Ravenous

INTRODUCTION

1. For a full account of Warburg’s dealings with the customs office, see K. Nickelsen, “On Otto Warburg, Nazi Bureaucracy and the Difficulties of Moral Judgment,” Photosynthetica 56, no. 1 (March 1, 2018).

2. Irving M. Klotz, “Wit and Wisdom of Albert Szent-Györgyi: A Recollection,” in Culture of Chemistry, ed. Balazs Hargittai and István Hargittai (Boston: Springer, 2015), 123–26; Cordula Koepcke, Lotte Warburg: “Unglaublich! Dass Ich Gelebt Habe!”: Eine Biographie (München: Iudicium, 2000), 157.

3. Peter Ostendorf, interview with author, April 26, 2017.

4. E. Schütte, “Erinnerungen an Otto Warburg,” Naturwiss, no. 36 (1983): 444–47.

5. Birgit Vennesland, “Recollections and Small Confessions,” Annual Review of Plant Physiology 32, no. 1 (June 1981): 1–21.

6. The biochemist and science historian Petra Gentz-Werner is the German authority on the life of Otto Warburg. For more on Warburg’s meeting at the New Reich Chancellery on June 21, 1941, see Petra Werner, Ein Genie Irrt Seltener—Otto Heinrich Warburg: Ein Lebensbild in Dokumenten (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1991).

7. Heinrich Himmler et al., Der Dienstkalender Heinrich Himmlers 1941/42, Hamburger Beiträge zur Sozial- und Zeitgeschichte, Bd. 3 (Hamburg: Christians, 1999), 178.

8. O. Warburg and D. Burk, The Prime Cause and Prevention of Cancer: With Two Prefaces on Prevention, Revised Lecture at the Meeting of the Nobel-Laureates on June 30, 1966 at Lindau, Lake Constance, Germany (Würzburg: Triltsch, 1969).

9. Arthur Kornberg to Alan Mehler, February 21, 1949, Profiles in Science. Stanford Digital Repository.

10. Thomas Seyfried, interview with author, April 30, 2015; Siddhartha Mukherjee, The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer (New York: Scribner, 2010). Later editions of The Emperor of All Maladies include an interview with Siddhartha Mukherjee in which he does mention Warburg.

11. Craig Thompson, interview with author, May 14, 2015.

12. Seyfried, interview with author.

13. Arthur Newsholme, “The Statistics of Cancer,” The Practitioner 62, n.s., 9 (April 1899): 371.

14. F. L. Hoffman, The Mortality from Cancer throughout the World (Newark, NJ: Prudential Press, 1915).

15. Béatrice Lauby-Secretan et al., “Body Fatness and Cancer—Viewpoint of the IARC Working Group,” New England Journal of Medicine 375, no. 8 (August 25, 2016): 794–98.

CHAPTER ONE: “A CHEMICAL LABORATORY OF THE MOST AMAZING KIND”

1. Fritz Baltzer, Theodor Boveri: Life and Work of a Great Biologist, 1862–1915 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967), 31.

2. Baltzer, Theodor Boveri, 34.

3. Baltzer, Theodor Boveri, 40.

4. Theodor Boveri, Concerning the Origin of Malignant Tumours, trans. and annot. Henry Harris (Woodbury, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 2008).

5. Hans Krebs and Roswitha Schmid, Otto Warburg: Cell Physiologist, Biochemist and Eccentric (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), 4.

6. Krebs, Otto Warburg, 53; Ostendorf, interview with author.

7. Baltzer, Theodor Boveri, 20; Otto Warburg to Lotte Warburg, 11 June 1907, in Petra Werner, Ein Genie, 28–29.

8. Krebs, Otto Warburg, 72; Werner, Ein Genie, 203.

9. Jost Lemmerich, Science and Conscience: The Life of James Franck, trans. Ann M. Hentschel (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011), 17.

10. Interview of James Franck and Hertha Sponer Franck by Thomas S. Kuhn and Maria Goeppert Mayer on July 9, 1962, Niels Bohr Library & Archives, American Institute of Physics, College Park, MD.

11. David Nachmansohn, German-Jewish Pioneers in Science 1900–1933: Highlights in Atomic Physics, Chemistry, and Biochemistry (Berlin: Springer, 1979): 257; Otto Warburg to Dean Burk, 12 August 1953, private collection of Frederic Burk; Frederic L. Holmes, Hans Krebs, Vol. 1 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 200.

12. Albert Einstein to Lotte Warburg, 22 May 1935, in Werner, Ein Genie, 18–19; Lotte Warburg, Eine vollkommene Närrin durch meine ewigen Gefühle: Aus den Tagebüchern der Lotte Warburg 1925 bis 1947, ed. Wulf Rüskamp (Bayreuth: Druckhaus Bayreuth, 1989).

13. Petra Werner, Otto Warburg: Von der Zellphysiologie zur Krebsforschung: Biografie (Berlin: Verlag Neues Leben, 1988), 39; Krebs, Otto Warburg, 2.

14. Krebs, Otto Warburg, 3; Emil Warburg to Otto Warburg 9 December 1912, in Werner, Ein Genie, 77–78. The original letter is located in the archive of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities, NL Warburg, 999.

15. David Cahan, “The Institutional Revolution in German Physics, 1865–1914,” Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 15, no. 2 (1985): 1–65, 41.

16. .Ekkehard Höxtermann and Otto Warburg, Biographien Hervorragender Naturwissenschaftler, Techniker und Mediziner, Bd. 91 (Leipzig: Teubner, 1989), 19.

17. Jeffrey Allan Johnson, The Kaiser’s Chemists: Science and Modernization in Imperial Germany (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990); Jeffrey Allan Johnson, “From Bio-Organic Chemistry to Molecular and Synthetic Biology: Fulfilling Emil Fischer’s Dream,” in Proceedings of the International Workshop on the History of Chemistry (2015), 2–4.

18. Johnson, “From Bio-Organic Chemistry.”

19. Philip J. Pauly, Controlling Life: Jacques Loeb and the Engineering Ideal in Biology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987).

20. Pauly, Controlling Life.

21. “Science Nears the Secret of Life,” Chicago Sunday Tribune, November 19, 1899; “Creation of Life,” Boston Herald, November 26, 1899.

22. Jacques Loeb, “Mechanistic Science and Metaphysical Romance,” Yale Review 4 (1915): 768–69.

23. Carl Snyder, “Theory of Life; Dr. Jacques Loeb’s Mechanistic Conception of Energy,” New York Times, October 6, 1912; Pauly, Controlling Life, 102.

24. “Dr. Loeb’s Incredible ‘Discovery.’ ” New York Times, March 2, 1905; Albert Bigelow Paine, Mark Twain: A Biography, Vol. 3: The Personal and Literary Life of Samuel Langhorne Clemens (New York: Gabriel Wells, 1923), 1161–62.

25. For more on Warburg’s relationship to Loeb, see Petra Werner, Otto Warburgs Beitrag zur Atmungstheorie: Das Problem der Sauerstoffaktivierung (Marburg/Lahn: Basilisken-Presse, 1996).

26. Pauly, Controlling Life, 45.

27. Krebs, Otto Warburg, 71. Warburg said this in a statement recorded by the Institut für den Wissenschaftlichen Film in 1966. https://doi.org/10.3203/IWF/G-108.

CHAPTER TWO: “THE GREAT UNSOLVED PROBLEM”

1. Lotte Warburg, undated diary entry, private collection of the Meyer-Viol family. For more of Lotte Warburg’s journal entry, see Werner, Ein Genie, 79–80.

2. Krebs, Otto Warburg, 75; Nachmansohn, German-Jewish Pioneers, 267; Theodor Bücher, “Otto Warburg: A Personal Recollection,” in Biological Oxidations, Colloquium-Mosbach (Berlin: Springer, 1983), 1–29.

3. Eric Warburg, Times and Tides: A Log-Book (Hamburg: privately, 1983), 130; Wieland Gevers, Personality, Creativity and Achievement in Science (University of Cape Town, 1978); Krebs, Otto Warburg, 56.

4. Krebs, Otto Warburg, 59.

5. Vennesland, “Recollections.”

6. A more detailed account of Warburg’s romantic life during this period can be found in Werner, Ein Genie, 18–19, 78–85.

7. Otto Meyerhof to Otto Warburg, 27 June 1912, NL Warburg, 656, archive of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities.

8. .Vennesland, “Recollections,” 13.

9. Krebs, Otto Warburg, 52; L. Warburg, Eine vollkommene Närrin, 287.

10. Vennesland, “Recollections,” 12.

11. Mark Twain, American Claimant and Other Stories and Sketches (Hartford, CT: American Publ. Co., 1901), 502.

12. Werner, Ein Genie, 147.

13. Hoffman, Mortality from Cancer; William Roger Williams, The Natural History of Cancer, with Special Reference to Its Causation and Prevention (New York: William Wood and Co., 1908); Reinhard Spree, Der Rückzug des Todes: Der Epidemiologische Übergang in Deutschland während des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts, Konstanzer Universitätsreden 186 (Konstanz: Universitätsverlag Konstanz, 1992).

14. “Academy of Sciences, Paris.” Provincial Medical and Surgical Journal (1844–1852) 8, no. 16 (1844): 237–39; P. Nicolopoulou-Stamati, ed., Cancer as an Environmental Disease, Environmental Science and Technology Library, v. 20 (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2004); Robert Lee, “Early Death and Long Life in History: Establishing the Scale of Premature Death in Europe and Its Cultural, Economic and Social Significance,” Historical Social Research / Historische Sozialforschung 34, no. 4 (2009): 23–60. Life expectancy data from nineteenth-century England and Sweden are nearly identical to the German data.

15. M. Bolte, D. Kappe, and J. Schmid, Bevölkerung: Statistik, Theorie, Geschichte und Politik des Bevölkerungsprozesses (VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 1980); Hoffman, Mortality from Cancer, 14. For additional discussion of age-adjusted cancer rates, see Clifton Leaf, The Truth in Small Doses: Why We’re Losing the War on Cancer—and How to Win It (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2013).

16. Hoffman, Mortality from Cancer, 28. For more on the cancer statistics debate, see Robert Proctor, Cancer Wars: How Politics Shapes What We Know and Don’t Know about Cancer (New York: Basic Books, 1995).

17. Alan I. Marcus, Malignant Growth: Creating the Modern Cancer Research Establishment, 1875–1915 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2018), 77; Robert Proctor, The Nazi War on Cancer (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), 248.

18. See Proctor, Nazi War, for more on anticancer campaigns and research in Nazi Germany; Isabel dos Santos Silva, Cancer Epidemiology: Principles and Methods (Lyon: IARC, 1999), 386.

19. Otto Warburg, “Prefatory Chapter,” Annual Review of Biochemistry 33, no. 1 (June 1964): 1–15; Krebs, Otto Warburg, 72.

20. A discussion of Hoffman’s life can be found in F. J. Sypher, Frederick L. Hoffman: His Life and Works (Philadelphia: Xlibris, 2002); Leaf, Truth in Small Doses, 31.

21. Leaf, Truth in Small Doses; Hoffman, Mortality from Cancer, 218.

22. For a discussion of Hoffman’s racism, see Megan J Wolff, “The Myth of the Actuary: Life Insurance and Frederick L. Hoffman’s Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro,” Public Health Reports 121, no. 1 (January–February 2006): 84–.91; “Dr. Hoffman Tells of Negro Health,” New York Times, February 6, 1926; Hoffman, Mortality from Cancer, 147.

