1. Grafton, Footnote, 29, shows that footnotes originate partly in quotations because citing sources is one of their earliest functions.
2. Pfeffer, Change of Philomel, 4, and chap. 4.
3. Songs 25 and 26.
4. Ovid, Amores 2.6. Ovid’s poem was in turn parodied by Statius; see Dietrich, “Dead Parrots’ Society.”
5. Meneghetti, Pubblico, 92–93, suggests that the Occitan allegorical narrative Cort d’amor is so saturated with troubadour poetry as to be virtually a cento. The same could be said of the Roman de Flamenca.
6. The expression “secondhand” is from Compagnon’s brilliant La seconde main; ou, Le travail de la citation, as is that of the “work of quotation” (calqued on the “work of mourning”).
7. See notably Boulton, The Song in the Story, which opens: “The practice of quoting songs or song fragments in narrative texts arose first in northern France in the early thirteenth century and remained popular there for another two hundred years.” I use “Northern French” to refer to the language of northern France, a region qualified as “northern French.”
8. Though see Washer, “Paraphrased and Parodied,” for an exemplary case study of Folquet’s “Amors, merce” (155.1).
9. Gruber, Dialektik.
10. Kay, “La seconde main.”
11. Meneghetti, “Il florilegio” and “Les florilèges.”
12. See Meneghetti, “Il florilegio,” 865.
13. The term “solicitation” is used by Compagnon, La seconde main, 26, to refer to the way certain passages of texts call out to be quoted; see below.
14. For doubts on the date and origin of this novas, see Gaunt, “Linguistic Difference.”
15. Francesco da Barberino’s I documenti d’amore, composed in the early fourteenth century (but after Dante), contains ten quotations in original Occitan; see Pillet-Carstens, Bibliographie, xxxiii; and Albertazzi’s edition of Barberino. William of Aragon’s De nobilitate animi contains some seven quotations from six troubadours, paraphrased and adapted into Latin; see Guillelmus de Aragonia, De nobilitate, 35–45.
16. The troubadours are quoted by Jacme March in Lo rauser de la vida gaya, and by Francesc Ferrer in Lo conhort; see Raimon Vidal, Obra poètica, ed. Field, 1:50, for details.
17. Pillet and Carstens, Bibliographie. I use PC numbers as updated in the invaluable Bibliografia elettronica dei trovatori, http://w3.uniroma1.it/bedt/BEdT_03_20/index.aspx (henceforth BEdT).
18. Nineteen manuscript copies not counting excerpts such as those in DcFa (see Appendix 2) and three, perhaps four, formal imitations; see J. H. Marshall, “Pour l’étude.”
19. See Tavani, Raimon Vidal, for an overview of the lyrics.
20. J. H. Marshall, The “Razos de trobar”of Raimon Vidal, 100–105.
21. See Corbellari, La voix des clercs; Bolduc, Medieval Poetics of Contraries; Butterfield, Poetry and Music; Beer, Beasts of Love. On the quotations in Richard de Fournival’s Bestiaire d’amours, see Kay, “La seconde main.”
22. See also Léglu, Multilingalism and Mother Tongue, on the Mediterranean diffusion of Occitan.
23. Derrida, Monolinguisme, 53: “On se figure toujours que celui ou celle qui écrit doit savoir dire je. En tout cas la modalité identificatrice doit être déjà ou désormais assurée: assurée de la langue et dans sa langue.”
24. Ibid., 55: “Il se serait alors formé, ce je, dans le site d’une situation introuvable, renvoyant toujours ailleurs, à autre chose, à une autre langue, à l’autre en général. Il se serait situé dans une expérience insituable de la langue, de la langue au sens large, donc, de ce mot.”
25. French examples have been inventoried by O’Sullivan, “Contrafacture.” For German examples, see Sayce, Medieval German Lyric, 119; and Mertens, “Kontrafaktur,” especially the diagram, 276; Catalan examples are identified by Billy, “Contrafactures.”
26. On the progressive translation of Occitan songs into French in Northern French manuscripts, see Raupach and Raupach, Französierte Trobadorlyrik.
