Introducing pronouns
Introducing pronounsDefinition
See page 6.
Forms
Like nouns, English pronouns have gender, number, and case, but further distinctions can be made. They also show person.
PERSON English distinguishes three persons. First person is the one who is speaking (I, me, we, us). Second person is the one being spoken to (you). Third person is the one being spoken about (he, him, she, her, it, they, them). Both pronouns and verbs are listed according to person.
GENDER Some, but not all, pronouns can be distinguished by gender. I can refer to either a man or a woman. She, however, is always feminine, he always masculine, and it, even if it refers to an animal, is always neuter.
NUMBER Each of the three persons may be either singular or plural.
CASE Pronouns show more cases than nouns: the subjective (for example, I and she), the possessive (for example, my/mine and her/hers), and the objective (me and her). These are discussed below, under Uses.
Uses
Personal pronouns have the same functions as nouns.
1. Subject
She is here.
2. Direct object
I like them.
3. Indirect object
I am giving him the book.
4. Object of a preposition
The question is hard for me.
5. Complement
It is she who is speaking.
Types
There are several types of pronouns.
1. Personal (page 22)
2. Possessive (page 28)
3. Reflexive/reciprocal (page 30)
4. Disjunctive (page 32)
5. Relative (page 34)
6. Demonstrative (page 38)
7. Interrogative (page 40)
Introducing pronounsDefinitions, forms, and uses are the same for Spanish and English pronouns. However, there are a few important differences to be aware of.
In Spanish, the personal pronoun for “you” has two forms in the singular—the familiar tú and the formal usted. There are three forms in the plural—the familiar vosotros and vosotras, and the formal ustedes.
1. Tú is used to address the following.
A family member of your generation
Yourself
A close friend
A fellow student or colleague
A child (under age 13)
An inferior (sometimes as an insult)
An animal
God
Usage varies in the different Spanish-speaking countries and cultures, however. In some places, tú can be used when you first meet someone, and in others it isn’t appropriate to use tú until after you’ve gotten to know the person better. There are some regions where tú is hardly used at all.*
2. Usted is universally recognized in the Spanish-speaking world as the polite, or formal, way to say “you.” Usted is often abbreviated as Ud. or Vd. Even though usted is used to address a second person, it uses third-person verb forms and pronouns. Usted is used for anyone not included in one of the categories listed for tú, especially those who are older than you are. Be careful: Unless the case is clear, use usted and allow the Spanish speaker to suggest using tú.
3. Vosotros and vosotras are plural forms corresponding to tú that can be used to address a group of people with whom you have a friendly relationship. These forms are used almost exclusively in Spain. You may come across these subject pronouns (or their object form, os) in your readings, but you are not expected to use them actively at this stage.
4. Ustedes is the plural form of usted and is often abbreviated as Uds. or Vds. It is the polite, or formal, way of addressing a group of people. It is also often used for plural “you” in less formal situations: Ustedes is used rather than vosotros/vosotras in most Spanish-speaking countries other than Spain; it is also used in some parts of Spain itself, especially in the south. Like usted, ustedes requires its verb and corresponding pronouns to be in the third person.
Personal pronounsSubject pronouns (see page 14)
Direct object pronouns (see page 14)
He sees me, and I see you.
You foundthem.
Personal pronounsSubject pronouns (see page 14)
In Spanish, a subject pronoun must always be of the same gender and number as the noun that it replaces.
The pronouns él and ellos refer only to males or, in the case of the plural form, possibly to a mixed group. The pronouns ella and ellas refer only to females.
Juan regala un libro. → Él lo regala. (third-person singular)
María y yo llegamos. → Nosotros llegamos. (first-person plural)
Direct object pronouns (see page 14)
Él me ve, y yo te veo.
Usted las halló.
For the third person, choosing the correct pronoun is easy if you remember that three of the pronouns (la, los, and las) are the same as the definite article. In the following example, the definite article and pronoun are los.
Busco los libros. → Los busco.
POSITION Except in affirmative commands, an object pronoun in Spanish is placed directly before the conjugated verb of which it is the object.