23. W. H. Walshe and J. M. Warren, The Anatomy, Physiology, Pathology, and Treatment of Cancer (Boston: William D. Ticknor & Company, 1844), 347–52.

24. Vilhjalmur Stefansson, Cancer: Disease of Civilization? (New York: Hill and Wang, 1960); Gary Taubes, Good Calories, Bad Calories: Challenging the Conventional Wisdom on Diet, Weight Control, and Disease (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007).

25. F. P. Fouche, “Freedom of Negro Races from Cancer,” British Medical Journal 1, no. 3261 (June 30, 1923): 1116.

26. A. Hrdlička, Physiological and Medical Observations among the Indians of Southwestern United States and Northern Mexico (US Government Printing Office, 1908), 190; Hoffman, Mortality from Cancer, 151. For more on Hrdlička and his contribution to the American eugenics movement, see Samuel J. Redman, Bone Rooms: From Scientific Racism to Human Prehistory in Museums (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016).

27. Stefansson, Cancer, 17–23; S. K. Hutton, Health Conditions and Disease Incidence among the Eskimos of Labrador (Poole, UK: J. Looker, 1925); G. Malcolm Brown, L. B. Cronk, and T. J. Boag, “The Occurrence of Cancer in an Eskimo,” Cancer 5, no. 1 (January 1, 1952): 142–43. For further reading, see Taubes, Good Calories, Bad Calories.

28. Albert Schweitzer, “Preface,” in Alexander Berglas, Cancer: Nature, Cause, and Cure (Paris: Pasteur Institute, 1957).

29. “Traveler Brings New Cancer Theory,” Philadelphia Inquirer, August 5, 1906.

30. A. R. Walker, “The Assessment and Remedying of Inadequate Diets in India, as Appreciated by Sir Robert McCarrison,” Nutrition 18, 1 (2002): 106–9; Fouche, “Freedom of Negro Races from Cancer.”

31. H. Pontzer, B. M. Wood, and D. A. Raichlen, “Hunter-Gatherers as Models in Public Health: Hunter-Gatherer Health and Lifestyle,” Obesity Reviews 19 (2018): 24–35; El Molto and Peter Sheldrick, “Paleo-Oncology in the Dakhleh Oasis, Egypt: Case Studies and a Paleoepidemiological Perspective,” International Journal of Paleopathology 21 (2018): 96–110; Tony Waldron, “What Was the Prevalence of Malignant Disease in the Past?,” International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 6, no. 5 (December 1, 1996): 463–70.

32. Mukherjee, Emperor of All Maladies, 37–45.

33. Albert Schweitzer, “Preface”; “Noted Surgeon Travels in Darkest Africa’s Wilds,” Los Angeles Times, August 5, 1906.

34. Charles Powell White, Lectures on the Pathology of Cancer (Manchester: University Press, 1908), 381.

35. For Bloch’s recollections of treating Klara Hitler, see Eduard Bloch, “My Patient Adolf Hitler,” Collier’s Magazine, March 15 and 22, 1941. Additional accounts of Hitler’s childhood can be found in Paul Ham, Young Hitler: The Making of the Führer (New York: Pegasus Books, 2018). Klara Hitler’s medical condition is discussed .in James Stuart Olson, Bathsheba’s Breast: Women, Cancer & History (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002).

36. August Kubizek, The Young Hitler I Knew: The Memoirs of Hitler’s Childhood Friend, trans. Geoffrey Brooks (London: Greenhill Books, 2011), 33.

37. Bloch, “My Patient Adolf Hitler”; Eduard Bloch, “Erinnerungen an den Führer und Dessen Verewigte Mutter” (Nov. 1938) in Volker Ullrich, Hitler: Ascent, 1889–1939, trans. Jefferson Chase (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2016).

38. Michael Stolberg, A History of Palliative Care, 1500–1970 (Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 2017), 12.

39. Kubizek, Young Hitler, 134.

CHAPTER THREE: MAGIC BULLETS

1. H. Ward, New Worlds in Medicine: An Anthology (New York: R. M. McBride, 1946), 216. For more on Ehrlich’s early life, see Ernst Bäumler, Paul Ehrlich: Scientist for Life (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1984), 3–12.

2. Paul Ehrlich et al., The Collected Papers of Paul Ehrlich, Vol. III: Chemotherapy (London: Pergamon Press, 1960), 54; Frederick H. Kasten, “Paul Ehrlich: Pathfinder in Cell Biology,” Biotechnic & Histochemistry 71, no. 1 (1996): 5; Bäumler, Paul Ehrlich, 81.

3. Bäumler, Paul Ehrlich, 81; Martha Marquardt, Paul Ehrlich (Berlin: Springer, 1951), 14.

4. Herman T. Blumenthal, “Leo Loeb, Experimental Pathologist and Humanitarian,” Science 131, no. 3404 (1960): 907; V. Suntzeff, “Obituary,” Cancer Research 20, no. 6 (July 1, 1960): 972; Leo Loeb, “Autobiographical Notes,” Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 2, no. 1 (1958): 1–23.

5. Jan A. Witkowski, “Experimental Pathology and the Origins of Tissue Culture: Leo Loeb’s Contribution,” Medical History 27, no. 3 (July 1983): 269–88; L. Loeb, “On Transplantation of Tumors,” A Cancer Journal for Clinicians 28, no. 6 (1978).

6. Loeb, “Autobiographical Notes,” 1–23; Paul Ehrlich, Experimental Researches on Specific Therapeutics (London: Lewis, 1908), 43–73.

7. Ehrlich, Experimental Researches, 43–73.

8. Marquardt, Paul Ehrlich, 159; Otto Warburg, “Paul Ehrlich 1854–1915,” in H. Heimpel, T. Heuss, and B. Reifenberg, Die Grossen Deutschen: Deutsche Biographie, Vol. 4 (Berlin: Propyläen-Verlag, 1957), 186–92.

9. David Kritchevsky, “Caloric Restriction and Cancer,” Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology 47, no. 1 (2001): 13–19; Peyton Rous, “The Influence of Diet on Transplanted and Spontaneous Mouse Tumors,” Journal of Experimental Medicine 20, no. 5 (November 1, 1914): 433–51; E. V. Van Alstyne and S. P. Beebe, “Diet Studies in Transplantable Tumors: I. The Effect of Non-Carbohydrate Diet upon the Growth of Transplantable Sarcoma in Rats,” The Journal of Medical Research 29, no. 2 (December 1913): 217–32.

CHAPTER FOUR: GLUCOSE, CANCER, AND THE CROWN PRINCE

1. .Otto Warburg to Lotte Warburg, June 11, 1907, in Werner, Ein Genie, 28–29.

2. Hans A. Krebs and Fritz Lipmann, “Dahlem in the Late Nineteen Twenties,” in Energy Transformation in Biological Systems, ed. Dietmar Richter (Berlin, Walter de Gruyter, 1974), 7–27.

3. Arthur Greenberg, The Art of Chemistry: Myths, Medicines, and Materials (New York: Wiley, 2003), 188.

4. Otto Warburg to Jacques Loeb, 30 October 1910, in Robert E. Kohler, “The Background to Otto Warburg’s Conception of the ‘Atmungsferment,’ ” Journal of the History of Biology 6, no. 2 (1973): 171–92.

5. Werner, Otto Warburg, 100.

6. Hans Krebs and Anne Martin, Reminiscences and Reflections (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), 29.

7. Baltzer, Theodor Boveri, 20.

8. David Cahan, An Institute for an Empire: The Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, 1871–1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 96.

9. Hans-Georg Bartel and R. P. Huebener, Walther Nernst: Pioneer of Physics and of Chemistry (Singapore: World Scientific, 2007).

10. Kohler, “The Background”; Garland E. Allen, Life Science in the Twentieth Century, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979).

11. Cahan, An Institute, 204.

12. Kärin Nickelsen, “The Construction of a Scientific Model: Otto Warburg and the Building Block Strategy,” Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 40, no. 2 (June 2009): 73–86. For more on Warburg’s photosynthesis research, see Kärin Nickelsen, Of Light and Darkness: Modelling Photosynthesis 1840–1960, Habilitation thesis, Phil.-nat. Fakultät der Universität Bern, 2009.

13. Otto Warburg to Dean Burk, 20 May 1964, private collection of Frederic Burk.

14. Nickelsen, Of Light and Darkness, 103.

15. Mukherjee, Emperor of All Maladies, 87; Richard Willstätter and Arthur Stoll, From My Life: The Memoirs of Richard Willstätter, trans. Lilli S. Hornig (New York: W. A. Benjamin, 1965).

16. John C. G. Röhl, Young Wilhelm: The Kaiser’s Early Life, 1859–1888 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Untitled, Dorking and Leatherhead Advertiser, December 10, 1887.

17. Ernst Freund, Zur Diagnose des Carcinoms: Vorläufige Mittheilung (Vienna: L. Bergmann, 1885).

18. “The Crown Prince’s Malady,” New York Times, December 23, 1887; “Sugar and Cancer,” New York Times, December 24, 1887.

19. Miranda Carter, George, Nicholas and Wilhelm: Three Royal Cousins and the Road to World War I (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2010); John C. G. Röhl, Kaiser Wilhelm II, 1859–1941: A Concise Life (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014).

20. Röhl, Kaiser Wilhelm II.

CHAPTER FIVE: “SLAVES OF THE LIGHT”

1. .Otto Warburg to Jacques Loeb, 18 June 1914, in Werner, Otto Warburgs Beitrag zur Atmungstheorie, 158–59; Jacques Loeb to Otto Warburg, 1 August 1914, NL Warburg, 606/1, archive of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities.

2. Loeb, The Organism as a Whole, from a Physicochemical Viewpoint (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons); Charles Rasmussen and Rick Tilman, Jacques Loeb: His Science and Social Activism and Their Philosophical Foundations, Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 229 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1998); Loeb, “Mechanistic Science.”

3. “Kaiser Makes War Speech to a Great Crowd in Berlin,” New York Times, August 1, 1914; “Kaiser Forgives Enemies, Prays for Victory,” New York Times, August 2, 1914.

4. Tim Grady, A Deadly Legacy: German Jews and the Great War (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2017).

5. Amos Elon, The Pity of It All: A History of the Jews in Germany, 1743–1933 (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2002).

6. Robert Proctor, Racial Hygiene: Medicine under the Nazis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988).

7. Heiner Fangerau, “From Mephistopheles to Isaiah: Jacques Loeb, Technical Biology and War,” Social Studies of Science 39, no. 2 (2009): 229–56. For additional reading, see Mike Hawkins, Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860–1945: Nature as Model and Nature as Threat (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).

8. Werner, Otto Warburg, 143. Theodor Heuss and Christiane Groeben, Anton Dohrn: A Life for Science (Berlin: Springer, 1991), 108.

9. Krebs, Otto Warburg, 10; Werner, Otto Warburg, 142–43. Warburg’s reflections on his military service were recorded by the Institut für den Wissenschaftlichen Film in 1966. https://doi.org/10.3203/IWF/G-108.

10. Willem H. Koppenol, Patricia L. Bounds, and Chi V. Dang, “Otto Warburg’s Contributions to Current Concepts of Cancer Metabolism,” Nature Reviews Cancer 11, no. 5 (May 2011): 325–37; Ernst Bumm, Bericht über das Amtsjahr 1916/1917 (Berlin: Norddt. Buchdr. und Verl.-Anst., 1917), 16.

