CHAPTER ONE
1.Confucius, Analects, XI, 12, translated by D. C. Lau (London: Penguin, 1979).
2.See Wilma Fairbank, Liang and Lin: Partners in Exploring China’s Architectural Past (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995), 69, for an account of the different types of pagoda and their relation to Indian stupas.
3.Duan Chengshi, Yuyang Zazu, c. 850, cited by Frank Dikötter, The Discourse of Race in Modern China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992), 15. For other Chinese characterizations of foreigners, see Edward Schafer, The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of Tang Exotica (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1963), 22. This section on the Tang is much indebted to Schafer’s work.
4.Schafer, Golden Peaches, 28, citing a part of Yuan Zhen, “Faqu.” Translation slightly altered.
5.Ibid., 54, citing Li Ho, “Long Ye Yin.”
6.Han Yu’s memorial cited in William Theodore de Bary, ed., Sources of Chinese Tradition (New York: Columbia University Press, 1960). Translation slightly altered.
7.Chau Ju-kua: His Work on the Chinese and Arab Trade in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries, Entitled Chu-fan-chï, translated from the Chinese and annotated by Friedrich Hirth and W. W. Rockhill (St. Petersburg: Imperial Academy of Sciences, 1911; reprint, New York: Paragon, 1966), 144.
8.L. Hambis, Marco Polo, la Description du monde (Paris: Klincksieck, 1955); cited by Jacques Dars, La Marine chinoise du Xe au XIVe siècle (Paris: Commission française d’histoire maritime/Economica, 1992), 139.
9.Ma Huan, Ying-yai Sheng-Lan (“The Overall Survey of the Ocean’s Shores”), 1433, translated from the Chinese text, edited by Feng Ch’eng-Chün with introduction, notes, and appendices by J. V. G. Mills (Cambridge, U.K.: Hakluyt Society, 1970), 173–74.
CHAPTER TWO
1.Cited by Rogers, “For Love of God: Castiglione at the Imperial Court,” in Phoebus 6, referring to Arnold Rowbotham, Missionary and Mandarin: The Jesuits at the Court of Peking (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1942), 178.
2.David E. Mungello, Leibniz and Confucianism: The Search for Accord (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1977), 9.
3.Translated by Lynn Struve, Voices from the Ming-Qing Cataclysm: China in Tiger’s Jaws (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), 237. The original letter is in the Vatican archives.
4.Jonathan D. Spence, Emperor of China: Self-Portrait of K’ang-hsi (London: Jonathan Cape, 1974), 72–73.
5.Jacques Gernet, China and the Christian Impact, originally published in French as Chine et christianisme, 1982; English translation (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 59, translating Siku Quanshu Zongmu Tiyao, chapter 34, note on Li Zhizao, ed., Tianxue Chuhan.
6.Cited by Gernet, China and the Christian Impact, 186. The papal bull in question was Ex Illa Die; it was followed in 1742 by another, Ex Quo Singulari.
7.Li Zhizao, note on Ricci’s 1602 map, cited by Willard J. Peterson, “Why Did They Become Christians? Yang T’ing-yün, Li Chih-tsao, and Hsü Kuang-ch’i,” in Charles E. Ronan, S.J., and Bonnie B. C. Oh, eds., East Meets West: The Jesuits in China, 1582–1773 (Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1988), 142.
8.Albert Chan, S.J., “Late Ming Society and the Jesuit Missionaries,” in Ronan and Oh, East Meets West, 171–72, citing Wang Zheng, Chong-yi-tang Xu Bi (“Miscellaneous writings of Wang Zheng”).
9.Xu Dashou, cited in Gernet, China and the Christian Impact, 190.
10.Ibid., 191.
11.Nicolas Standaert, “Chinese Christian Visits to the Underworld” in H. T. Zurndorfer and L. Blussé, eds., Conflict and Accommodation in Early Modern East Asia: Essays in Honour of Erik Zürcher (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1993), 58, translating Xiong Shiqi, Zhang Mi-ke-er Yi Ji (“Memoirs of Michael Zhang”), 8a–8b. The date of this work is unknown, but Yang Tingyun, who died in 1627, wrote a preface, so the memoir must have been written prior to that date.