The object pronoun is also placed directly before the verb in a question or a negative sentence.
Personal pronouns (continued)Indirect object pronouns (see page 14)
They send the letter to us.
He writes hera letter.
I bought a dressfor her.
I got them a ticket.
Objects of prepositions (see page 15)
After a preposition, English uses the same form of the pronoun as for direct objects.
Be careful with compound pronoun subjects or objects. These remain in the same case as that for a single subject or object.
I am Spanish. She and I are Spanish.
This is between us. This is between you and me.
Give it to them. Give it to him and her.
Personal pronouns (continued)The pronoun often follows infinitives and present participles and is attached to them.
The pronoun also follows and is attached to affirmative commands.
In negative commands, the pronoun is placed before the verb.
For more information about pronouns with commands, see page 115.
Indirect object pronouns (see page 14)
In Spanish, the indirect object is often used where English would use a preposition plus object.
The placement of indirect object pronouns is the same as for direct object pronouns.
Objects of prepositions (see page 15)
Most prepositions require the disjunctive pronouns in Spanish (see page 33).
There are special forms that combine object pronouns with the preposition con.
Personal pronouns (continued)WORD ORDER When there are two pronoun objects in English, the direct object comes before the indirect object.
He shows it to them.
When a noun and a pronoun are used together, word order can vary.
Personal pronouns (continued)WORD ORDER Spanish verbs may have more than one pronoun object.
The order of pronouns before a verb is as follows.
reflexive indirect direct
The indirect objects le and les become se when used before lo, la, los, and las (that is, when both the direct and the indirect objects are in the third person).
Pedro le compra los libros.
BUT
Se los compra.
Se has two uses. In addition to the use discussed above, se is also the reflexive pronoun “oneself.” Se is always placed first, whether it is a reflexive, indirect, or direct object.
QUICK CHECK
NORMAL SPANISH WORD ORDER
In affirmative commands, the objects follow the verb. The indirect object comes before the direct object, regardless of person.
For more information, see page 115.
Possessive pronounsDefinition
A possessive pronoun replaces a possessive adjective (or a noun in the possessive) plus a noun.
It’s my book. → It’s mine.
It’s Anne’s car. → It’s hers.
Forms
Possessive pronouns have person and number; in the third-person singular, they also have gender. They do not have case, that is, they have the same form no matter what function they perform in a sentence.
If you know the person, gender, and number of the possessor (Mary in the example below), there is only one choice for the pronoun (in this example, hers).
You have your book; where is Mary’s book (her book)?
To avoid repeating book, it is replaced along with the possessive noun or adjective in front of it. Since Mary’s (or her) is third-person singular feminine, hers is the correct pronoun.
You have your book; where is hers?
Forms
In Spanish, possessive pronouns have person and number as in English, but they also have gender changes. Person indicates the possessor, while gender and number are determined by what is owned.
Even though María is female, the possessive pronoun is masculine singular (el suyo) because libro is masculine. Likewise, although Juan is male, camisas is feminine plural and therefore requires a feminine plural pronoun (las suyas).
In Spanish, the possessive pronouns have the same forms, minus the definite article, as do the long forms of the possessive adjectives (see page 53).
Possessives may also be expressed in Spanish by using the definite article + de + the object pronoun in order to clarify the referent of el suyo or la suya.
Reflexive/reciprocal pronounsDefinition
Reflexive pronouns are pronoun objects or complements that refer to the same person(s) or thing(s) as another element in the sentence, usually the subject.
Forms
Uses
Reflexive pronouns are used as objects of verbs and prepositions.
Types
A reflexive pronoun is normally used only when the subject acts directly on himself/herself or does something for himself/herself directly.
Paul cut himself.
I told myself it didn’t matter.
Occasionally, reflexive pronouns are used idiomatically.
They always enjoy themselves.
For mutual or reciprocal action, each other or one another is used. This expression does not change form.
They congratulated each other.
You two saw each other last night.