11. Baltzer, Theodor Boveri, 22.

12. Brian E. Crim, Antisemitism in the German Military Community and the Jewish Response, 1914–1938 (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2014); Grady, A Deadly Legacy.

13. Elisabeth Warburg to Albert Einstein, 21 March 1918, in Werner, Ein Genie, 120.

14. Werner, Ein Genie, 121–23.

15. E. Warburg to Einstein, 21 March 1918.

16. Albert Einstein, Helen Dukas, Banesh Hoffmann, and Ze’ev Rosenkranz, Albert .Einstein, the Human Side: Glimpses from His Archives (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013), 88.

17. Albert Einstein to Otto Warburg, 23 March 1918, in Ein Genie, 121; Krebs, Otto Warburg, 8–9.

18. E. Schütte, “Erinnerungen an Otto Warburg,” Naturwiss. Rdsch, 36 (1983), 444–47.

19. Krebs, Otto Warburg, 10; Institut für den Wissenschaftlichen Film, https://doi.org/10.3203/IWF/G-108.

20. Kubizek, Young Hitler, 157.

21. Ullrich, Hitler: Ascent, 49.

22. Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, trans. Ralph Manheim (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1943).

23. Adolf Hitler to Ernst Hepp, 5 February 1915, in Ullrich, Hitler: Ascent, 55–56.

24. Thomas Weber, Hitler’s First War: Adolf Hitler, the Men of the List Regiment, and the First World War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010).

25. Adolf Hitler et al., Hitler’s Table Talk, 1941–1944: His Private Conversations, trans. H. R. Trevor-Roper (New York: Enigma Books, 2000), 36; Ullrich, Hitler: Ascent, 50.

CHAPTER SIX: THE WARBURG EFFECT

1. Adam Hochschild, “A Hundred Years after the Armistice,” New Yorker, November 5, 2018; Röhl, Kaiser Wilhelm II, 177.

2. David Welch, Germany and Propaganda in World War I: Pacifism, Mobilization and Total War (London: I. B. Tauris, 2014), 118; Hochschild, “A Hundred Years.”

3. Krebs, Otto Warburg, 80.

4. Peter Gruss et al., eds., Denkorte: Max-Planck-Gesellschaft und Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft: Brüche und Kontinuitäten 1911–2011 (Dresden: Sandstein, 2010); Otto Warburg to Paul Warburg, 5 August 1920, in Simon Flexner Papers, 1891–1946, MSS.B. F365, American Philosophical Society Archives.

5. Koppenol et al., “Otto Warburg’s Contributions”; Krebs, Otto Warburg, 57–58.

6. Otto Warburg to Jacques Loeb, 6 September 1922, in Werner, Otto Warburgs Beitrag zur Atmungstheorie, 165–66. Fritz Lipmann et al., eds., The Roots of Modern Biochemistry: Fritz Lipmann’s Squiggle and Its Consequences (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1988); Krebs, Reminiscences, 32.

7. George Klein, interview with author, June 10, 2015; Manfred von Ardenne in Bücher, “Otto Warburg.”

8. Krebs, Otto Warburg, 57.

9. L. Warburg, Eine vollkommene Närrin.

10. Holmes, Hans Krebs, 145; Krebs, Reminiscences, 33–34.

11. Krebs, Reminiscences, 33–34.

12. Krebs, Otto Warburg, 53; Kärin Nickelsen and Govindjee, The Maximum Quantum Yield Controversy: Otto Warburg and the “Midwest-Gang” (Bern: Bern Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science, 2011).

13. .Ostendorf, interview with author.

14. Ostendorf, interview with author.

15. E. Warburg, Times and Tides, 128.

16. Krebs, Otto Warburg, 82.

17. L. Warburg, Eine vollkommene Närrin, 141.

18. Werner, Ein Genie, 291–92, 79–80.

19. Jacques Loeb to Otto Warburg, 25 July 1922, NL Warburg, 606, archive of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities.

20. Otto Warburg to Jacques Loeb, 13 June 1923, in Werner, Otto Warburgs Beitrag zur Atmungstheorie, 170.

21. Ron Chernow, The Warburgs: The Twentieth-Century Odyssey of a Remarkable Jewish Family (New York: Random House, 1993), 217.

22. Emil Warburg to Albert Einstein, 16 November 1923, in Albert Einstein et al., The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Vol. 14 (English) (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015), 149–50.

23. Krebs, Otto Warburg, 13.

24. Samuel Noah Kramer, The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971), 111.

25. René J. Dubos, Louis Pasteur, Free Lance of Science (New York: Scribner, 1976), 135; René Vallery-Radot, The Life of Pasteur, trans. R. L. Devonshire (New York: Doubleday, 1914), 220; Patrice Debré, Louis Pasteur (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000).

26. Warburg, Prime Cause.

27. Warburg, Prime Cause.

28. Birgit Vennesland, “New Methods of Cell Physiology by Otto Heinrich Warburg,” Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 6, no. 3 (1963): 385–88.

29. Peyton Rous to Otto Warburg, 5 December 1924, Rockefeller University records, Roger C. Elliot, Series 3, Warburg, Otto, Rockefeller Archive Center.

30. Ullrich, Hitler: Ascent, 82, 149.

31. Ullrich, Hitler: Ascent, 386; Joseph Shaplin, “Hitler, Driving Force in Germany’s Fascism,” New York Times, September 21, 1930; Hitler, Mein Kampf.

32. Timothy Snyder, Black Earth: The Holocaust as History and Warning (New York: Tim Duggan Books, 2015); Adolf Hitler, Hitler’s Second Book: The Unpublished Sequel to Mein Kampf, ed. Gerhard L. Weinberg, trans. Krista Smith (New York: Enigma Books, 2006), 7.

33. Otto Warburg to Jacques Loeb, 6 September 1922, in Werner, Otto Warburgs Beitrag zur Atmungstheorie, 165–66.

34. Hitler, Hitler’s Second Book, 17.

35. Hitler, Hitler’s Second Book, 17.

36. John Lukacs, The Last European War: September 1939/December 1941 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001), 42.

CHAPTER SEVEN: THE EMPEROR OF DAHLEM

1. .William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990).

2. Krebs, Reminiscences, 26–27.

3. Albert Einstein to Jacques Loeb, 28 December 1923, in Einstein et al., The Collected Papers, 189–90.

4. “Cancer Causation: Importance of Cell Physiology,” Nature 118, no. 2964 (August 1926): 284–85; L. Warburg, Eine vollkommene Närrin, 28.

5. Fritz Lipmann, Wanderings of a Biochemist (New York: Wiley, 1971), 6.

6. R. W. Gerard, “The Minute Experiment and the Large Picture: A Lifelong Commitment,” Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 23, no. 4 (1980): 527–40.

7. Allen, Life Science in the Twentieth Century; Holmes, Hans Krebs; Krebs, Otto Warburg; Nachmansohn, German-Jewish Pioneers, 238.

8. Otto Warburg to Alan Gregg, 13 February 1930, Rockefeller Foundation records, RG 6, SG 1, Pre-war correspondence, MS Germany, 1926–1935, Rockefeller Archive Center.

9. Friedrich Glum to L. W. Jones, 22 May 1931, Rockefeller Foundation records, RG 6, SG 1, MS Germany, 1926–1935, Rockefeller Archive Center.

10. E. Henning, “Ein märkisches Herrenhaus im ‘deutschen Oxford’: Zur Baugeschichte des K-W-I für Zellphysiologie in Berlin, Dahlem und seines Vorbildes in Groß Kreutz,” Publication of the Archives of the Max Planck Society (2004), 95–124.

11. L. Warburg, Eine vollkommene Närrin, 29–30.

12. E. Henning, “Otto Heinrich Warburg—Der ‘Kaiser von Dahlem,’ ” in Berlinische Lebensbilder, Naturwissenschaftler, Vol. 1 (Berlin: Colloquium Verlag, 1987), 299–316.

13. Werner, Otto Warburg, 211; Klein, interview with author.

14. Albert Szent-Györgyi, “Looking Back,” Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 15, no. 1 (1971): 1–6; Werner, Otto Warburg, 210–11.

15. Peter Reichard, “Osvald T. Avery and the Nobel Prize in Medicine,” Journal of Biological Chemistry 277, no. 16 (2002).

16. Werner, Ein Genie, 205–6.

17. L. Warburg, Eine vollkommene Närrin, 121, 114.

18. Proctor, Nazi War, 21–38; Manuel Frey, “Prävention und Propaganda,” Ärzteblatt Sachsen (April 2005): 160–62; Anja Laukötter, “Anarchy of Cells,” Studies in Contemporary History, online edition, 7 (2010); Werner, Ein Genie, 157–58.

19. Claib Price, “Cancer Is Traced to Faulty Modern Diet,” New York Times, May 10, 1925.

20. Erwin Liek, The Doctor’s Mission, trans. J. Ellis Barker (London: J. Murray, 1930), 126; Erwin Liek, Krebsverbreitung, Krebsbekämpfung, Krebsverhütung (Munich: Lehmann, 1932); Proctor, Nazi War, 24.

21. Corinna Treitel, Eating Nature in Modern Germany: Food, Agriculture, and Environment, c.1870 to 2000 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 136.

22. .F. J. Sypher, Frederick L. Hoffman; “The Rockefeller Foundation,” Science 66, no. 1700 (1927): 105–6.

23. James T. Patterson, The Dread Disease: Cancer and Modern American Culture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987), 88.

24. Frederick L. Hoffman, Cancer and Diet: With Facts and Observations on Related Subjects (Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1937).

25. H. T. Deelman, “The Mortality from Cancer among People of Different Races,” Cancer Control, Report of an international symposium held under the auspices of the American Society for Control of Cancer (1927), 247.

26. Erwin Liek, Der Kampf gegen den Krebs (Munich: J. F. Lehmanns, 1936).

27. Ullrich, Hitler: Ascent.

28. Treitel, Eating Nature, 87.

29. Hitler, Mein Kampf.

30. Hitler, Hitler’s Second Book; Robert G. L. Waite, The Psychopathic God: Adolf Hitler (New York: Basic Books, 1977); Ullrich, Hitler: Ascent.

31. Hitler, Hitler’s Table Talk, 152.

32. Albert Krebs and William Sheridan Allen, The Infancy of Nazism: The Memoirs of Ex-Gauleiter Albert Krebs, 1923–1933 (New York: New Viewpoints, 1976), 163–65.

CHAPTER EIGHT: “THE ETERNAL JEW”

1. Sebastian Haffner, Defying Hitler: A Memoir, trans. Oliver Pretzel (Lexington, MA: Plunkett Lake Press, 2014), 18.

2. Philip Ball, Serving the Reich: The Struggle for the Soul of Physics under Hitler (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014), 62; Brandon R. Brown, Planck: Driven by Vision, Broken by War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015); J. L. Heilbron, The Dilemmas of an Upright Man: Max Planck and the Fortunes of German Science (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000).

3. Jean Medawar and David Pyke, Hitler’s Gift: The True Story of the Scientists Expelled by the Nazi Regime (New York: Skyhorse, 2012).

4. Heilbron, Dilemmas; L. Warburg, Eine vollkommene Närrin, 187, 235.

5. E. Warburg, Times and Tides, 127.

6. Harry M. Miller’s account of his Germany trip, December 12–16, 1933, Rockefeller Foundation records, RG 12, M-R, 1933 August 4–December 16, Rockefeller Archive Center; Werner, Ein Genie, 295; Kristie Macrakis, Surviving the Swastika: Scientific Research in Nazi Germany (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 53–57.

