible behavior.’ This extends to comparative advertising, which Rice and Al-Mossawi (2002: 74) indicate should be avoided, ‘especially those referring to a competing brand by name.’ Therefore, while competition is encouraged, it should be undertaken in a fair and just manner. In continuation of the concept of fair and just treatment of competitors, competition shouldn’t lead to the creation of monopolies or price alterations (both increases and decreases) that are not in line with the market. Instead, competition is expected to result in improved quality levels as this is the only permitted method by which to increase prices, apart from an increase in quantity of the product (Marinov 2007). Thus, competition is essential within Islamic markets, but competitors need to be treated in a just manner which benefits all.
Transparency, Ali’s (2011) third principle, is one of the most stressed within the literature, specifically in relation to the necessity for truth in advertising. Arham (2010: 159) states that ‘products should be communicated within ethical boundaries so that customers do not feel deceived.’ Rice and Al-Mossawi (2002: 79) underscore that ‘exaggeration is regarded as a form of lying, whether exaggeration is by metaphor or by embellishing a description.’ Therefore, there can be no upselling of products. Cader (2015), in his study on Saudi Arabia, elaborated on the necessity of honesty in advertising in relation to ambiguity in marketing, specifically in non-specific pricing and/or lack of clarity in terms of product quantity. Furthermore, ‘all defects should be disclosed to the buyer before a sale’ (Prokopec & Kurdy 2011: 217). According to Saeed et al. (2001: 134), marketers ‘must, under all circumstances, have a regard for the intellectual integrity and a higher degree of consciousness of the consumers to ensure that the hard earned money of customers is not wasted.’ As a result, transparency, as with effort and competition, is intrinsically tied to the concept of societal benefit.
As can be seen, Islamic marketing needs to, ultimately, result in the betterment of society, be aware of the demands of the market, and provide honest and fair treatment of the consumer. Saeed et al. (2001: 134) also note that, more specifically, ‘stereotyping of women in advertising, excessive use of fantasy, the use of suggestive language and behaviour, and the use of women as objects to lure and attract customers’ are forbidden in Islamic marketing. Consequently, it can be assumed that those activities which are specifically haram (i.e. drinking alcohol, gambling, eating pork) would also not be permitted for use in advertising aimed at Muslim consumers.
All of these factors need to be taken into account when marketing to Islamic heritage tourists, particularly when developing a marketing plan for a non-Muslim majority location.
While Islamic heritage is predominantly associated with the Middle East and North African regions, large Islamic empires throughout history as well as expansive trade routes have resulted in the existence of a broad array of Islamic heritage sites in various regions around the world. Europe is one of these oft-overlooked regions with a significant history of Islamic rule, which can be tied, predominantly, to two different groups, the Arabs and the Ottoman Turks. Arab rule in Europe was concentrated mainly in the Iberian Peninsula, including much of what is contemporary Spain and Portugal, during the early Middle Ages. In comparison, the Ottoman Empire controlled most of Southeast Europe from the late Middle Ages to the mid-nineteenth century. While Europe is not automatically considered as an Islamic heritage destination, this history has attracted evident Islamic heritage tourist interest in the region, as can be seen in the heritage-specific tours offered by several halal and Islamic tourism companies (i.e. Ilimtour, Islamic Travels, Spain Baraka Tours). These companies provide packages to several Islamic heritage destinations, namely Spain, Portugal, Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH), Russia, Greece, and Italy. Spain is the most popular destination, being offered by all three Islamic tourism companies, with Bosnian, Portuguese, and Italian tours run by two out of the three. Both Spain Baraka Tours and Islamic Travels sell package tours to BiH with an emphasis on the Islamic heritage elements of the tour (Spain Baraka Tours 2016a; Islamic Travels 2017b). Portugal is offered by Ilimtour and Spain Baraka Tours. However, of these two, only Spain Baraka Tours (2016b) stresses the Islamic heritage element in their tour description. Additionally, visits to Italy are offered by Spain Baraka Tours (2016a) and Islamic Travels (2017c), but those provided by Spain Baraka Tours do not have Islamic heritage elements. The tour that will be provided by Islamic Travels (2017c) appears to have a strong Islamic heritage focus, but currently that section of their tour site is still being completed. Only Islamic Travels (2017a, 2017d) provides tours to Russia and Greece, placing particular emphasis on Islamic heritage. Given the existence of these heritage excursions, there appears to be an interest in the general Islamic tourism market for heritage-driven trips outside of what are considered traditionally Muslim countries.