12.E. Zürcher, “The Lord of Heaven and the Demons—Strange Stories from a Late Ming Christian Manuscript,” in G. Naundorf, K-H. Pohl, and H-H. Schmidt, eds., Religion und Philosophie in Ostasien: Festschrift für Hans Steininger am 65. Geburtstag, (Königshausen & Neumann, 1985), 368–69, translating Li Jiugong, Li Xiu Yi Jian 2, 9b–10b.
13.David E. Mungello, The Forgotten Christians of Hangzhou (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1994), 56–57, citing the Jesuit annual letter of 1678–1679, now held in the Jesuit archives in Rome. This description of the impact of Martini’s body is largely taken from Professor Mungello’s account.
14.Ma Shilin, comp., Cheng’an Suo Jian Ji (“Collection of Leading Cases [I Have] Seen”), edition of 1805, edited by Xie Kui, 16, 3b.
CHAPTER THREE
1.“Yingshi Maga’erni Laipin An” (“The Case of the English Macartney Embassy and Their Gifts”), Chang Gu Cong Bian (Collected Historical Records) (Beiping, 1930–1943), 3, 16–24, at 19b.
2.A tael was worth about one-third of an English pound at this time. A high-ranking official might earn about twelve thousand taels annually; most ordinary commoners would be unlikely to see as much as one thousand taels in their entire lifetimes.
3.Sir George Staunton, An Authentic Account of an Embassy from the King of Great Britain to the Emperor of China, 3 vols. (London: G. Nicol, 1797), 1, 49.
4.Cited by Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China, vol. 3: “Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth” (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1959), 456.
5.Nathan Sivin, “Wang Hsi-shan,” Dictionary of Scientific Biography, XIV (New York, 1970–1978), 160.
6.Qian Daxin, Qian Yan Tang Wen Ji, cited by Benjamin Elman, From Philosophy to Philology: Intellectual and Social Aspects of Change in Late Imperial China (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984), 83.
7.Lettres édifiantes et curieuses écrites des missions étrangères, 14 vols. (Lyons, 1819; originally published in Paris, 1702–1776, and subsequently rearranged), 3, 427.
8.Arnold Rowbotham, Missionary and Mandarin: The Jesuits at the Court of China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1942), 98, 247.
9.Archivum Romanum Societatis Jesu, Jap.Sin., 184, 261–62; letter of Jean-Mathieu de Ventavon, S.J., to Father Imbert, S.J., November 4, 1772.
10.Unpublished letter of Father Bourgeois dated October 30, 1769, possibly in the Xujiahui library, Shanghai, cited by Louis Pfister, Notices biographiques et biblio-
graphiques sur les Jésuites de l’ancienne mission de Chine, 1552–1773 (Shanghai: Imprimerie de la Mission Catholique, 1932), 914.
11.Cited by Fu Lo-shu, A Documentary Chronicle of Sino-Western Relations (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1964), 273–74. Translation slightly altered.
12.Jean-Joseph Marie Amiot (1718–1793), letter written from Beijing to Henri Bertin in France, July 1, 1788, located in the Bibliothèque de l’Institut de France, 1517, 52.
CHAPTER FOUR
1.This quote represents a composite of different remarks on the subject made by Qing authorities. For the originals, see Qing Jiaqing Chao Waijiao Shiliao (“Materials on the Foreign Relations of the Jiaqing Reign of the Qing Dynasty”), 4, 21b–23b, cited by Fu Lo-shu, A Documentary Chronicle of Sino-Western Relations, 394, and Yuehaiguan Zhi 29, 9–15, also cited by Fu, 612. I have slightly modified Fu’s translation.
2.Dispatches from U.S. Consuls in Canton, 1790–1906, File Microcopies of the U.S. National Archives (Washington, 1947) 101, vol. 1, February 21, 1790, to April 20, 1834. The petition is dated February 10, 1814. The archives contain the Chinese original, an English approximation (reproduced here), and a Spanish/Portuguese version. Partial English translations may be found in Fu Lo-shu, Documentary Chronicle, 391–92, and Frederic D. Grant, “The Failure of Li-ch’uan Hong: Litigation as a Hazard of Nineteenth-Century Foreign Trade,” American Neptune, vol. XLVIII, no. 4 (Fall 1988), 243–60.
3.James W. Polachek, The Inner Opium War (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992), 165, citing Yapian Zhanzheng (“The Opium War”), 6 vols. (Shanghai: Shenzhou Guoguang She, 1954), 4, 22.
4.Linda Cooke Johnson, Shanghai: From Market Town to Treaty Port, 1074–1858 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995), 181, citing Cao Shang, “Yihuan, beichang ji,” 8b–9a.