27. Roncaglia, “De quibusdam Provincialibus”; the troubadour most extensively relied on is Folquet de Marselha. However, according to Formisano, “Troubadours, trouvères, Siciliens,” 112–24, evidence points to French influence being in some ways stronger than Occitan on Sicilian lyric.
28. Zingesser, “French Troubadours.”
29. Beyond Catalonia and Aragon we find native courtly poetry springing up in the courts of Castile in the second half of the twelfth century, and in those of Galicia, Portugal, and Leon from the late twelfth to early thirteenth; the emergence of literary Catalan is dated to the fourteenth century; see Alvar, Poesía trovadoresca; Cabré, “Italian and Catalan Troubadours”; Massó Torrents, “La cançó provençal”; Resende de Oliveira, “Surgissement”; Snow, “Iberian Pensinsula.”
30. Rieger, “Relations interculturelles,” proposes that French, German and Occitan lyric poets were most likely to meet, if at all, on crusade.
31. Paterson, World of the Troubadours, 3, 95–96.
32. Paden, “The Troubadours and the Albigensian Crusade.”
33. Among others, Boulton, The Song in the Story; Butterfield, Poetry and Music; Cerquiglini, “Un engin si soutil”; Huot, From Song to Book; Taylor, “Lyric Insertion”; Armstrong and Kay, Knowing Poetry, chap. 5.
34. Such as the ballade by Thomas Paien included by Machaut in the Livre du voir dit or Froissart’s insertion of songs by his patron Wenceslas of Brabant in his Arthurian romance Meliador.
35. Compare Menocal, Shards of Love, in which the author argues that lyric poetry inevitably has its origins in exile.
36. Boulton, The Song in the Story, chaps. 2 and 3.
37. Ibid., p. 2.
38. There is no work of which all manuscripts contain music for all the lyric insertions, but manuscripts of eleven works contain at least some music while there are blank staves in those of thirteen others. In the copies of five other works the lyrics are indicated as different in one way or another: by a rubric; by being written in red; by being underlined in red. See Boulton, The Song in the Story, app. 2.
39. See Ramon Vidal, Obra poètica, ed. Field, 1:51, 63, 65, 66, 68; the copy of So fo e.l tems in fragment r alone stands out in setting out quotations as in the chansonniers, viz., occupying the whole column with no offset initial, and not line by line, the ends of lines of verse being marked by a full stop (ibid., p. 68); also Kay, “How Long Is a Quotation?”
40. Photographs illustrating this practice in Breviari manuscripts can be seen in Kay, “How Long Is a Quotation?”
41. See Lemaire, Introduction à la codicologie, 164; Parkes, Pause and Effect, 22, 27, and plates 7 and 11.
42. Boulton, The Song in the Story, 3, 5.
43. Dallenbach, Le récit spéculaire, 18: “toute enclave entretenant une relation de similitude avec l’oeuvre qui la contient. ” Dallenbach later refines his definition in ways less appropriate to these texts.
44. Orr discusses quotation as an aspect of intertextuality in Intertextuality, chap. 4.
45. Grafton, Footnote, 9.
46. Meyer, Poetics of Quotation, 8.
47. Derrida, “Signature événement contexte,” 381: “Tout signe . . . peut être cité, mis entre guillemets; par là il peut rompre avec tout contexte donné, engendrer à l’infini de nouveaux contextes. . . . Cette citationnalité, cette duplication ou duplicité, cette itérabilité de la marque n’est pas un accident ou une anomalie. . . . Que serait une marque que l’on ne pourrait pas citer? Et dont l’origine ne saurait être perdue en chemin?”
48. Derrida himself is uncharacteristically evasive as to whether there is a difference between quotation and other forms of iteration.
49. Compagnon, La seconde main, 26.
50. Garber, Quotation Marks, 2, drawing on Walter Benjamin.
51. Meneghetti, “Il florilegio,” 865.
52. Marnette, “Ponctuation.”
53. Kay, “How Long Is a Quotation?”
54. Kay, “Knowledge and Truth”; Lacan’s ideas are developed in three successive years (1967–70) of his famous seminar, as recorded in Le séminaire, books 15, 16, and 17.