7. Medawar and Pyke, Hitler’s Gift; Otto Warburg to Hans Krebs, 26 April 1933, in Werner, Ein Genie, 283–84.

8. Macrakis, Surviving the Swastika, 59; Ulrike Kohl, Die Präsidenten der Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft im Nationalsozialismus: Max Planck, Carl Bosch und Albert Vögler Zwischen Wissenschaft und Macht (Stuttgart: Steiner, 2002), 84.

9. L. Warburg, Eine vollkommene Närrin, 213.

10. .Lauder W. Jones’s account of his Berlin trip, May 24–25, 1933, Rockefeller Foundation records, RG 12, F-L, 1933, Rockefeller Archive Center.

11. Nickelsen, “On Otto Warburg”; Lauder W. Jones’s 1933 Berlin trip, Rockefeller Archive Center; Harry M. Miller’s account of his European trip, January 23 to February 3, Rockefeller Foundation records, RG 12, M-R, January 14 to June 25 1935, Rockefeller Archive Center.

12. David Nachmansohn, German-Jewish Pioneers, 264; Nickelsen and Govindjee, Maximum Quantum Yield Controversy, 33; L. Warburg, Eine vollkommene Närrin, 217–18.

13. Otto Warburg to Walter Kempner’s mother, 29 December 1933 and 14 January 1934, Walter Kempner Papers, StGA-Kempner IV, 0303, Stefan George Archive, Stuttgart; Holmes, Hans Krebs, 201; “Report: Rice Diet Doctor Admitted to Whippings in Depositions,” Associated Press, October 19, 1997.

14. Alfred E. Cohen to E. W. Bagster Collins, 6 November 1933, Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced Foreign Scholars, Warburg, Otto 1933, New York Public Library Archives.

15. Lauder W. Jones’s 1933 Berlin trip, Rockefeller Archive Center; E. Warburg, Times and Tides, 127.

16. Alan Gregg’s account of his Berlin trip, October 25, 1933, Rockefeller Foundation records, RG 12, F-L, 1933, Rockefeller Archive Center; Vennesland, “Recollections,” 12.

17. Otto Warburg to Lotte Warburg, 1 July 1936, NL Warburg, 1001, archive of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities.

18. Stefan Zweig, The World of Yesterday , trans. Benjamin W. Huebsch and Helmut Ripperger (New York: The Viking Press, 1943); George Prochnik, “When It’s Too Late to Stop Fascism, According to Stefan Zweig,” New Yorker, February 6, 2017: newyorker.com/books/page-turner/when-its-too-late-to-stop-fascism-according-to-stefan-zweig.

19. Albert Einstein to Fritz Haber, 19 May 1933, in Daniel Charles, Master Mind: The Rise and Fall of Fritz Haber, the Nobel Laureate Who Launched the Age of Chemical Warfare (New York: Ecco, 2005).

20. Zweig, The World of Yesterday; L. Warburg, Eine vollkommene Närrin, 217–18.

21. Barbara Newborg and Florence Nash, Walter Kempner and the Rice Diet: Challenging Conventional Wisdom (Durham: Carolina Academic Press, 2011); Michael Schüring, Minervas verstossene Kinder: Vertrieben Wissenschaftler und die Vergangenheitspolitik der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft (Göttingen: Wallstein, 2006), 120.

22. Krebs, Otto Warburg; L. Warburg, Eine vollkommene Närrin, 300; Warren Weaver’s account of his European travels, January 14–27, Rockefeller Foundation records, RG, 12, S-Z, 1938, Rockefeller Archive Center.

23. Chernow, The Warburgs, 369.

24. Two accounts of W. E. Tisdale’s meetings with Otto Warburg in 1934 can be found in Alan Gregg’s diary, Rockefeller Foundation records, RG 12, F-L, 1934, Rockefeller Archive Center.

25. .L. Warburg, Eine vollkommene Närrin, 252–54.

26. L. Warburg, Eine vollkommene Närrin, 265.

27. Jeremy Noakes, “The Development of Nazi Policy towards the German-Jewish ‘Mischlinge’ 1933–1945,” The Leo Baeck Institute Year Book 34, no. 1 (January 1, 1989): 291–354; Norman Stone, Hitler (London: Bloomsbury Reader, 2013).

28. Nathan Stoltzfus, Resistance of the Heart: Intermarriage and the Rosenstrasse Protest in Nazi Germany (New York: W. W. Norton, 1996), 69; Hitler, Mein Kampf.

29. Bryan Mark Rigg, Hitler’s Jewish Soldiers: The Untold Story of Nazi Racial Laws and Men of Jewish Descent in the German Military, Modern War Studies (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2002).

30. Werner, Ein Genie, 302–3; L. Warburg, Eine vollkommene Närrin, 244.

31. “The Last Stand,” New York Times, January 13, 1936; Brigitte Lohff and Hinderk Conrads, From Berlin to New York: Life and Work of the Almost Forgotten German-Jewish Biochemist Carl Neuberg (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 2007).

32. L. Warburg, Eine vollkommene Närrin, 265–66.

33. Richard Norton Smith, The Harvard Century: The Making of a University to a Nation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986), 124; Louis M. Lyons, “Famous Englishmen Speak at Harvard Tercentenary,” Boston Globe, September 1, 1936.

34. L. Warburg, Eine vollkommene Närrin, 300.

35. L. Warburg, Eine vollkommene Närrin, 287.

36. Chernow, The Warburgs, 4.

37. L. Warburg, Eine vollkommene Närrin, 294–96.

38. L. Warburg, Eine vollkommene Närrin, 294–96.

39. Deborah Sadie Hertz, How Jews Became Germans: The History of Conversion and Assimilation in Berlin (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007).

40. L. Warburg, Eine vollkommene Närrin, 294.

41. “Obituary: Prof. Otto Warburg,” The Times, January 12, 1938.

42. Werner, Ein Genie, 294; “Obituary: Prof. Otto Warburg,” The Times, January 13, 1938.

43. “Otto Warburg: Master Biochemist 1883–1970, A Personal Portrait,” James Norman Davidson Papers, GB 248 DC 024, University of Glasgow Archives; Hans Adolf Krebs, “Otto Heinrich Warburg, 1883–1970,” Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, Vol. 18 (1972), 628–99; Werner, Ein Genie, 294.

44. Chernow, The Warburgs, 4.

45. Dieter Hoffmann and Mark Walker, eds., The German Physical Society in the Third Reich: Physicists between Autonomy and Accommodation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 297; Weaver’s 1938 European trip, Rockefeller Archive Center.

46. Nachmansohn, German Jewish Pioneers, 256. Nachmansohn translated Warburg’s words as “without giving any reasons.”

47. L. Warburg, Eine vollkommene Närrin, 300; Nachmansohn, German Jewish Pioneers, 255–56.

48. .Davidson, “Otto Warburg,” Glasgow Archives.

49. Mark Walker, Otto Hahn: Verantwortung und Verdrängung (Berlin: Forschungsprogramm Geschichte der Kaiser-Wilhelm-Ges. im Nationalsozialismus, 2003); Werner, Ein Genie, 296.

50. Otto Warburg to A. V. Hill, 5 February, 1939, A. V. Hill Papers, AVHL II 4/82, Churchill Archive Center.

51. Werner, Ein Genie, 296; Krebs, Otto Warburg, 59.

52. Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart, “The Wandering Jew,” in The German Museum, or Monthly Repository of the Literature of Germany, the North and the Continent in General, Vol. 3 (1801).

CHAPTER NINE: “THE HERB GARDEN” OF DACHAU

1. For more on the campaigns against cancer discussed in this chapter, see Stanford historian Robert Proctor’s The Nazi War on Cancer, a fascinating study of Nazi politics and science.

2. Proctor, Nazi War, 11; Hitler, Mein Kampf.

3. Proctor, Nazi War, 134.

4. Hitler, Hitler’s Table Talk, 374; Proctor, Nazi War, 137.

5. “Hitler’s Throat,” Time, November 14, 1938; Ulf Schmidt, Karl Brandt: The Nazi Doctor (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2007), 82–83.

6. Norman Ohler, Blitzed: Drugs in the Third Reich, trans. Shaun Whiteside (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2017), 23–24; Christa Schroeder, He Was My Chief, trans. Geoffrey Brooks (London: Frontline Books, 2009); Heinz Linge, With Hitler to the End, trans. Geoffrey Brooks (London: Frontline Books, 2009).

7. Roger Manvell, Doctor Goebbels: His Life and Death (London: Heinemann, 1960), 265; Leo Katz, Bad Acts and Guilty Minds (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987); Treitel, Eating Nature, 215; Proctor, Nazi War, 139.

8. Proctor, Nazi War, 254-55; Ulf Schmidt, Karl Brandt, 88.

9. Proctor, Nazi War, 138–39; Peter Longerich, Heinrich Himmler (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 483.

10. Proctor, Nazi War, 265; Heinrich Himmler, The Private Heinrich Himmler, ed., Katrin Himmler and Michael Wildt, trans. Thomas S. Hansen and Abby J. Hansen (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2016), 199; Stanislav Zámečník, Das war Dachau (Frankfurt am Main: Fischer-Taschenbuch, 2010), 121.

11. Himmler, Private Heinrich Himmler, 199.

12. Longerich, Heinrich Himmler, 483–84, 335; Proctor, Nazi War, 157.

13. Longerich, Heinrich Himmler, 334–35.

14. Paul Weindling, Victims and Survivors of Nazi Human Experiments: Science and Suffering in the Holocaust (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015), 54–55.

15. Otto Warburg, Heavy Metal Prosthetic Groups and Enzyme Action (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1949), 59.

16. Bücher, “Otto Warburg,” 13.

17. .Guy C. Brown, The Energy of Life (New York: The Free Press, 2000), 29.

18. Nick Lane, Power, Sex, Suicide: Mitochondria and the Meaning of Life (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005).

19. Eric G. Ball to W. Mansfield Clark, 11 December 1937, William Mansfield Clark Papers, Correspondence, 1903–1964, Mss.B.C547, American Philosophical Society Archives.

20. Hugo Theorell, “Closing Remarks,” in Pyridine Nucleotide-Dependent Dehydrogenases, ed. H. Sund (Berlin: Springer, 1970); George W. Schwert and Alfred D. Winer, eds., The Mechanism of Action of Dehydrogenases: A Symposium in Honor of Hugo Theorell (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1970).

21. C. Stacy French, “Fifty years of Photosynthesis,” Annual Review of Plant Physiology 30, no. 1 (1979): 1–27.

22. Waldemar Kaempffert, “Authorities Sure of Pellagra Cure,” New York Times, March 20, 1938.

23. Kaempffert, “Authorities”; Waldemar Kaempffert, “Science in the News: More Light on Pellagra,” New York Times, April 16, 1939.

24. Werner, Ein Genie, 313, 402; L. Warburg, Eine vollkommene Närrin, 170, 212.

CHAPTER TEN: THE AGE OF KOCH

1. Vallery-Radot, The Life of Pasteur, 99.

2. Thomas Goetz, The Remedy: Robert Koch, Arthur Conan Doyle, and the Quest to Cure Tuberculosis (New York: Gotham Books, 2014).