5.See Gerald Graham, The China Station: War and Diplomacy, 1830–1860 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 117–18, 183, 215–18, cited by Jonathan Spence, The Search for Modern China (New York: Norton, 1990), 158.
6.See J. Y. Wong, Anglo-Chinese Relations 1839–1860: A Calendar of Chinese Documents in the British Foreign Office Records (New York: Oxford University Press/The British Academy, 1983), entries for 1844 and 1849 passim.
7.Documents on Chen’s case are in the Public Record Office, London. For a summary, see Wong, Anglo-Chinese Relations, 1839–1860, 212–15.
8.Cited by Johnson, Shanghai, 186.
9.Chinese Emigration: Report of the Commission Sent by China to Ascertain the Condition of Chinese Coolies in Cuba (Shanghai: Imperial Maritime Customs Press, 1876; reprint, Taipei/Chengwen, 1970), 7, cited by Lynn Pan, Sons of the Yellow Emperor: The Story of the Overseas Chinese (London: Secker & Warburg, 1990), 47 (figures on Cuba); 48 (quotation).
10.Jonathan D. Spence, God’s Chinese Son (New York: Norton, 1995), 241, citing P. Clarke and J. S. Gregory, Western Reports on the Taiping: A Selection of Documents (Canberra: Australian University Press 1982), 189.
CHAPTER FIVE
1.Shanghai Beike Ziliao Xuanji, 321–12, cited by Elizabeth Perry, Shanghai on Strike: The Politics of Chinese Labor (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993), 40.
2.See Albert Feuerwerker, “The Foreign Presence in China,” in John K. Fairbank, ed., The Cambridge History of China, vol. 12, Republican China 1912–1948, part I (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 129–31.
3.Kang Youwei, “Shang Qingdi Di’er Shu” (“Second Letter to the Emperor”), in Jian Bozan, ed., Wuxu Bianfa (“The Reform Movement of 1898”), 4 vols., (Shanghai, 1953), vol. 2, 145; cited by Jonathan D. Spence, Gate of Heavenly Peace: The Chinese and Their Revolution, 1895–1980 (New York: Viking, 1981), 11.
4.The European Diary of Hsieh Fucheng, Envoy Extraordinary of Imperial China, translated by Helen Hsieh Chien (New York: St. Martins, 1993), 65.
5.See Thomas L. Kennedy, “China’s 19th-Century Military Reforms: A Reassessment Based on Some Recent Writings.” Unpublished paper, 1994, 46.
6.Munitions production figures for the Jiangnan Arsenal are taken from Thomas L. Kennedy, The Arms of Kiangnan: Modernization in the Chinese Ordnance Industry, 1860–1895 (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1978), 164, citing Wei Yungong, Jiangnan Zhizao Juji (“Record of the Jiangnan Arsenal”) (Taibei: Wenhai, n.d.), 3, 2–38. Shipbuilding figures are taken from Kennedy, ibid., 161–62, citing Wei and other Chinese records.
7.Li Wenzheng Gong Zougao (“Memorials of Master Li Wenzheng [Li Hongzhang]”) 9, 31–35, cited by Kennedy, Arms of Kiangnan, 47–48.
8.Guo Songtao, in J. D. Frodsham, translator and annotator, The First Chinese Embassy to the West: The Journals of Kuo Sung-t’ao, Liu Hsi-hung and Chang Te-yi (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974), 98.
9.Captain Paul Schlieper, Meine Kriegs-Erlebnisse in China, Die Expedition Seymour (Minder-in-Westfalen: William Köhler, 1902), 12–14, cited by Jane Elliott, “China Described by Her Enemies: The Writings of Western Soldiers Who Fought in the China Campaign in 1900.” Unpublished manuscript, 1997, 248, note 234.
10.Shanghai Mercury, Shanghai by Night and Day (Shanghai, 1902), cited by Yeh Wen-hsin, The Alienated Academy: Culture and Politics in Republican China, 1919–1937 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990), 58.
11.Soumay Tcheng, A Girl from China, as told to Bessie Van Vorst (New York: Fred A. Stokes, 1926), 77–79, quoted in Jane Hunter, The Gospel of Gentility: American Women Missionaries in Turn-of-the-Century China (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984), 233.
12.Anna Hartwell, cited by Hunter, Gospel of Gentility, 230.