55. D. V. Smith, Book of the Incipit, 4.
56. Ibid., 6.
57. Ibid.
58. Saïd, Beginnings, 13.
59. Pontalis, Love of Beginnings, 86 (L’amour des commencements, 98: “Quant les mots manquent, c’est qu’à son insu on s’apprête à toucher un autre sol”).
60. Kay, “Poésie.”
61. Saïd, Beginnings, 34.
62. Dragonetti, Mirage des sources, 41: “reconnaître un auteur, en faire l’éloge, le prendre pour guide peut être donc une façon élégante de faire le vide sous le décor de la source.”
63. Analogously the coblas quoted in many of the biographical texts in H are all that we have of the songs in question. In some cases—that of Tibors, for example—they are almost certainly abridgments of longer works, but in others—such as the exchanges with Dalfi—they are probably isolated coblas. Because of the impossibility of distinguishing between the two possibilities, all the verses in the H biographies published in Biographies, ed. Boutière and Schutz, are included in Appendix 1.
64. Eco, “Riflessioni.”
65. Leach, Sung Birds.
66. Carter, Parrot, 8.
67. Boehrer, Parrot Culture, 33; Boehrer’s chaps. 1 and 2 provide a wide-ranging study of the equivocal reception of the parrot in antiquity and the Middle Ages.
68. Le bestiaire, ed. Baker, §27.
69. Compare Caluwé, Du chant, 174–78, for a different valuation of parrots as narrative and nightingales as emblems of the lyric.
1. Grammars are cited by manuscript version and line number from J. H. Marshall, ed., The “Razos de trobar” of Raimon Vidal. Marshall thinks the Razos is Raimon Vidal’s earliest work (lxx), reflecting attitudes “around 1200” (lxxxvi). See Shapiro, “De vulgari eloquentia,” 113–26, for an English translation of the Razos. For critical readings, see Poe, From Poetry to Prose, chap. 4; and Stone, Death of the Troubadour, chap. 1.
2. Burgwinkle, Love for Sale, 149–59.
3. Stone, Death of the Troubadour, 17; Leach, Sung Birds, chap. 1.
4. J. H. Marshall, The “Razos de trobar”of Raimon Vidal, xcvi—xcviii.
5. Expansions of manuscript sigla for the grammars are given in Appendix 17.
6. Terramagnino’s text is closest to the CL version of the Razos, which is probably a later, Italian reworking of the earlier BH redaction.
7. The H copy of the Razos and the R copy of the Regles both contain a number of omissions.
8. Unlike Uc Faidit’s treatise, the transmission of which is uniquely Italian.
9. Kay, “Occitan Grammar.”
10. Cf. the vidas and razos composed on the model of scholastic accessus ad auctores in the decades following (Chapter 3).
11. See J. H. Marshall’s note for the translation of galliardias.
12. Poe, From Poetry to Prose, 77: “Perhaps the most distinctive feature of Vidal’s book is its consolidation of poet and audience as coworkers in an endless process of language refinement.”
13. Kay, “Occitan Grammar,” 56–60.
14. J. H. Marshall, The “Razos de trobar”of Raimon Vidal, xxx—xxxiv, suggests that some of Terramagnino’s misattributions could come from careless consultation of a chansonnier, perhaps D-Da, others from his quoting from memory.
15. Cf. J. H. Marshall, The “Razos de trobar”of Raimon Vidal, lxxx.
16. They are conflated by J. H. Marshall, whose main concern is with establishing the text of the Razos and its relation to the chansonniers; see The “Razos de Trobar” of Raimon Vidal, xxii—xxiii (table 5).
17. See Molinier, Leys d’amors, ed. Anglade, 3:91; cf. Anglade, Etudes, 77; also Swiggers, “La plus ancienne grammaire,” 186.