At its peak, the Ottoman Empire stretched across much of Southeast Europe, but only BiH and Greece are currently included in private Islamic heritage tour itineraries. Moreover, out of all the European countries with these tours, BiH is the only one that has a majority Muslim population with a little over 50 per cent of the population identifying as Muslim (Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina 2016). This would appear to make it an ideal European destination for Islamic heritage tourists given its existing practising population. BiH’s official tourism website frequently mentions their Islamic heritage, highlighting the impact that the Ottomans had on religion in the country (Tourism Association of Federation of BiH 2005a) and referring to BiH as a ‘sacred crossroads’ where Islam, Judaism, and both eastern and western Christianity meet (Tourism Association of Federation of BiH 2005b). However, while the BiH tourism website often discusses the Muslim population, there is no information specifically for Muslim tourists, particularly in relation to the accessibility of halal amenities. Furthermore, while the images used throughout the website in general are not offensive, one of the banner images across the top of the website depicts two women who are dressed for summer and thus uncovered, which is contrary to Islamic sensibilities (Tourism Association of Federation of BiH 2005c).
Similar to BiH, most of Greece was part of the Ottoman Empire for several hundred years and still contains many remnants from this period, including mosques and fortifications. The Greek tourism website does highlight Islamic sites in their guides on what to do in specific locations. For example, the site suggests visiting the Hamza Bey Mosque, the White Tower (an Ottoman fortification), and the Turkish baths when visiting the city centre of Thessaloniki (Greek National Tourism Organisation (GNTO) 2017e). In Athens, there is a short description of the areas of interest in the historic centre related to the ‘Ottoman occupation’ (GNTO 2017b). The information provided on Ioannina is almost exclusively dedicated to Islamic heritage structures (GNTO 2017c). Another area of Greece with identified Islamic heritage is Didymoteicho, which lies close to the Turkish border, and was briefly the capital of the Ottoman Empire (GNTO 2017a). Recommended sightseeing locations include two separate Turkish bathhouses as well as a fourteenth-century mosque, which is described as ‘the oldest and biggest Muslim sacred precinct on European soil’ (GNTO 2017a). In terms of Islamic heritage tourist-specific requirements, Greece’s website performs similarly to BiH’s with no mention of places wherein to access halal food or where to find active mosques. Additionally, as on the Bosnian site, the female subjects of the photos on the tourism site’s homepage are often portrayed wearing what would be deemed immodest clothing (GNTO 2017d).
While BiH and Greece both benefit from Islamic heritage tourism, they are not the only countries in Europe with Ottoman heritage. Other parts of Southeast Europe, specifically Albania, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Serbia, Kosovo, and Montenegro, still retain visible elements of their Islamic history. Of these, both Albania and Kosovo have majority Muslim populations, but only Albania maintains an official tourism portal. Based on a 2011 census, Albania’s total Muslim community is approximately 59 per cent of the total population (United States Department of State. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor 2013), but, as was seen in BiH, there is no mention regarding the accessibility of halal food in the country. Also, as with previous national tourism publications, there are multiple images of women dressed immodestly, which is most notable in the Albanian tourist rights document (National Tourism Agency n.d.). However, there is a much stronger emphasis on the country’s Ottoman heritage which is notable in that one of its two cultural World Heritage sites is the Historic Centres of Berat and Gjirokastra, ‘rare examples of an architectural character typical of the Ottoman period’ (UNESCO 2017). When promoting Berat, the Albanian National Tourism Agency (2017a) recommends touring four separate mosques as well as a tariqa, a Sufi school. In Gjirokastra, they suggest a visit to the Mosque of Bazaar as well as Ottoman Bazaar neighbourhood (Albanian National Tourism Agency 2017b). In Vlora, the Muradije Mosque is ‘highly recommended’ (Albanian National Tourism Agency 2017d) while Kuzum Baba, a religious site belonging to a Muslim minority group (Bektashi), is also mentioned (Albanian National Tourism Agency 2017c).