Reflexive pronouns can function as direct or indirect object pronouns.
They saw each other.
We talked to each other yesterday.
In English, reflexive and reciprocal objects are often omitted.
We talked yesterday. (To each other is understood.)
Sometimes, a construction is used that requires no object.
Paul got hurt. (Hurt himself is understood.)
However, consider the following sentence.
We washed this morning.
If you have not heard the rest of the conversation, the meaning is ambiguous. The sentence may have either of the following meanings.
We washed ourselves (got washed).
We washed our clothes (did the laundry).
Reflexive/reciprocal pronounsForms
The forms of Spanish reflexive/reciprocal pronouns are the same as the forms of the direct and indirect object pronouns, except for the third person.
Reflexive/reciprocal pronouns are placed in the same position in a sentence as object pronouns.
Uses
These pronouns are used as objects (either direct or indirect) of the verb (see pages 23, 25, and 27). They can be either reflexive, meaning “self,” or reciprocal, meaning “each other.”
If the meaning is not clear, words can be added for clarification: A prepositional phrase that includes mismo or propio indicates the reflexive; el uno al otro indicates the reciprocal. Note that reflexive and reciprocal pronouns can function as direct and indirect object pronouns.
Spanish uses many more reflexives than English, because transitive verbs must have objects in Spanish. Contrast the following sentences.
Some Spanish verbs are reflexive in form only. With these verbs, use the reflexive pronoun in Spanish, but do not translate it.
Many Spanish verbs can be used either reflexively or nonreflexively. The meaning varies depending on the form, for example, dormir (“to sleep”) and dormirse (“to fall asleep”).
Following is the present tense of the reflexive verb dormirse.
Disjunctive pronounsDefinition
A disjunctive pronoun is not attached to a verb. (Disjunctive means “not joined.”) It is used alone or as an extra word to give special emphasis or to intensify an impression.
Forms and uses
The form of a disjunctive pronoun depends on its use.
1. Used alone, the disjunctive pronoun is in the subjective case (if required) in formal English, and in the objective case for informal use.
Who’s there? I. (formal; I am is understood)
Me. (informal)
2. As an intensifier, the reflexive pronoun is normally used.
I’ll do it myself!
He told me so himself.
3. Sometimes, we merely raise our voices for emphasis.
You do it!
Disjunctive pronounsForms
Spanish disjunctive pronouns have the following forms.
Uses
Disjunctive pronouns may be used
1. alone.
2. with mismo for emphasis.
3. after prepositions.
When used with the preposition con (“with”), mí, ti, and sí are replaced by -migo, -tigo, and -sigo to create special forms: conmigo, contigo, consigo.
Relative pronounsDefinition
Relative pronouns begin a relative clause. They refer to a noun, called the antecedent, and usually come directly after that noun.
Forms
Relative pronouns have the following forms in English.
The correct pronoun is determined by the following factors.
1. Whether the antecedent is a person or a thing
2. The function of the pronoun in the clause
3. For subjects and objects, whether the clause is restrictive or nonrestrictive
A restrictive clause defines the noun. That is used, and the clause is not set off by commas.
The book that you just read is world-renowned.
Without the clause, you would not know which book is meant. It is an essential definition.
A nonrestrictive clause describes the noun, rather than defines it. It is not necessary to form a complete sentence. Who, whom, or which is used, and the clause is set off by commas.
Don Quijote, which the class is going to read, is very famous.
The relative clause could be eliminated, and the sentence would still make sense. It is a nonessential description.
Uses
Relative pronouns have several uses.
1. They introduce clauses that give additional information about the antecedent.
2. They allow you to join two short sentences to make your writing smoother and to avoid repetition.
Enrique González came yesterday. Enrique González is an expert pianist.
→ Enrique González, who is an expert pianist, came yesterday.
3. They can be subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, possessives, or objects of a preposition in the relative clause.
4. They are inflected only for case, not for person or number. Their form depends on their function in the clause.
The function of the antecedent in the main clause has no effect on the form of the relative pronoun.