18. J. H. Marshall amends B at line 203, thereby gaining a quotation; but he counts as one quotation the disjunct lines that I have counted as 7 and 7a so as not to disrupt his numbering. These unattributed lines may be by Raimon Vidal himself, but are not assigned to him by Tavani, ed., Raimon Vidal, whose survey of Raimon Vidal’s lyrics is the most complete, nor by Field.
19. See Washer, “Paraphrased and Parodied.”
20. He does not provide incipits for Bernart de Ventadorn’s “Can vei la lauzeta mover” (70.43) or “Can par la flors” (70.41) or for Peirol’s “Mout m’entremis de chantar voluntiers” (366.21) or Peire Vidal’s “Ben viu a gran dolor” (364.13), although he quotes from each.
21. Compare RaT #21 with DA #27—#29, all from Bernart de Ventadorn’s “Can vei la lauzeta mover” (70.43);RaT #23—#24 with DA #43, from Folquet de Marselha’s “Ai! quan gen vens et ab quan pauc d’afan” (155.3); and RaT #18—#19 with DA #30—#31, from Giraut de Bornelh’s “Gen m’aten” (242.34); Gaucelm Faidit’s “De faire chansso” (167.18), quoted in RaT only in the CL redaction (#32), is also reprised in DA #34.
22. The only exception is the quotation from Peire Vidal, #25.
23. Jofre is an exception to a growing trend, since from the Ripoll treatises onward (see. J. H. Marshall, The “Razos de trobar”of Raimon Vidal, 100–105) quotation by incipit predominates. See also Chapters 3, 7 and 9.
24. See also Poe, “Cantairitz.”
25. This strategy is brought to a fine art in Matfre Ermengau’s Breviari d’amor, with which the Regles de trobar is roughly contemporary. The Breviari also quotes Aimeric de Peguilhan more than any other troubadour; see Chapter 8.
26. The six songs quoted are 30.23, 70.1, 70.43, 155.3, 242.34, 242.58; 167.18 is also quoted in both the Razos and the late manuscript fragment a2 of So fo.
1. On performance in Abril issia, see Page, The Owl and the Nightingale, 53–60.
2. On Abril issia as ensenhamen, see Monson, Les “ensenhamens” occitans, 90–94; cf. Tavani, Raimon Vidal, 26; on Raimon’s self-promotion, see Francis, “The Joglar as Salesman.”
3. On this section of R, see Zufferey, “La partie non-lyrique”; on a possible link between Abril issia and Guerau de Cabrera’s ensenhamen, see Pirot, Recherches, 206–15. A longer version of So fo is copied alongside Abril issia in R; a shorter version is found in chansonniers L and N; and r, a1 and a2 are isolated fragments (see Appendix 17 for expansions of sigla). I refer to So fo by the incipit in LN adopted by Field, Obra poètica, the edition of reference for this chapter; the novas is also known by its incipit in R, En aquel temps (It was at that time) and as the Judici d’amor (Judgment of love). Arguments for dating rely on references to historical figures within the novas but the latest possible date for either is 1213 (death of Uc de Mataplana); cf. Huchet’s introduction to his edition of Raimon Vidal’s novas in Nouvelles occitanes, 16. Field, Obra poètica, 1:61, proposes “well before 1209” as the most likely for Abril issia; Tavani, Raimon Vidal, 31–45, puts it as early as 1196–1200.
4. Obra poètica, 1:77–115. Field is right, however, that the passages in r and a2 are later additions. The ending in a 2 contains seven quotations not found in any of the other manuscripts, one of which is from a poem by Guillem de Montanhagol that probably postdates Raimon Vidal. The r fragment consists mainly of material not found in other versions and, given its two misattributions to Arnaut Daniel, it is most likely not by the punctilious Raimon Vidal (Obra poètica, 1:117–18).
5. Lee, “ ‘Versi d’amore.’ ” Also, if R is a later redaction of the LN version, it is odd that the R redactor left the quotations in the first part unchanged (contrast the more pervasive divergences between the BH and CL redactions of the Razos de trobar; see Chapter 1).