3. Goetz, The Remedy; René J. Dubos and Jean Dubos, The White Plague: Tuberculosis, Man, and Society (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1987).

4. Goetz, The Remedy.

5. Lawrason Brown, “Robert Koch (1843–1910), an American Tribute,” Annals of Medical History, n.s., 7 (1935); “Dr. Koch’s Career,” New York Times, July 22, 1884.

6. “Dr. Koch: Character Sketch,” The Review of Reviews 2 (1890): 547.

7. Warburg, Prime Cause.

8. Fritz Redlich, Hitler: Diagnosis of a Destructive Prophet (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998); Schmidt, Karl Brandt, 81.

9. Vallery-Radot, The Life of Pasteur, 272.

10. Hitler, Mein Kampf.

11. Ian Kershaw, Hitler: A Biography (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), 92.

12. William John Niven, Hitler and Film: The Führer’s Hidden Passion (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2018), 117.

13. Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1936–45: Nemesis (New York: W. W. Norton, 2001), 470.

14. Robert A. Lambert to Betty Drury, 3 March 1938, Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced Foreign Scholars, Warburg, Otto 1933, New York Public Library Archives.

15. Werner, Ein Genie, 305.

16. .Noakes, “The Development of Nazi Policy,” 338; Wolf Gruner, Jewish Forced Labor under the Nazis: Economic Needs and Racial Aims, 1938–1944 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006).

17. Gabriele Moser, “From Deputy to ‘Reichsbevollmächtiger’ and Defendant at the Nuremberg Medical Trials: Dr. Kurt Blome and Cancer Research in National Socialist Germany,” in Man, Medicine, and the State, ed. Wolfgang Uwe Eckart (Stuttgart: Steiner, 2006), 203; Ernst Telschow to Rudolf Mentzel, 12 April 1941, III. Abt., Rep. 1, Nr. 47, Archives of the Max Planck Society; Rudolf Mentzel to Kaiser Wilhelm Society, 24 April 1941, III. Abt., Rep. 1, Nr. 47, Archives of the Max Planck Society.

18. Werner, Ein Genie, 305.

19. Melvyn Conroy, Nazi Eugenics: Precursors, Policy, Aftermath (New York: Columbia University Press, 2017).

20. Memorandum Re: Notice for Professor Warburg, Dahlem, 14 June 1941, Kaiser Wilhelm Society for the Advancement of Science, 1926–1941, NL CFvS, Siemens Archive.

21. Rigg, Hitler’s Jewish Soldiers, 38.

22. Noakes, “The Development of Nazi Policy,” 319; Rigg, Hitler’s Jewish Soldiers, 192, 182.

23. Memorandum Re: Notice for Professor Warburg, Siemens Archive.

24. Affidavit of Walter Schoeller, Transcript of the trial of Viktor Brack, May 13, 1947, Nuremberg Trials Project: A Digital Document Collection of the Harvard Law School Library, 7495: nuremberg.law.harvard.edu/transcripts/1-transcript-for-nmt-1-medical-case?seq=7642; Rigg, Hitler’s Jewish Soldiers, 187.

25. Memorandum Re: Notice for Professor Warburg, Siemens Archive; Krebs, Otto Warburg, 59.

26. Viktor Brack to Heinrich Himmler, 28 March 1941, Transcript of the trial of Viktor Brack, May 13, 1947, Nuremberg Trials Project: A Digital Document Collection of the Harvard Law School Library, 7490: nuremberg.law.harvard.edu/transcripts/1-transcript-for-nmt-1-medical-case?seq=7637.

27. Werner, Otto Warburg, 262–63; Nickelsen, “On Otto Warburg”; Affidavit of Otto Warburg, Transcript of the trial of Viktor Brack, May 13, 1947, Nuremberg Trials Project: A Digital Document Collection of the Harvard Law School Library, 7493: nuremberg.law.harvard.edu/transcripts/1-transcript-for-nmt-1-medical-case?seq=7640.

28. Affidavit of Otto Warburg, 7493; Himmler, Der Dienstkalender, 17; Werner, Ein Genie, 311–14, Hitler’s Jewish soldiers, 186–97.

29. Kershaw, Nemesis, 386.

30. Proctor, Nazi War, 3–4.

31. Kershaw, Nemesis, 387–88.

32. Timothy Snyder, Black Earth, 166.

CHAPTER ELEVEN: “I REFUSED TO INTERVENE”

1. .Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews, Vol. 2 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002), 434–47.

2. Ekkehard Höxtermann and Ulrich Sucker, Otto Warburg (Wiesbaden: Vieweg+Teubner Verlag, 1989), 142.

3. Rudolf Mentzel to Adolf Windaus, 5 October 1942, Adolf Windaus to Rudolf Mentzel, 7 October 1942, Nachlass Adolf Windaus, 2003.9, Archives of the Göttingen State and University Library; Werner, Ein Genie, 310; Gabriele Moser, “A Model of Joint Research? Cancer Research and the Funding Policies of the German Research Foundation and the Reich Research Council in National Socialist Germany,” Medizinhistorisches Journal 40, no. 2 (2005): 113–39.

4. Beate Meyer, email to author, June 10, 2020; Beate Meyer, “Jüdische Mischlinge” Rassenpolitik und Verfolgungserfahrung 1933–1945 (Munich: Dölling und Galitz, 2015).

5. William L. Laurence, “New Avenue Seen in Cancer Studies,” New York Times, September 26, 1948.

6. Krebs, Otto Warburg, 45.

7. Ilya Zbarsky, Samuel Hutchinson, and Barbara Bray, Lenin’s Embalmers (London: Havrill 1998), 128.

8. Chernow, The Warburgs, 506; Nickelsen, “On Otto Warburg”; Theodor Bücher, interview with the historian Ute Deichmann, June 14, 1994; Stefan Müller, Liebensberg: Ein Verkauftes Dorf (BoD, 2003).

9. Bücher, “Otto Warburg”; Werner, Otto Warburg, 266–74.

10. Nickelsen, “On Otto Warburg”; Hilberg, Destruction, 442–43; Otto Warburg to Walter Kempner, 11 April 1949, Stefan George Archive, Stuttgart.

11. Nickelsen, “On Otto Warburg”; Theodor Bücher, “Otto Warburg”; Theodor Bücher to Hans Krebs, 5 July 1947, Renewing contacts with Germany, 1945–50, Bücher, T, 1947-56, Krebs Collection, University of Sheffield Archives.

12. Michael O. R. Kröher, Der Club der Nobelpreisträger (Munich: Knaus, 2017); Bücher, interview with Deichmann; Bücher, “Otto Warburg.”

13. Kärin Nickelsen, “Ein Bisher Unbekanntes Zeitzeugnis: Otto Warburgs Tagebuchnotizen von Februar–April 1945,” NTM Zeitschrift für Geschichte der Wissenschaften, Technik und Medizin 16, no. 1 (March 2008): 103–15; Nickelsen, “On Otto Warburg.”

14. Nickelsen, “On Otto Warburg”; David Farrer, The Warburgs: The Story of a Family (New York: Stein and Day, 1975), 152; Macrakis, Surviving the Swastika, 63.

15. Proctor, Nazi War, 259–60.

16. .Hitler, Table Talk, 114–19; Miriam Kleiman, “Hitler and His Dentist,” US National Archives website, January 31, 2012: prologue.blogs.archives.gov/2012/01/31/hitler-and-his-dentist; Linge, With Hitler; Traudl Junge, Hitler’s Last Secretary: A Firsthand Account of Life with Hitler, ed. Melissa Müller, trans. Anthea Bell (New York: Arcade, 2017).

17. Hitler, Table Talk, 114–19.

18. Schroeder, He Was My Chief; Junge, Hitler’s Last Secretary.

19. Hitler, Table Talk, 332.

20. Ohler, Blitzed; Antony Beevor, The Fall of Berlin 1945 (New York: Penguin Books, 2003); Linge, With Hitler.

21. Schroeder, He Was My Chief.

22. Jonathan Mayo and Emma Craigie, Hitler’s Last Day: Minute by Minute (London: Short Books, 2016).

CHAPTER TWELVE: COMING TO AMERICA

1. Roger Adams, “Situation with Respect to Dr. Otto Warburg,” Roger Adams Papers, Series:15/5/23, University of Illinois Archives.

2. Excerpts from the diary of Wilhelm Lüttgens, in Werner, Ein Genie, 326–34; E. Warburg, Times and Tides, 128.

3. Otto Warburg to Lotte Warburg, 13 January 1946, private collection of the Meyer-Viol family; Klein, interview with author; A. R. Mann, “Report on Educational Conditions in Postwar Germany,” Rockefeller Foundation records, projects, RG 1.1, Rockefeller Archive Center.

4. Govindjee et al., eds., Discoveries in Photosynthesis, Advances in Photosynthesis and Respiration, Vol. 20 (Dordrecht: Springer, 2005); Roger Adams, “Situation with Respect to Dr. Otto Warburg.”

5. Parke D. Massey, “Investigation Report on Otto Heinrich Warburg,” in Adams, “Situation with Respect to Dr. Otto Warburg.”

6. Adams, “Situation with Respect to Dr. Otto Warburg”; Otto Warburg to Lotte Warburg, 13 January 1946.

7. Detlev W. Bronk to Edward A. Doisy, 28 April 1948, William Mansfield Clark Papers, Correspondence, 1903–1964, Mss.B.C547, American Philosophical Society Archives; Schüring, Minervas verstossene Kinder, 287; Correspondence of A. V. Hill, 1945, GB 117, Archives of the Royal Society; Rigg, Hitler’s Jewish Soldiers, 39.

8. Carola Sachse, “What Research, to What End? The Rockefeller Foundation and the Max Planck Gesellschaft in the Early Cold War,” Central European History 42, no. 1 (2009); Declaration of Otto Heinrich Warburg for the Office of Military Government, 10 June 1948, in Helmut Maier, ed., Gemeinschaftsforschung, Bevollmächtigte und der Wissenstransfer: Die Rolle der Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft im System Kriegsrelevanter Forschung des Nationalsozialismus, Bd. 17 (Göttingen: Wallstein, 2007).

9. Benno Müller-Hill, “The Blood from Auschwitz and the Silence of the Scholars,” History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences 21, no. 3 (1999): 331–65; Interview with Max Delbruck, Caltech Oral Histories, CaltechOH:OH_Delbruck_M, Caltech Institute Archives.

10. Otto Warburg to Carl Neuberg, December 1948, Carl Neuberg Papers, Warburg, Otto 1948–56, Mss.Ms.Coll.4, American Philosophical Society Archives; Affidavit .of Otto Warburg, Viktor Brack trial; Werner, Otto Warburg, 307–8. Petra Gentz-Werner, interview with author, May 11, 2015.

11. Martin David Kamen, Radiant Science, Dark Politics: A Memoir of the Nuclear Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986); Robert Emerson and Govindjee, “Robert Emerson’s 1949 Stephen Hales Prize Lecture: ‘Photosynthesis and the World,’ ” Journal of Plant Science Research 34, no. 2 (2018): 119–25; Nickelsen and Govindjee, Maximum Quantum Yield Controversy, 47–75. Nickelsen and Govindjee’s excellent account of Warburg’s adventures in Urbana provides additional information on Warburg’s antics.