Relative pronounsForms
Relative pronouns have the following forms in Spanish.
Unlike English, Spanish does not use different pronouns to distinguish between restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses.
Relative pronouns are often omitted in English, but Spanish does not allow this.
All relative pronouns must have antecedents. If there isn’t one, lo is supplied. In the following example, “which” does not refer to any specific noun, but to the idea (or fact) that he did not come.
A relative pronoun can take any form of the verb in its clause. This is also true of English, but many people do not follow this practice.
How to analyze relative pronouns
1. Find the repeated element. → Mr. Smith
2. Find the function of the repeated element in the second sentence, which will become the relative clause. → the subject
3. Choose the relative pronoun. → who (person, subject)
4. Copy the first sentence through the antecedent. → Mr. Smith …
5. Put in the correct relative pronoun, in this case, who. → Mr. Smith, who …
6. Copy the relative clause. → Mr. Smith, who made these pies …
7. Copy the rest of the first sentence. Leave out any parts represented by the relative pronoun. → Mr. Smith, who made these pies, is an excellent cook.
Other examples follow.
The ten books are on the table. I am reading them.
The ten books that I am reading are on the table.
That is used because it
1. is the object of am reading in the clause (no commas).
2. refers to a thing.
3. is restrictive (defines which ten books).
Mr. Jones died today. I saw him yesterday.
Mr. Jones, whom I saw yesterday, died today.
Whom is used because it
1. is the object of I saw (with commas).
2. refers to a person.
3. is nonrestrictive. (You already know who Mr. Jones is. This merely gives an extra fact about him.)
The student is asleep. I am speaking to that student.
The student to whom I am speaking is asleep.
To whom is used because it
1. is the indirect object (no commas).
2. refers to a person.
3. is restrictive (defines which student).
The old house is falling down. I lived in that house as a child.
The old house where (in which) I lived as a child is falling down.
Where is used because it
1. replaces a place preposition plus noun object (no commas).
2. refers to a thing. (In which is also correct.)
The woman lives in New York. I took her coat.
The woman whose coat I took lives in New York.
Whose is used because it
1. is possessive (no commas).
2. refers to a person.
3. is restrictive (defines which woman).
How to analyze relative pronounsThe important considerations are function in the clause and word order.
La señora Sánchez es una periodista excelente.
La señora Sánchez escribió estos ensayos.
1. Find the repeated element. → La señora Sánchez
2. Identify the function of the repeated element in the second sentence, which will become the relative clause. → the subject
3. Choose the relative pronoun. → que
4. Copy the first sentence through the noun phrase to be described. → La señora Sánchez…
5. Put in the relative pronoun (with preposition, if any) to replace the second La señora Sánchez. → La señora Sánchez, que…
6. Copy the rest of the second sentence (now a relative clause). → La señora Sánchez, que escribió estos ensayos,…
7. Copy the rest of the first sentence. → La señora Sánchez, que escribió estos ensayos, es una periodista excelente.
Try this with other sentences. Follow the same steps until they feel natural.
Los diez libros están en la mesa. Los estoy leyendo.
Los diez libros que estoy leyendo están en la mesa.
El señor Pérez murió hoy. Lo vi ayer.
El señor Pérez, al que vi ayer, murió hoy.
El estudiante está durmiendo. Hablo con este estudiante.
El estudiante a quien hablo está durmiendo.
La vieja casa se derrumbó. Vivía yo en esta casa durante mi juventud.
La vieja casa en la cual vivía durante mi juventud se derrumbó.
La mujer vive en Nueva York. Llevé la chaqueta de esa mujer.
La mujer de quien llevé la chaqueta vive en Nueva York.
This may seem complicated, requiring a lot of thought. That is because people usually use many short sentences when speaking. Relative clauses are used mainly to vary written style—when you have time to think, cross something out, and write it in a different way.
Demonstrative pronounsDefinition
Demonstrative pronouns point out someone or something.
Forms
There are four forms of the demonstrative pronoun in English.
Uses
These pronouns distinguish only between what is near (this, these) and far (that, those) and between singular and plural. No changes are made for gender or case.