6. Field’s other main argument for dual authorship is based on his interpretation of the novas’ relation to poems by Raimon de Miraval and Uc de Mataplana, with which I disagree (see below).
7. On attribution and anonymity in the novas, see Field, Obra poètica, 1:117–19 (tables 1 and 2).
8. Also true of the Razos de trobar; see J. H. Marshall, The “Razos de trobar” of Raimon Vidal, xxiii.
9. Both Field and Huchet translate joglars as a singular, whereas I take the plural us to designate a collective: “a troupe of joglars.”
10. For a different account of memory in the novas, see Limentani, L’eccezione, 45–60.
11. Trans. Sharman in her edition of Giraut de Bornelh.
12. “D’aitan me puosc vanar / qu’anc mos hostals petitz / non fon d’elz envazitz; / que.l vei per totz doptar / ni non fes mais honrar / lo volpils ni l’arditz,/ don Mos Seingner chauzitz /si deuria pensar / que non l’es ges pretz ni laus ni bobanz / q’eu, que.m laus d’els, sia de lui clamanz!” (Song 74, 71–80). “I can at least boast that my small house was never invaded by them, for I see it respected by everyone; cowards and brave men alike have never ceased to honor it. And so My distinguished Lord should reflect that it would certainly not be to her credit, her reputation or splendor if I, who praise such men as these, were to complain about her” (Sharman trans., modified).
13. Cf. Poe, “The Meaning of Saber.”
14. R reads luy, emendation from LN.
15. In R at least; the endings of LN and a2 are kinder to the donzela.
16. Cf. Meneghetti’s description, Pubblico, 46–47, of Abril issia as a “discursive mapping of Provençal patronage.”
17. Obra poètica, i:89ff.
18. I use Gouiran’s edition in preference to Paden’s in this chapter for reasons that become clear below. Gouiran identifies this as an early song and describes it (L’amour et la guerre, 1:cxlviii) as a kind of ensenhamen. Paden, Sankovitch, and Stäblein, in their edition of Bertran de Born, Poems, date it later, making it their Song 20.
19. Gouiran, 1:146. Cf. earlier in the same song, where Bertran fiercely criticizes noblemen who use tournaments as a means of self-enrichment. Nichols, “Urgent Voices,” has argued that Bertran is not the gung-ho warlord he is often mistaken for, but a poet whose views on violence reflect church thinking. This would make it highly unlikely that he would favor flouting the Peace of God promulgated by the church.
20. However, in the Paden, Sankovitch, and Stäblein edition of Bertran these lines are interpreted, as they are in Abril issia, as expressing nostalgia for the days before the Peace of God forbade war during Lent and Advent; see also Paden, “Imaginer,” for Bertran’s promotion of violence in war.
21. The line missing in R reads “Sofraita par, e gran non-sens” in a1.
22. For Meneghetti, Pubblico, 144–45, Uc’s verdict here, and in the exchange of sirventes with Raimon de Miraval, affirms class difference between himself and knights like the protagonist, whose obligation is unending service.
1. Meneghetti, Pubblico, 182.
2. Uc signs one version of Bernart de Ventadorn’s vida and implies authorship of the razos for Savaric de Malleo. He features as a character in several other razos and is, of course, the protagonist of his own vida. His most admiring reader is Burgwinkle, Love for Sale, chap. 2.
3. But see Burgwinkle, Love for Sale, 149–59, for the range of meaning of this term.
4. On Uc’s anthology and the da Romano manuscript, see Avalle, Letteratura medievale, 102; and Meneghetti, “Uc de Saint Circ.” On the vidas and razos, see Guida, “Ricerche”; Poe, especially “L’autr’ escrit ”; Burgwinkle, Love for Sale, 5 and chap. 3; Meneghetti, Pubblico, 138–40. On Uc’s possible responsibility for chansonnier H, see Poe, Compilatio. On the date and authorship of the Donatz proensals, see Janzarik, “Uc de St. Circ”; and Burgwinkle, Love for Sale, 136–39. Although J. H. Marshall in his edition of the Donatz dismisses the possibility that its author was Uc de Saint Circ, his disagreement concerns the deciphering of the manuscript not the wider historical arguments.