In comparison to Albania, the Bulgarian tourism website has less engagement with its Ottoman past. This is apparent in its discussion of Bulgarian history wherein the approximately 400-year period of Ottoman rule is relegated to a mere mention of the conquest before moving directly into a discussion of the development of liberation movements (Ministry of Economy, Energy and Tourism (Bulgaria) n.d.-a). However, this is not to say that there is no presentation of the extant Islamic heritage. Plovdiv is noted as having the Dzhumaya Mosque, a Turkish bathhouse that has been repurposed as a contemporary art centre, and a clock tower built in the sixteenth century (Ministry of Economy, Energy and Tourism (Bulgaria) n.d.-b). The site highlights Banya Bashi, an active sixteenth-century mosque located in the capital city, while also emphasising the need for respectful behaviour when visiting the mosque (Ministry of Economy, Energy and Tourism (Bulgaria) n.d.-d). In Shumen, the Sherif Halil Pasha Mosque is presented as the largest and ‘most architecturally significant mosque in Bulgaria’ (Ministry of Economy, Energy and Tourism (Bulgaria) n.d.-c). While these mosques are not only promoted but also emphasised as being active places of worship, there is, as with the previously discussed countries’ websites, a lack of information regarding halal facilities, which are a necessity for Islamic tourists.
As with all the previously discussed national tourism websites, any indication of halal amenities is also lacking from Macedonia’s official tourism portal, and there are multiple images of women dressed inappropriately for marketing directed at Islamic tourists (Macedonia Timeless n.d.-d). However, in contrast to the previously discussed countries, there is more information available regarding mosques around the country, of which there are approximately 600 (Macedonia Timeless n.d.-b). Nonetheless, while there is a subsection of the website dedicated to mosques in general, only the Decorated Mosque in Tetovo is mentioned, albeit very positively (Macedonia Timeless n.d.-c). Though the section dedicated to mosques is not well populated, there are several mentions of Islamic heritage sites around Macedonia on other parts of the tourism portal. In the South, Bitola, the second largest city in the country, has ‘one of the oldest Muslim sacral cultural-historical objects in Macedonia’, namely the Isak Mosque (Macedonia Timeless n.d.-a). Skopje, the capital, has multiple remnants of Ottoman rule, including Stone Bridge, referred to as ‘the symbol of Skopje’, the fifteenth-century Turkish bathhouse Daut-Pasha Hamam, ‘an impressive monument of Islamic architecture’, the Old Bazaar, the first Ottoman clock tower, and the Mustapha-Pasha Mosque (Macedonia Timeless n.d.-e).