12. Robert Emerson to Hans Gaffron, 29 May 1948, in Nickelsen and Govindjee, Maximum Quantum Yield Controversy, 37.

13. Nickelsen and Govindjee, Maximum Quantum Yield Controversy, 47–75; E. Rabinowitch, “Robert Emerson, 1903–1959,” Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences 25 (1961): 112–31; William L. Laurence, “New Avenue Seen in Cancer Studies,” New York Times, September 26, 1948.

14. Kamen, Radiant Science, 101, 304; Nickelsen and Govindjee, Maximum Quantum Yield Controversy, 47–75.

15. Govindjee, interview with author, April 18, 2017; James Franck to Robert Pohl, 22 March 1955, in Florian Ebner, James Franck—Robert Wichard Pohl. Briefwechsel 1906−1964, Preprint 8, 2013, Deutsches Museum; Rabinowitch, “Robert Emerson,” 123; Oral history interview with Michael Polanyi, February 15, 1962, OH 4831, American Institute of Physics.

16. Kamen, Radiant Science, 101–2; Otto Warburg to Walter Kempner, 14 December 1948, Stefan George Archive, Stuttgart; Nickelsen and Govindjee, Maximum Quantum Yield Controversy, 47–75.

17. Dean Burk to Otto Warburg, 2 January 1958, private collection of Frederic Burk; Nickelsen and Govindjee, Maximum Quantum Yield Controversy, 58–60.

18. Nickelsen and Govindjee, Maximum Quantum Yield Controversy, 47–75; Klotz, “Wit and Wisdom.”

19. For more on Warburg’s search for a position in the United States, see his correspondence with Walter Kempner in the Stefan George Archive in Stuttgart; Nickelsen and Govindjee, Maximum Quantum Yield Controversy, 32.

CHAPTER THIRTEEN: TWO ENGINES

1. Otto Warburg to Reinhard Dohrn, December 1949, in Werner, Otto Warburg, 296.

2. William L. Laurence, “Vital Force Found in Plants May Increase World’s Food,” New York Times, December 31, 1949; Otto Warburg to Walter Kempner, 25 December 1951, Stefan George Archive, Stuttgart; Martin Klingenberg, email to author, April 10, 2017.

3. Otto Warburg, “On the Origins of Cancer Cells,” Science 123, no. 3191 (1956): 309; Klein, interview with author, June 10, 2015. Klein, a Holocaust survivor .and celebrated cancer biologist at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm, died in 2016.

4. Klein interview; Robert A. Weinberg, Racing to the Beginning of the Road: The Search for the Origin of Cancer (New York: Harmony Books, 1996), 12.

5. A. A. Benson, “Paving the Path,” Annual Review of Plant Biology 53, no. 1 (2002): 1–25; Herman M. Kalckar, “50 Years of Biological Research—from Oxidative Phosphorylation to Energy Requiring Transport Regulation,” Annual Review of Biochemistry 60, no. 1 (1991): 1–38.

6. Warburg, “On the Origins of Cancer Cells”; Warburg, Prime Cause.

7. H. P. Hofschneider, “Adolf Butenandt zum Gedenken,” Zeitschrift für Naturforschung A 50, no. 4–5 (1995): 505–8; Kurt Stern, “Antimetabolites and Cancer,” American Journal of Clinical Pathology 26, no. 5 (1956): 529; Gloria M. Hanson and Richard W. Hanson, “Sidney Weinhouse, 1909–2001: A Biographical Memoir (Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, 2009); “Cancer Theory Overthrown,” The Science News-Letter 65, no. 1 (1954): 5; Dean Burk to Otto Warburg, 5 January 1954, private collection of Frederic Burk.

8. Warburg, “On the Origins of Cancer Cells.”

9. Waldemar Kaempffert, “German Physiologist Is Sure That He Has Discovered the Cause of Cancer,” New York Times, March 4, 1956.

10. S. Weinhouse et al., “On Respiratory Impairment in Cancer Cells,” Science 124, no. 3215 (1956): 267–72.

11. Mukherjee, Emperor of All Maladies, 88.

12. L. Warburg, Eine vollkommene Närrin, 21. For more about Haber, see Daniel Charles’s excellent biography, Master Mind.

13. Ball, Serving the Reich, 67–68.

14. Hitler, Mein Kampf, 202.

15. A. A. Liebow and L. L. Waters, “Milton Charles Winternitz February 19, 1885–October 3, 1959,” The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 32, no. 3 (December 1959): 143.b1–164; Vincent T. DeVita and Edward Chu, “A History of Cancer Chemotherapy,” Cancer Research 68, no. 21 (November 1, 2008): 8643–53; Judith Ann Schiff, “Pioneers in Chemotherapy,” Yale Alumni Magazine, May/June, 2011.

CHAPTER FOURTEEN: “STRANGE NEW CREATURES OF OUR OWN MAKING”

1. Farrer, The Warburgs, 152; Felicitas von Aretin, “Under the Watchful Gaze of Minerva: Traditions, Symbols and Dealing with the Past,” in Denkorte, Centennial Book—Essays, Max-Planck-Gesellschaft and Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft, 1911–2011 (Dresden: Sandstein Verlag, 2011), 3; Krebs, Otto Warburg, 61.

2. Manfred Görtemaker and Christoph Johannes Maria Safferling, Die Akte Rosenburg: Das Bundesministerium der Justiz und die NS-Zeit (Munich: C. H. Beck, 2016); Ralph Giordano, Die Zweite Schuld oder von der Last ein Deutscher zu Sein (Hamburg: Rasch und Röhring, 1998).

3. .Daniella Seidl, “Zwischen Himmel und Hölle”: Das Kommando “Plantage” des Konzentrationslagers Dachau (Munich: Utz, 2008); Treitel, Eating Nature, 237–38.

4. G. Taubes, “Epidemiology Faces Its Limits,” Science 269, no. 5221 (July 14, 1995): 164–69; Richard Doll and Richard Peto, The Causes of Cancer: Quantitative Estimates of Avoidable Risks of Cancer in the United States Today (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981).

5. Proctor, Cancer Wars, 37–39; W. C. Hueper, Occupational Tumors and Allied Diseases (Springfield, IL: C. C. Thomas, 1942); Adam Wishart, One in Three: A Son’s Journey into the History and Science of Cancer (New York: Grove Press, 2008); C. Sellers, “Discovering Environmental Cancer: Wilhelm Hueper, Post-World War II Epidemiology, and the Vanishing Clinician’s Eye,” American Journal of Public Health 87, no. 11 (1997): 1824–35.

6. Proctor, Nazi War, 14; Proctor, Cancer Wars, 47.

7. Linda J. Lear, Rachel Carson: Witness for Nature (New York: H. Holt, 1997); Rachel Carson, Silent Spring, 40th anniversary ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2002); Proctor, Nazi War, 286.

8. Carson, Silent Spring, 232.

9. L. Warburg, Eine vollkommene Närrin, 29–30, 78; Werner, Otto Warburg, 298–302; Harald Lemke, Die Kunst des Essens: Eine Ästhetik des Kulinarischen Geschmacks (Bielefeld: Transcript, 2007), 193–206; Udo Pollmer et al., Vorsicht Geschmack (Hamburg: Rowohlt, 2007).

10. E. Warburg, Times and Tides, 129; Krebs, Otto Warburg, 74; Nachmansohn, German-Jewish Pioneers, 263.

11. W. C. Hueper, unpublished autobiography, Hueper Papers, 1920–1981, MS C 341, National Library of Medicine; Proctor, Nazi War, 12–15, 79.

12. Proctor, Cancer Wars, 38; Hueper, unpublished autobiography, 143; Proctor, Nazi War, 15, 71.

13. Stephen P. Strickland, Research and the Health of Americans (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1978), 77.

14. Howard Hiatt, “The Use of Basic Research,” New York Times, September 8, 1976; Jane Brody, “Quick, Inexpensive Test on Bacteria Detects Chemicals Potentially Dangerous to Man,” New York Times, April 3, 1975; Philip M. Boffey, “The Parade of Chemicals That Cause Cancer Seems Endless,” New York Times, March 20, 1984.

CHAPTER FIFTEEN: THE PRIME CAUSE OF CANCER

1. R. Clinton Fuller, “Forty Years of Microbial Photosynthesis Research: Where It Came from and What It Led To,” Photosynthesis Research: Official Journal of the International Society of Photosynthesis Research 62, no. 1 (1999): 1–29; Helmut Sies, interview with author, April 14, 2017.

2. Otto Warburg to Dean Burk, 3 September 1952, private collection of Frederic Burk; Govindjee, “Robert Emerson and Eugene Rabinowitch: Understanding Photosynthesis,” .in No Boundaries: University of Illinois Vignettes, ed. Lillian Hoddeson (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2004).

3. Warburg, Prime Cause.

4. “Letzte Ursache,” Der Spiegel, July 4, 1966; Personal notes of Hans Krebs, “Career, Honours and Awards,” Krebs Collection, University of Sheffield Archives.

5. C. Cook, “Oral History—Sir Richard Doll,” Journal of Public Health 26, no. 4 (2004): 327–36; Conrad Keating, Smoking Kills: The Revolutionary Life of Richard Doll (Oxford: Signal, 2009).

6. Wishart, One in Three; Keating, Smoking Kills.

7. R. Doll and A. Bradford Hill, “Smoking and Carcinoma of the Lung,” British Medical Journal 2 (1950): 739; Proctor, Nazi War, 196–208, 217–19.

8. George Johnson, The Cancer Chronicles: Unlocking Medicine’s Deepest Mystery (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2013); Jane E. Brody, “Scientist at Work: Bruce N. Ames; Strong Views on Origins of Cancer,” New York Times, July 5, 1994.

CHAPTER SIXTEEN: CANCER AND DIET

1. Otto Warburg to Harry Goldblatt, 3 January 1967, III. Abt., Rep. 1, Nr. 207, Archives of the Max Planck Society.

2. Harry Goldblatt to Otto Warburg, 9 April 1968, III. Abt., Rep. 1, Nr. 207, Archives of the Max Planck Society.

3. Keating, Smoking Kills; Gary Taubes, “Do We Really Know What Makes Us Healthy?” New York Times Magazine, September 16, 2007.

4. Thomas Denman, Observations on the Cure of Cancer (London: T. Bensley, 1810); Williams, Natural History of Cancer, 64.

5. Proctor, Nazi War, 127.

6. Hoffman, Cancer and Diet.

7. Lester Grant, The Challenge of Cancer (Bethesda: National Institutes of Health, 1950); Albert Tannenbaum, “Effects of Varying Caloric Intake upon Tumor Incidence and Tumor Growth,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 49, no. 1 (1947): 5–18.

8. Colin Champ, “The Ketogenic Diet: Making It Difficult for Cancer to Latch On?” October 6, 2018: colinchamp.com/the-ketogenic-diet-making-it-difficult-for-cancer-to-latch-on; Tannenbaum, “Effects of Varying Caloric Intake.”

9. Charles, Master Mind.

10. Vaclav Smil, Enriching the Earth (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000); Vaclav Smil, “Global Population and the Nitrogen Cycle,” Scientific American, July 1997, 76.

11. Stephen Paget, “The Distribution of Secondary Growths in Cancer of the Breast,” The Lancet, 133, no. 3421 (1889): 571–73; A. Goldfeder, “An Overview of Fifty Years in Cancer Research: Autobiographical Essay,” Cancer Research 36 (1): 1–9.

12. “Cancer Cells Held Cause of Its Spread,” New York Times, January 10, 1929.