5. Burgwinkle, “For Love or Money,” 348–49: “As poet, biographer, literary historian, and mythographer, Uc must be accorded his rightful place as the inventor (trobador) of ‘troubadour poetry’ and the ideological trappings with which it came to be associated”; cf. Love for Sale, chap. 2. Guida comments on the ineluctable rise of Uc in “Ricerche,” 92.
6. B might have been copied in the south of France, from an Auvergnac-Venetan source (Zufferey, Recherches, 63), others think it was copied in Italy;E is similarly disputed between Occitania and Italy;R was copied in Occitania;Sg, in which the only prose works relate to Giraut de Bornelh, is Catalan. Avalle (Letteratura medievale, 131–32) contends that all versions of the vidas and razos stem from Italian sources; see in more detail Burgwinkle, Love for Sale, 124–42.
7. Poe, “L’autr’ escrit,” 131–32. There are eighteen razos accompanying Bertran de Born songs in IK, nineteen in F, and several more transmitted in fragments; references in the surviving texts reveal that other Bertran razos existed that have been lost.
8. Minnis and Scott, Medieval Literary Theory, 12; cf. Raban Maur’s definition of the art of grammar as “the science of interpreting the poets” (Meneghetti, Pubblico, 216); see also Egan, “Commentary”; Meneghetti, Pubblico, 207–44; Hunt, “Introductions.”
9. Poe, “Teaching Troubadours”; Kay, “Occitan Grammar,” 48–50.
10. Poe identifies stylistic differences in From Poetry to Prose, 16; in “At the Boundary,” 317, Poe contends that Uc used the term razo only; Burgwinkle, Love for Sale, 4–5, notes that in some manuscripts what are elsewhere distinct vidas and razos are run together.
11. Burgwinkle, Razos, xix: “Some of the texts that are considered vidas by virtue of their adherence to the rhetorical patterns outlined above could, however, be considered razos in that they cite lines from specific poetic compositions.”
12. All references are to Biographies, ed. Boutière and Schutz, in the form Biographies, number and version, page. Only one razo contains no quotation at all (the Sg text of Giraut de Bornelh’s 242.36, Biographies, VIII.C, 49–50), and only one contains only one quotation not from the beginning of any song (Bertran de Born, razo to 80.8, XI.S, 134–35), though several contain more than one quotation from within songs and only one incipit.
13. E.g., the razo to Peire Vidal 364.2, 364.36, 364.37 and 364.48, found in different versions in H and EN2PRe (Biographies, LVII.B, 356–67).
14. Maria de Ventadorn, Lombarda, Tibors.
15. See Biographies, IX, 58–61; VII, 32–35; VI.B, 26–28; III.A, 10–11; XXXIX, 263–66; XL, 267–70; LXVIII, 441–44. The others are the relatively unknown Garin d’Apchier, inventor (according to his vida) of the descort, Biographies, LIII, 343–44; and Bonifaci Calvo/Bertolome Zorzi, Biographies, C.B, 576–78.
16. Meneghetti, Pubblico, 226; for examples of Ovidian accessus containing quotations, see Minnis and Scott, Medieval Literary Theory, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 29.
17. Biographies, XVII.B, 161–66; cf. Poe, “At the Boundary.”
18. Biographies, C.B, 576–78.
19. The razos in P are followed by the quotation of a stanza, not the whole poem or just the incipit, a trait that links them with coblas triadas (of which there is also a collection in P); cf. Chapter 4.
20. That of Ferrarino da Ferrara in Dc, Biographies, CI, 580, is too late to be by Uc.
21. Poe, “L’Autre Escrit,” 124.
22. Cf. Boutière, “Quelques observations.”
23. I is also examined by Poe in From Poetry to Prose, chap. 5. The makeup of I and K has been scrupulously documented by Meliga, Bibliothèque nationale, in the series “Intavulare.”