13.Marilyn A. Levine, The Found Generation: Chinese Communists in Europe during the Twenties (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1993), 19, citing Wang Yunwu, “Cai Jiemin xiansheng de gongxian” (“The Contributions of Mr. Cai Yuanpei”), Dongfang zazhi, vol. 37 (April 1940), 4.
14.Kang Youwei, cited in Charlotte L. Beahan, “The Women’s Movement and Nationalism in Late Ch’ing China.” Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1976, 142, citing Howard S. Levy, Chinese Footbinding: The History of a Curious Erotic Custom (New York: Walton Rawls, 1966), 72.
15.Dong Fang Za Zhi (1904), 5, 6, and 7, cited by Chia-lin Pao Tao, “The Anti-footbinding Movement in Late Ch’ing China: Indigenous Development or Western Influence?” Unpublished paper presented to the Association for Asian Studies, Washington, D.C., April 1993.
CHAPTER SIX
1.Shanghai Students’ Union, The Students’ Strike: An Explanation, a leaflet published in English in 1919 and cited by Chow Tse-tsung, The May Fourth Movement (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1960), 93.
2.Daqing Lichao Shilu, Guangxu, 371, 7a, cited by Jonathan D. Spence, Gate of Heavenly Peace: The Chinese and their Revolution, 1895–1980 (New York: Viking, 1981), 14.
3.Translated by C. T. Hsia in “Yen Fu and Liang Ch’i-ch’ao as Advocates of New Fiction,” in Adele A. Rickett, ed., Chinese Approaches to literature from Confucius to Liang Ch’i-ch’ao (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), 230–32, cited by Leo Lee, “Literary Trends I: The Quest for Modernity, 1895–1927,” in The Cambridge History of China, vol. 12, part 1 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 455.
4.Zou Rong, The Revolutionary Army, 24, translated by John Lust (The Hague and Paris: Mouton & Co, 1968), 81.
5.Qu Qiubai, Wenji (“Collected Literary Works”), 4 vols. (Beijing: 1954), 1, 23, translated by Tsi-an Hsia, Gate of Darkness: Studies on the Leftist Literary Movement in China (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1968); cited in modified form by Spence, Gate of Heavenly Peace, 135.
6.This quotation is a composite of two cited by Lloyd L. Eastman, The Abortive Revolution: China under Nationalist Rule, 1927-1937 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974), 68. The citations are taken from “Xin Shenghuo Yundong zhi yaoyi” (“Essential Information about the New Life Movement”), compiled by Xin Shenghuo Congshu she (Society for Collectanea on the New Life [Movement]), (Nanjing: 1935), 111; and Iwai Eiichi, Ranisha ni kansuru choosa (“An Investigation of the Blue Shirts”), issued by the Research Department of the Foreign Ministry, marked “secret” (1937), 37–38.
7.“A Letter from the Northeast” in One Day in China: May 21st, 1936, translated, edited, and with an introduction by Sherman Cochran and Andrew C. K. Hsieh with Janis Cochran (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983), 207–8.
8.Mao Zedong, “The Chinese People Have Stood Up,” in Selected Works of Mao Tsetung (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1977), vol. 5, 15–18.
9.Dagongbao, July 24, 1949, translated in China Press Review, vol. 939 (July 28, 1949), cited by Beverley Hooper, China Stands Up: Ending the Western Presence, 1948–1950 (Sydney and London: Allen and Unwin, 1986), 74.
CHAPTER SEVEN
1.Mao Zedong, “The Chinese People Have Stood Up,” in Selected Works of Mao Tsetung (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1977), vol. 5, 15–18.
2.Quoted by William Stueck, The Korean War: An International History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), 362, citing Zhang Shuguang, “Military Romanticism: China and the Korean War, 1950–1953.” Draft manuscript, March 1992.
3.He shang (“River Elegy”), “Sorrows,” translated by Stephen Field, “He shang and the Plateau of Ultrastability,” Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars (June 1991), 12–13.
4.Quotations (from a high-ranking Beijing official and the dean of National Taiwan University, respectively) are from Frederic Wakeman’s review of River Elegy in New York Review of Books (March 2, 1989), 19.
5.Deng Xiaoping, “Zai Jiejian Shoudu Jieyan Budui Jun Yishang Ganbu Shi De Jianghua” (“Speech upon Receiving Army Commanders of Beijing Troops Carrying Out Martial Law), Renmin Ribao (“People’s Daily”), July 28, 1989, 1.