13. Ernst Freund, Metabolic Therapy of Cancer, trans. Laurence Wolfe (London: Daniel Godwin, 1946), 21.

14. Doll and Peto, The Causes of Cancer, 1233; A. Tannenbaum, “Host and Environmental .Factors in Cancer Research,” Acta-Unio Internationalis Contra Cancrum, 15 (1959): 861–63.

15. William J. Blot and Robert E. Tarone, “Doll and Peto’s Quantitative Estimates of Cancer Risks: Holding Generally True for 35 Years,” Journal of the National Cancer Institute 107, no. 4 (2105); Doll and Peto, The Causes of Cancer, 1226.

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN: LOST AND FOUND

1. Ostendorf, interview with author; Krebs, Otto Warburg, 55.

2. Farrer, The Warburgs, 152, Werner, Otto Warburg, 298.

3. Dean Burk to Otto Warburg, 7 April 1965, NL Warburg, 174, archive of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities. Burk is quoting a statement made by Warburg.

4. Wolfgang Lefèvre, email to author, December 10, 2019.

5. Dean Burk to Otto Warburg, 4 March 1965, NL Warburg, 174, archive of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities; Peter Pedersen, interview with author, May 15, 2015.

6. “Bei Krebs Hast du nur Einmal eine Chance,” Der Spiegel, October 2, 1972.

7. Klotz, “Wit and Wisdom of Albert Szent-Györgyi.”

8. A note on nomenclature: Scientists refer to DNA sequences as “genes” and to the proteins they give rise to as “gene products.” The nomenclature used to distinguish one from the other varies according to the type of organism under discussion. For the purposes of this book, such distinctions aren’t necessary. The DNA code and the corresponding protein can be considered parts of a whole, and in the name of simplicity, I have represented them with the same capitalized three-letter symbols, such as AKT or SRC.

9. Chi Van Dang, email to author, July 8, 2020; Chi Van Dang, interviews with author, May 19, 2015, and April 21, 2016.

10. Chi Van Dang interviews; Chi V. Dang et al., “c-Myc Transactivation of LDH-A: Implications for Tumor Metabolism and Growth,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 94, no. 13 (1997): 6658–63.

11. Otto Warburg to Dean Burk, 27 November 1957, NL Warburg, 174, archive of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities.

12. D. Hanahan and R. A. Weinberg, “The Hallmarks of Cancer,” Cell 100, no. 1 (2000): 57–70; Robert Weinberg, interviews with author, April 29, 2015, and December 8, 2016; Robert Weinberg, email to author, November 29, 2016. In 2011, Hanahan and Weinberg published “Hallmarks of Cancer: The Next Generation,” an updated version of their paper. The updated paper discusses Warburg in a section titled “An Emerging Hallmark: Reprogramming Energy Metabolism.” D. Hanahan and R. A. Weinberg, “The Hallmarks of Cancer: The Next Generation,” Cell 144, no. 5 (2011): 646–74.

13. Harry Goldblatt to Otto Warburg, 19 April 1968, III. Abt., Rep. 1, Nr. 207, Archives of the Max Planck Society.

14. .Laura Stephenson Carter and Craig Thompson, “ ’75: Why Not?” Dartmouth Medicine Magazine, Fall 2006; Thompson, interview with author.

15. L. Ernster and G. Schatz, “Mitochondria: A Historical Review,” Journal of Cell Biology 91, no. 3 (1981): 227s–55s; Klein, interview with author.

16. Brooke Bevis, email to author, November 28, 2017.

17. Lane, Power, Sex, Suicide.

18. Navdeep Chandel, interviews with author, September 27, 2016, and November 9, 2017; Matthew Vander Heiden, interviews with author, April 29, 2015, and November 6, 2017.

19. Craig Thompson, “Why Don’t We All Get Cancer?” Major Trends in Modern Cancer Research, conference held at Memorial Sloan Kettering, November 10, 2010.

20. Thompson, “Why Don’t We All Get Cancer?”

21. Lewis Cantley, interviews with author, May 14, 2015, and November 18, 2016.

22. Matthew Vander Heiden, interview with author.

23. Jeff Rathmell, interview with author, January 17, 2017; Ushma S. Neill, “A Conversation with Craig Thompson,” Journal of Clinical Investigation 125, no. 6 (2015): 2181–83; Thompson, interview with author.

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN: THE METABOLISM REVIVAL

1. Thompson, interview with author.

2. Britton Chance’s notes on his 1966 trip to Berlin, Britton Chance Papers, Mss.Ms.Coll.160, American Philosophical Society Archives.

3. C. B. Thompson et al., “Akt Stimulates Aerobic Glycolysis in Cancer Cells,” Cancer Research 64 (2004): 3892–99; Thompson, interview with author.

4. Ken Garber, “Energy Boost: The Warburg Effect Returns in a New Theory of Cancer,” Journal of the National Cancer Institute 96, no. 24 (2004): 1805–6; Dang, interview with author.

5. Thompson, interview with author; Thompson, “Why Don’t We All Get Cancer?”

6. M. G. Vander Heiden, L. C. Cantley, and C. B. Thompson, “Understanding the Warburg Effect: The Metabolic Requirements of Cell Proliferation,” Science 324, no. 5930 (2009): 1029–33.

7. K. E. Wellen, G. Hatzivassiliou, et al., “ATP-Citrate Lyase Links Cellular Metabolism to Histone Acetylation,” Science 324, no. 5930 (2009): 1076–80; D. Zhang et al., “Metabolic Regulation of Gene Expression by Histone Lactylation,” Nature 574 (2019): 575–80; Kathryn Wellen’s presentation at Women & Science: Nutrition and Gene Regulation, The Wistar Institute, February 13, 2019; Kathryn Wellen, email to author, July 7, 2020.

8. Craig Thompson, “Discussion with Memorial Sloan Kettering’s President,” Major Trends in Modern Cancer Research, conference held at Memorial Sloan Kettering, November 7, 2012; Thompson, “Why Don’t We All Get Cancer?”

9. Otto Warburg, The Metabolism of Tumors: Investigation from the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Biology, Berlin-Dahlem (London: Constable, 1930).

10. .Celeste Simon, interview with author, February 4, 2019.

11. Warburg, The Metabolism of Tumors.

12. Valter Longo, interview with author, December 23, 2016; David Sabatini, interview with author, May 5, 2015; Dang, interview with author.

13. Jerome Groopman, “The Transformation,” New Yorker, September 15, 2014. Thompson started Agios Pharmaceuticals together with Lewis Cantley and Tak Mak.

14. Vander Heiden, interview with author.

15. Doll and Peto, The Causes of Cancer, 1233.

16. Eugenia E. Calle et al., “Overweight, Obesity, and Mortality from Cancer in a Prospectively Studied Cohort of U.S. Adults,” New England Journal of Medicine 348, no. 17 (2003): 1625–38; Associated Press, “Study Hailed as Convincing in Tying Fat to Cancers,” New York Times, April 24, 2003.

17. C. Brooke Steele et al., “Vital Signs: Trends in Incidence of Cancers Associated with Overweight and Obesity—United States, 2005–2014,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 66, no. 39 (2017): 1052–58; Rebecca Siegel, email to author, July 6, 2020.

18. Williams, The Natural History of Cancer.

CHAPTER NINETEEN: DIABETES AND CANCER

1. E. Racker, “Bioenergetics and the Problem of Tumor Growth,” American Scientist 60, no. 1 (1972): 56–63.

2. Efraim Racker, “Otto Warburg at a Turning Point in 1932,” Trends in Biochemical Sciences 7, no. 12 (1982): 448–49.

3. Cantley, interview with author.

4. Cantley, interview with author; Beth Saulnier, “Bench to Bedside,” Cornell Alumni Magazine, May/June, 2014.

5. Cantley, interview with author; Lewis Cantley, “From Kinase to Cancer,” The Scientist, November 30, 2007.

6. Kathryn M. King and Greg Rubin, “A History of Diabetes: From Antiquity to Discovering Insulin,” British Journal of Nursing 12, no. 18 (2003); Robert Tattersall, Diabetes: The Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009); Taubes, Good Calories, Bad Calories.

7. Elliott Proctor Joslin, The Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus (Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1917); “The Frequency of Diabetes Mellitus, and Its Relation to Diseases of the Pancreas,” Journal of the American Medical Association 29, no. 25 (1897): 1277; Haven Emerson and Louise Larimore, “Diabetes Mellitus, Contribution to Its Epidemiology Based Chiefly on Mortality Statistics,” Archives of Internal Medicine 34, no. 5 (1924): 585–630.

8. Williams, Natural History of Cancer, 259, 334; Hoffman, Cancer and Diet.

9. Joslin, Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus.

10. Robert McCarrison, “Faulty Food in Relation to Gastrointestinal Disorders,” Journal .of the American Medical Association 78 (1922):1–8; Nicholas Senn, In the Heart of the Arctics (Chicago: W. B. Conkey, 1907).

11. T. L. Cleave and George Duncan Campbell, Diabetes, Coronary Thrombosis, and the Saccharine Disease (Bristol: J. Wright, 1969), 26; A. M. Cohen, “Prevalence of Diabetes among Different Ethnic Jewish Groups in Israel,” Metabolism 10 (1961): 50–58; Taubes, Good Calories, Bad Calories; E. Giovannucci et al., “Diabetes and Cancer: A Consensus Report,” Diabetes Care 33, no. 7 (2010): 1674–85.

12. B. A. Houssary, “The Discovery of Pancreatic Diabetes: The Role of Oscar Minkowski,” Diabetes 1, no. 2 (March 1, 1952): 112–16; Joseph Collins, “Diabetes, Dreaded Disease, Yields to New Gland Cure,” New York Times, May 6, 1923.

13. Elizabeth Stone, “A Mme. Curie from the Bronx,” New York Times, April 9, 1978; Eugene Straus, Rosalyn Yalow, Nobel Laureate (New York: Basic Books, 1998).

14. Anahad O’Connor, “The Keto Diet Is Popular, but Is It Good for You?” New York Times, August 26, 2019; F. M. Allen. and J. W. Sherrill, “The Use of Insulin in Diabetic Treatment,” Journal of Metabolic Research 2 (1922): 960.

15. Julius Bauer, “Obesity: Its Pathogenesis, Etiology and Treatment,” Archives of Internal Medicine 67, no. 5 (1941): 968.

16. Ehrlich, Experimental Researches, 67–68.

17. Robert E. Forster, “Charles Brenton Huggins (22 September 1901–12 January 1997),” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 143, no. 2 (1999): 326–31.

18. Forster, “Charles Brenton Huggins,” 326–31; Leo Loeb, “Autobiographical Notes.”

19. Mark Woods, Kent Wight, Jehu Hunter, and Dean Burk, “Effects of Insulin on Melanoma and Brain Metabolism,” Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 12, no. 1–2 (1953): 329–46; Mark Woods, Dean Burk, and Jehu Hunter, “Factors Affecting Anaerobic Glycolysis in Mouse and Rat Liver and in Morris Rat Hepatomas,” Journal of the National Cancer Institute 41, no. 2 (August 1968): 267–86.

20. Dean Burk to Otto Warburg, 5 January 1954, 5 January 1965, 29 January 1965, private collection of Frederic Burk.

21. Ken Olsen, “Medal for a Gallant Man: The Vernon Baker Story,” The Spokesman-Review, November 29, 1996.

22. Burk to Warburg, 5 January 1954.

23. Cantley, interview with author.

CHAPTER TWENTY: THE INSULIN HYPOTHESIS

1. Cantley, interview with author; L. C. Cantley et al., “The Phosphoinositide 3-Kinase Pathway,” Science 296, no. 5573 (2002): 1655–57.