24. Graphies of I, fo. 177v.
25. Cf. Poe’s observation (From Poetry to Prose, 16) that vidas are written in the third person in historic tenses and take as their horizon the lyric corpus, whereas razos include traces of present tenses and the first person, and their horizon includes other compositions like themselves.
26. D, 6r: “Haec sunt inceptiones cantionum de libro qui fuit domini Alberici et nomina repertorum eorum cantionum” (Here are the beginnings of the songs from Lord Alberico’s book and the names of their authors).
27. See Avalle, Letteratura medievale, 91, for a typology of how chansonniers are ordered; he classes IK as “cronologico-estetico,” an order whereby the most important troubadours are presented in some kind of historical order.
28. The images of troubadours in chansonniers I and K (and consequently the presentation of their vidas) can be seen on the Mandragore website of the Bibliothèque Nationale de France; see also Meneghetti, Pubblico, chap. 7; Peters, Das Ich im Bild.
29. Did thirteenth-century poets exploit this new resonance, for instance in Aimeric de Peguilhan’s exchange with Folquet de Marselha about good and bad beginnings (comensamen) and good and bad endings (fenimen)? See Mancini, “Aimeric de Peguilhan,” 59–60.
30. Argument brilliantly explored by Galvez, Songbook.
31. Limentani, L’eccezione, 243, suggests that one reason why lyrics do not feature in the catalog of works performed at Flamenca’s wedding in the eponymous romance is that they have neither titles nor the kind of episodic content that can be cited in a list.
32. Derrida, “Signature événement contexte,” 381; cf. Introduction.
33. There are a few troubadours with no accompanying vida toward the end of the canso section.
34. Later on, I and K both include in their canso section the vidas containing quotations of incipits for Raimon Jordan and Bertolome Zorzi, and K has in addition the vida for Marcabru in which the quotation is not an incipit; Garin d’Apchier, a vida that quotes an incipit, is included among the tensos in IK.
35. See the commentary on this vida by Meneghetti, Pubblico, 237f.
36. Two lines are quoted rather than one in the vida in ABER a. In P, readers are helped by the inclusion of the entire first strophe.
37. The version in A is more explicit, saying that Peire “fetz los meillors sons de vers que anc fosson faich e.l vers que ditz ‘Dejostal.s . . .’ ” (composed the best melodies that were ever made, and the vers that goes “Alongside . . .”). For text and discussion, see Gruber, Dialektik, 24–25.
38. “Al poco giorno e al gran cerchio d’ombra,” Dante, Rime, 7; the editor’s note to this line does no more than indicate the similarity between poco giorno and Peire d’Alvernha’s breus iorns. See Bondanella, “Arnaut Daniel,” 418–20, for reservations about Dante’s debt to Arnaut in this song.
1. Dc has been consulted in Teulié and Rossi’s transcription, “L’anthologie provençale”; and in Il canzoniere provenzale estense, introd. Avalle and Casamassima.
2. Meneghetti, “Il florilegio,” 854, substitutes this number for Teulié and Rossi’s 223, in which #42 conflates two different songs by Aimeric de Peguilhan, 10.14 and 10.18; #93 combines two texts by Peirol, 366.22 and 366.6; and #212 comprises two quotations from Bernart de la Barta, 58.2 and 58.1. These corrections are integrated in the BEdT (which, however, retains Teulié and Rossi’s numbering) and in Appendix 2, where both are included in entries dealing with their respective interlocutors, Arman (25.1a) in the case of 58.1 and Guillem Peire de Cazals (227.7) in that of 58.2, since the interlocutor’s words are the first to be quoted.
3. Biographies, CI, 581: “E fe[s] un estrat de tutas las canços des bos trobador[s] del mon; e de chadaunas canços o serventes tras .i. cobla o .ii. o .iii.. aqelas qe portan la[s] sentenças de las cansos e o son tu[i]t li mot triat.”
4. Washer, “Paraphrased and Parodied,” 568.
5. Meneghetti, “Les floriléges,” 44.
6. Cf. Garber, Quotation Marks, 2.
7. Compagnon, La seconde main, 26.
8. Fa is consulted from Stengel, Blumenlese; and Cm from Allegri, “Frammento.”
9. H, transcribed by Careri, Il canzoniere, chap. 6. I also consulted the edition and translation by Poe, Compilatio, chaps. 6 and 7. The part of H that contains this anthology is designated H3.