The final three countries with Ottoman heritage, Serbia, Kosovo, and Montenegro, will be discussed together as there is barely any engagement with their extant Islamic heritage and no amenities specifically for Islamic tourists. Additionally, as Kosovo does not have its own official tourism portal, all information regarding Islamic heritage has been taken from the Serbian tourism website. Based on the available information, the only Kosovan Islamic heritage presented is found in the capital city, Priština, and consists of two different mosques, a clock tower, and a private, upper class residence from the nineteenth century (National Tourism Organisation of Serbia 2017c). As this information is derived from the official Serbian tourism portal, it is unsurprising that within Serbia there is almost no acknowledgement of any remaining Islamic heritage, with merely a passing reference to the existence of Turkish additions to Belgrade Fortress (National Tourism Organisation of Serbia 2017a). Additionally, there are only two mosques identified on the website, Bajrakli Mosque in Belgrade and Altun-alem Mosque in Novi Pazar (National Tourism Organisation of Serbia 2017b). The Montenegrin site is also fairly sparse in relation to information regarding Islamic heritage sites. While there is a section dedicated to mosques, it identifies only three, the Hussein Pasa Mosque in Pljevlja, the Tzar’s Mosque in Plav, and the Mosque in Petnjica (National Tourism Organisation of Montenegro n.d.-a). The Old Town of Bar is noted as having a clock tower, bath, and powder magazine all dating from the time of Ottoman rule (National Tourism Organisation of Montenegro n.d.-b), and the Old Town Ulcinj is also identified as having an Ottoman powder magazine as well as ‘a Turkish drinking fountain from 1749ʹ (National Tourism Organisation of Montenegro n.d.-c). As can be seen, neither Serbia nor Montenegro present much of their Islamic history.
As previously mentioned, all of these countries have Islamic heritage due to their historical ties to the Ottoman Empire. However, they all engage with this heritage in very different ways. Albania and BiH actively promote their Islamic heritage, which is unsurprising given that they both have Muslim majority populations. Greece, Bulgaria, and Macedonia all engage with their Ottoman heritage, but they do not tend to overemphasise it. In comparison, Serbia, and by extension Kosovo, as well as Montenegro barely acknowledge this aspect of their heritage. Nevertheless, regardless of the differences in promotional levels, none of the official tourism portals provide information on halal amenities within the countries, which would be an essential part of attracting Islamic heritage tourists.
While the Ottoman Empire extended through much of Southeast Europe, there was, as previously mentioned, an earlier, shorter period of Arab Islamic rule which was concentrated almost exclusively on the Iberian Peninsula. While the heritage of this region will be discussed shortly, there needs to be a brief mention of the Islamic heritage found in Italy, particularly given the ongoing establishment of an organised, private Islamic heritage tour focusing on Sicily. The only mention of Arab influence on the Italian national tourism portal is made in passing in relation to Syracuse (Italian National Tourist Board n.d.-b). Additionally, only one Arab structure, the Norman Palace in Palermo, is discussed on the entirety of the site (Italian National Tourist Board n.d.-a). There is no other acknowledgement of Sicily’s brief role as an Arab Emirate nor is there any additional information provided regarding the availability of either halal services or active mosques.
Arab rule in the Iberian Peninsula was only marginally longer than that in Sicily, yet both Portugal and Spain underscore their Islamic heritage to a much greater extent. In Portugal, there are multiple noted sites of Arab origin, including Silves which is the former Arab capital of the Algarve Kingdom (Turismo de Portugal 2013f). Mértola is another former Arab capital and home to the Islamic Museum (Turismo de Portugal 2013d) while Faro retains an Arab Gateway as well as undefined archaeological remains (Turismo de Portugal 2013c). Fortifications appear to be the most common Islamic heritage feature in Portugal. The Castelo de Silves is one of the less altered of the Islamic castles from the Almohade period (Turismo de Portugal 2013a), while one of the older Islamic heritage sites is the Castelo dos Mouros near Sintra whose origins can be traced back to the eighth century (Turismo de Portugal 2013b). Although there are still remnants of both military and secular Islamic heritage sites, religious sites from the period of Arab rule are absent in Portugal. In fact, there are multiple examples on the tourism website wherein a church is described as having been constructed on the site of a mosque, physically displaying the Christian re-conquest of the formerly Muslim lands. Additionally, on their page dedicated to religious tourism, there is no mention of the Islamic past (Turismo de Portugal 2013e). Therefore, it is unsurprising that the Portuguese website has no information on active mosques nor on any halal services that may exist.