2. E. Giovannucci, “Insulin and Colon Cancer,” Cancer Causes & Control 6, no. 2 (March 1995): 164–79; R. Kaaks, “Nutrition, Hormones, and Breast Cancer: Is Insulin the Missing Link?” Cancer Causes & Control 7, no. 6 (November 1996): 605–25; R. Dankner et al., “Effect of Elevated Basal Insulin on Cancer Incidence and Mortality in Cancer Incident Patients,” Diabetes Care 35, no. 7 (2012): 1538–43.

3. .Tetsuro Tsujimoto et al., “Association between Hyperinsulinemia and Increased Risk of Cancer Death in Nonobese and Obese People,” International Journal of Cancer 141, no. 1 (July 1, 2017): 102–11; L. L. Moore et al., “Metabolic Health Reduces Risk of Obesity-Related Cancer in Framingham Study Adults,” Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention 23, no. 10 (October 1, 2014): 2057–65.

4. Mina J. Bissell and William C. Hines, “Why Don’t We Get More Cancer? A Proposed Role of the Microenvironment in Restraining Cancer Progression,” Nature Medicine 17, no. 3 (2011): 320–29; Derek LeRoith, interview with author, December 6, 2016.

5. Michael Pollak, interview with author, September 25, 2017; Vuk Stambolic, interview with author; September 26, 2017.

6. Anna Marie Mulligan et al., “Insulin Receptor Is an Independent Predictor of a Favorable Outcome in Early Stage Breast Cancer,” Breast Cancer Research and Treatment 106, no. 1 (2007): 39–47; Stambolic, interview with author.

7. Stambolic, interview with author.

8. Emily Jane Gallagher and Derek LeRoith, “The Proliferating Role of Insulin and Insulin-Like Growth Factors in Cancer,” Trends in Endocrinology & Metabolism 21, no. 10 (2010): 610–18; Bas ter Braak et al., “Insulin-Like Growth Factor 1 Receptor Activation Promotes Mammary Gland Tumor Development by Increasing Glycolysis and Promoting Biomass Production,” Breast Cancer Research 19, no. 1 (2017): 14.

9. Nicholas Wade, “Ecuadorean Villagers May Hold Secret to Longevity,” New York Times, February 16, 2011.

10. James Johnson et al., “Endogenous Hyperinsulinemia Contributes to Pancreatic Cancer Development,” Cell Metabolism 30, no. 3 (2019): 403–4; James Johnson, email to author, July 25, 2020.

11. Michael Bliss, Banting: A Biography (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993), 212.

12. Cantley, interview with author; Y. Fierz et al., “Insulin-Sensitizing Therapy Attenuates Type 2 Diabetes-Mediated Mammary Tumor Progression,” Diabetes 59, no. 3 (March 1, 2010): 686–93; Gary Taubes, “Cancer Prevention with a Diabetes Pill?” Science 335, no. 6064 (2012): 29.

13. Cantley, interview with author.

14. Otto Warburg, Heavy Metal Prosthetic Groups and Enzyme Action, trans. Alexander Lawson (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1949), 65.

15. Thompson, “Why Don’t We All Get Cancer?”

16. Nick Lane, Oxygen: The Molecule That Made the World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 116.

17. Dang, interview with author.

18. Cantley, interview with author; Y. Poloz and V. Stambolic, “Obesity and Cancer, a Case for Insulin Signaling,” Cell Death & Disease 6, no. 12 (2015); Pollak, interview with author.

19. .Colin Champ, interview with author, December 22, 2016; Heather Christofk, interview with author, March 15, 2019.

20. Siddhartha Mukherjee, “It’s Time to Study Whether Eating Particular Diets Can Help Heal Us,” New York Times Magazine, December 5, 2018; Siddhartha Mukherjee, “The Search for Cancer Treatment beyond Mutant-Hunting,” New York Times Magazine, June 13, 2018.

21. Joana Araújo, Jianwen Cai, and June Stevens, “Prevalence of Optimal Metabolic Health in American Adults: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2009–2016,” Metabolic Syndrome and Related Disorders 17, no. 1 (2019): 46–52.

CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE: SUGAR

1. O. Warburg et al., “The Partial Anaerobiosis of Cancer Cells and the Effects of Roentgen Irradiation on Cancer Cells,” Die Naturwissenschaften 46, no. 2 (1959): 25–29; “Cancer: Poison to Cells,” Der Spiegel, July 30, 1958; Christophe Glorieux and Pedro Buc Calderon, “Catalase, a Remarkable Enzyme: Targeting the Oldest Antioxidant Enzyme to Find a New Cancer Treatment Approach,” Biological Chemistry 398, no. 10 (2017): 1095–1108.

2. Nachmansohn, German-Jewish Pioneers; Richard Veech, email to author, June 8, 2015. Veech was a biochemist who trained under Hans Krebs and made a number of important discoveries about ketone metabolism. He died in 2020.

3. Ostendorf, interview with author.

4. D. A. Cooke and R. K. Scott, The Sugar Beet Crop (Dordrecht: Springer, 1993).

5. Karl-Peter Ellerbrock and Hans-Jürgen Teuteberg, “Pioneering Spadework in the History of the German Food Industry during the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries,” in The Food Industries of Europe in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, ed. Derek J. Oddy and Alain Drouard (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2013); Gary Taubes, “What If Sugar Is Worse Than Just Empty Calories?” BMJ, January 3, 2018; Gary Taubes, The Case against Sugar (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2016).

6. J. H. van’t Hoff, Imagination in Science, trans. G. F. Springer (Berlin: Springer, 1967).

7. Catherine M. Jackson, “Emil Fischer and the ‘Art of Chemical Experimentation,’ ” History of Science 55, no. 1 (2017): 86–120.

8. Graeme K. Hunter, Vital Forces: The Discovery of the Molecular Basis of Life (San Diego: Academic Press, 2000); F. E. Ziegler, “Emil Fischer and the Structure of Grape Sugar and Its Isomers”: ursula.chem.yale.edu/~chem220/STUDYAIDS/history/Fischer/fischer.html; J. Michael McBride, speaking to his class at Yale: openmedia.yale.edu/projects/iphone/departments/chem/chem125b/transcript37.html

9. Robert Plimmer and Violet Plimmer, Food and Health (London: Longmans, Green, 1925).

10. Emerson and Larimore, “Diabetes Mellitus”; Lulu Hunt Peter, “Diet and Health: Overeating and Diabetes,” Los Angeles Times, May 26,1927.

11. .Joslin, Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus, 3rd ed., 1923.

12. McCarrison, “Faulty Food.”

13. John Yudkin, Pure, White, and Deadly (New York: Penguin Books, 2013).

14. Yudkin, Pure, White, and Deadly; Philip Buell, “Changing Incidence of Breast Cancer in Japanese-American Women,” Journal of the National Cancer Institute 51, no. 5 (November 1973): 1479–83; Taubes, Good Calories, Bad Calories; Gary Taubes, “Is Sugar Toxic?” New York Times Magazine, April 13, 2011. American sugar consumption can also be estimated according to the amount of sugar made available by the food industry each year. At the peak of sugar availability in the United States in 1999, the industry made 150 pounds of sugar available for each American—a 34-pound increase from 1970. For more on sugar availability, see https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/crops/sugar-sweeteners/background/.

CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO: THE EVIL TWIN

1. Krebs, Otto Warburg, 67.

2. John L. Sievenpiper, “Fructose: Back to the Future?” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 106, no. 2 (2017): 439–42.

3. Taubes, “Is Sugar Toxic?”

4. Kimber L. Stanhope et al., “Consuming Fructose-Sweetened, Not Glucose-Sweetened, Beverages Increases Visceral Adiposity and Lipids and Decreases Insulin Sensitivity in Overweight/Obese Humans,” Journal of Clinical Investigation 119, no. 5 (May 1, 2009): 1322–34; Kimber Stanhope on 60 Minutes, April 1, 2012: cbsnews.com/news/is-sugar-toxic-01-04-2012/2.

5. Thomas Jensen et al., “Fructose and Sugar: A Major Mediator of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease,” Journal of Hepatology 68, no. 5 (May 2018): 1063–75; Johanna K. DiStefano, “Fructose-Mediated Effects on Gene Expression and Epigenetic Mechanisms Associated with NAFLD Pathogenesis,” Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 77, no. 11 (2020): 2079–90.

6. Justus von Liebig, Animal Chemistry, or Organic Chemistry in Its Applications to Physiology and Pathology (Cambridge: John Owen, 1842), 80–81.

7. Lewis C. Cantley, “Seeking Out the Sweet Spot in Cancer Therapeutics: An Interview with Lewis Cantley,” Disease Models & Mechanisms 9, no. 9 (2016): 911–16; Cantley, interview with author.

8. Richard Johnson, email to author, April 21, 2020; Richard J. Johnson et al., “Redefining Metabolic Syndrome as a Fat Storage Condition Based on Studies of Comparative Physiology: Fat Storage Condition,” Obesity 21, no. 4 (2013): 659–64.

9. Pollak, interview with author; Taubes, The Case against Sugar.

10. Krebs, Otto Warburg; William Maddock Bayliss, Principles of General Physiology (London: Longmans, 1915), x–xi.

11. Wishart, One in Three; Cantley, “Seeking Out the Sweet Spot”; Elliott Joslin, “The Prevention of Diabetes Mellitus,” Journal of the American Medical Association 76, no. 2 (1921): 79–84.

12. .John Perkins, “Nazi Autarchic Aspirations and the Beet-Sugar Industry, 1933–9,” European History Quarterly 20, no. 4 (October 1990): 497–518; Peter Hayes, From Cooperation to Complicity: Degussa in the Third Reich (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).

13. Ullrich, Hitler: Ascent, 407–8.

14. Proctor, Nazi War, 137; Laura Shapiro, What She Ate: Six Remarkable Women and the Food That Tells Their Stories (New York: Viking, 2017), 155; Linge, With Hitler.

15. Schroeder, He Was My Chief; Frank Thadeusz, “Der F. Hat Gut Gegessen,” Der Spiegel, November 19, 2017; Ohler, Blitzed.

16. Eric E. Conn et al., “Remembering Birgit Vennesland (1913–2001), a Great Biochemist,” Photosynthesis Research 83, no. 1 (January 2005); Vennesland, “Recollections”; Otto Warburg to Dean Burk, 27 December 1955, private collection of Frederic Burk.

17. Vennesland, “Recollections”; Govindjee et al., Discoveries in Photosynthesis, 1222.

18. Otto Warburg to Charles Huggins, 20 June 1970, NL Warburg, 1097, archive of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities; Krebs, Otto Warburg, 90–91.

19. Walter Kempner, “The Durham Connection to Germany,” North Carolina Medical Journal 45, no. 1 (1984): 25–26; Otto Warburg to Walter Kempner, 15 December 1956, 22 November 1956, Stefan George Archive, Stuttgart.

20. Ostendorf, interview with author.

POSTSCRIPT

1. Ernst Jokl, “König der Biochemiker,” MPG Spiegel 6 (1983): 20–22.

2. Ostendorf, interview with author.

3. Henry Harris, The Balance of Improbabilities: A Scientific Life (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 211–212.