I can’t decide which of the chairs to buy.
This one is lovely, but that one is comfortable.
This is lovely, but that is comfortable.
Demonstrative pronounsForms
The forms of the demonstrative pronouns in Spanish follow.
With the exception of the neuter forms esto, eso, and aquello, all of the demonstrative pronouns carry a written accent on the stressed vowel to distinguish them from the demonstrative adjectives (este, aquel, etc.).
Uses
A demonstrative pronoun replaces a demonstrative adjective plus its noun.
The forms éste and ésta usually translate as English “this one,” and éstos and éstas usually translate as “these.”
Forms of both ése and aquél translate as “that,” but aquél implies greater distance (“that one over there”). Ésos and aquéllos translate respectively as “those” and “those over there.”
Esto and eso are used to translate the English indefinite pronouns “this” and “that.” Aquello translates as the indefinite “that over there.”
Demonstrative pronouns are also used to indicate “the former” (forms of aquél) and “the latter” (forms of éste).
Remember that the masculine and feminine forms of the demonstrative pronoun (used without the noun) are distinguished from the equivalent demonstrative adjective (used with a noun) by a written accent placed on the stressed vowel.
QUICK CHECK
Interrogative pronounsDefinition
Interrogative pronouns ask a question.
Forms
Interrogative pronouns have different forms for people and things. The pronoun referring to people, who, is also inflected for case.
No change is made for number. Who?/whom? and what? can refer to one or more than one.
Uses
The interrogative pronouns in English are used in the following ways.
1. Person as subject
Who is coming? John. OR The Smiths.
2. Thing as subject
What is going on? A riot.
3. Person as direct object
Whom did you see? John.
4. Thing as direct object
What are you doing? My homework.
5. Person as indirect object*
To whom are you speaking? To Mary.
6. Person as object of a preposition
With whom are you going? With Felipe.
7. Thing as object of a preposition
What are you thinking about? About the music.
As an interrogative pronoun, which? relates to choice. It can simply be which?, used in the singular or plural, or which one(s)?
Here are two books. Which (one) do you want?
There are many good shops in town. Which (ones) do you like best?
Interrogative pronounsForms
Interrogative pronouns are confusing in both English and Spanish, because the forms are used for other purposes. They are more complex in Spanish, however, because in most cases you have a choice of forms.
For the differences in usage between ¿qué? and ¿cuál?, see Appendix A.
Uses
In formal English, many speakers make a distinction between “who?” (subject of a verb) and “whom?” (object of a verb). Spanish does not do this. ¿Quién? and ¿quiénes? can function as either the subject or object of a verb.
The English interrogative pronoun “what?” can function as either subject of a verb or object of a verb or preposition. It does not have different forms for gender or number.
The Spanish interrogative pronoun ¿qué? can function as either subject of a verb or object of a verb or preposition. This is also the case for ¿cuál?, whose forms also show gender and number.
The interrogative pronouns in Spanish are used in the following ways.
1. Person as subject
¿Quién llega? María.
¿Quiénes llegan? Juan y María.
2. Thing as subject
¿Qué pasa? Nada.
3. Person as direct object
¿A quiénes vio usted? A Lola y a Tomás.
4. Thing as direct object
¿Qué haces? Leo el periódico.
5. Person as indirect object
¿A quién hablabas? A María.
6. Person as object of a preposition
¿Con quién va usted al cine? Con Jesús.
7. Thing as object of a preposition
¿En qué piensa usted? En la música.
In Spanish, the direct object form of the interrogative pronoun is preceded by the preposition a, just as a direct object noun indicating a person is.
Interrogative pronouns (continued)Choice interrogatives
Another kind of interrogative pronoun relates to choice: “Which one(s)?” These forms agree in gender and number with the noun they replace.
These interrogatives offer a choice between possibilities.
Tengo tres periódicos. ¿Cuál prefieres?
Hay muchas tiendas cerca de la plaza. ¿Cuáles prefieren Uds.?