Among the Islamic heritage tours to European countries, Spain appears to be by far the most popular. As a result, it is unsurprising they also have the most developed national tourism website in terms of targeting the Islamic and halal tourism markets. Their official tourism portal has a specific section for members of the Gulf Cooperation Council (i.e. Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, UAE, Qatar, Bahrain, and Oman), which is available in Arabic as well as English. The initial welcome page accentuates the Islamic heritage available in Spain, which is notable in the second scrolling banner available wherein the site ‘invite[s] you to discover the living legacy of Moorish culture in Spain’ (Turespaña 2017c). While this section of the website is designed for general Islamic tourists, there is a strong emphasis on ‘Moorish’ heritage sites with Andalusia and the Costa del Sol listed as one of the three ‘main destinations’ on the welcome page (Turespaña 2017c). The page dedicated to Andalusia underscores the influence that Arab culture has had on the region not only in terms of built heritage but also in regards to both gastronomy and bath culture (Turespaña 2017a). Additionally, in contrast to every other national tourism site presented in this chapter, the Gulf Cooperation Council page on the Spanish portal has a specific subsection dedicated to halal tourism. This page includes information on halal hotels and restaurants, mosques, access to appropriate worship facilities in airports, religious celebrations, and additional links to Islamic organisations in Spain (Turespaña 2017b). Furthermore, on each individual page for the featured destinations, there is information on where to locate the main mosque, if there is one.
In comparison to the Ottoman Empire’s control of Southeast Europe, Arab rule in the Iberian Peninsula and Sicily lasted for a relatively short time period. It should be noted, though, that, regardless of the brevity of Arab influence, all three of the countries are visited by private Islamic heritage tours. As Italy experienced the shortest Islamic influence, it is unsurprising that there is little mention on their official tourism portal. However, although both Portugal and Spain were ruled by the same Islamic dynasty, Portugal only lightly touches on the subject. Furthermore, only Spain’s official tourism portal has information specifically for Islamic tourists who are searching for halal amenities.
Europe has a rich history of Islamic rule throughout the centuries, and, as has been noted, there exists significant Islamic heritage from these periods. However, most of the countries discussed in this chapter do little to promote their Islamic heritage. While this is, in and of itself, not necessarily problematic, the presence of private Islamic heritage tours indicates that there is an active Islamic heritage tourist segment that is both interested in and willing to visit European Islamic heritage. Furthermore, of those countries that do accent their Islamic heritage, only Spain provides any information on halal amenities and highlights active mosques available in each destination. In order to successfully market European destinations to the newly defined Islamic heritage tourist, the national tourism websites would have to follow a similar model to that seen on the Spanish website in terms of content. This would need to include the creation of a page on their portal specifically dedicated to Islamic tourists, which would be expected to follow Ali’s (2011) ethical Islamic marketing principles while also removing inappropriate images of women or haram activities.
It should be noted that this research is preliminary in nature and thus provides the groundwork for a more in-depth analysis. Moreover, only the English versions of each website were examined due to the language limitations of the researcher, though information regarding halal amenities was checked in all languages. While this chapter has defined Islamic heritage tourists, there is no extant empirical evidence definitively identifying this market segment. Thus further research is needed not only to prove its existence but also to determine if it has any specific demographic trends or travelling habits. Additionally, it would be useful to determine the extent to which Islamic heritage tourists are interested in travelling to European Islamic heritage sites as well as their pre-existing knowledge, if any, of Islamic history in Europe. Furthermore, while only countries with Ottoman and Arab heritage have been discussed in this chapter, there have been additional Islamic periods in Europe, notably the Tatars in the Ukraine, Russia, and Poland. More recent Islamic heritage may also exist in other European countries that have a history of Islamic immigration, such as the UK or France. Given the growing Muslim population worldwide, it may be worthwhile for European countries to capitalise on this aspect of their heritage in order to open up their tourism market to a new audience.
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