10. Numerals in angle brackets < > identify the twenty-six sections set off by a rubric within H #167. Not included in this total is the exchange of coblas between the Count of Rodez and Uc de Sant Circ, which is not viewed as part of the anthology by Careri; see below.
11. A Northern French analogue, though not an exact equivalent, to this systematic abridgment of stanzas in H is the practice of abbreviating refrains in manuscript copies of chansons avec des refrains and forme fixe lyrics. Modern scholars are not always certain exactly how to reconstruct the full form of the texts from the “etcetera” to which they are abridged.
12. See transcriptions in Bertoni, Il canzoniere (for G); and Stengel, “Studi” (for J); the G florilegium is on fos. 128v—130v and contains thirty-three items; that of J is on fos. 12v—14v and contains seventy-four items.
13. Careri, Il canzoniere, 296–97.
14. Meneghetti, “Les florilèges,” 48–52.
15. Ibid., 5i—52.
16. Meneghetti, “Il florilegio,” 864.
17. Ibid., 865.
18. Is it possible that Uc Brunenc, a relatively late troubadour whose career was contemporary with quotation as a widespread practice, composed with quotation and excerption in mind?
19. The lone example of a song by Peire d’Alvernha in Appendix 2 (“Abanz qe.il blan puoi sion vert,” 323.1) is misattributed to Peire Rogier.
20. Meneghetti, “Il florilegio,” 867.
21. Whereas Sordello is anthologized within Dc, a collection of songs by him immediately prefaces the anthology of stanzas in F.
22. Careri, Il canzoniere, 297, notes that the coblas in H <19>–<23> are all quoted at least in part by Matfre; and Poe, Compilatio, 231–33, demonstrates differences in content between the commentaries in the two cases.
23. Quoted from Poe, Compilatio, 209–10; my translation.
24. Such antifeminism is typical of H. In <5>, for instance, the prose says bullyingly, “This stanza is about a lover who says to his lady that if there is some reason why he is not a suitable lover for her, it will be an honor to her if she accepts his homage,” while the stanza following, once restored in full, requires of the lover at least that he demonstrate good will to the lady and is far more circumspect in the burdens it places on her. The prose introduction to <7> states baldly, “This stanzas shows that a lady ought to love the knight who is in love with her,” when the stanza in question recommends the social and personal benefits of bon’ amor. See also Armstrong and Kay, Knowing Poetry, 117–18, with reference to Folquet de Marselha 155.i6, H <23>.
25. Quotations in the Breviari are referred to by the numbers assigned to them by the text’s editor, Peter. T. Ricketts, see in particular Appendix 11.
26. Washer, “Paraphrased and Parodied.”
27. Ibid., 569.
28. “A vos volgra metre lo veit qe.m pent” (461.35), G #255; see Washer, “Paraphrased and Parodied,” 579.
29. It stands next to stanza 2 of Raimon de Miraval’s “Amors me fai chantar et esbaudir” (406.4), likewise also anthologized in H.
1. Guillaume de Dole is imitated ca. 1230 by Gerbert de Montreuil in the Roman de la violette, the Occitan insertions in which are included in Appendix 1; an Occitanized insertion is also found in the later La cour de paradis. There are textual allusions to the troubadours, and even quotations from them, in at least two other Northern French romances that do not practice insertion: the Bestiaire d’amours of Richard de Fournival (see Kay, “La seconde main”) and Joufroi de Poitiers. For a broader study of the treatment of Occitan lyric in Northern French romances and manuscripts, see Zingesser, “French Troubadours.”
2. Lecoy’s inventory is in his edition of Guillaume de Dole, xxiii—xxix; see Boulton, “Lyric Insertions,” and Van der Werf, “Jean Renart,” for qualifications.
3. Zink, “Suspension,” questions whether noter in the prologue means that the text was ever intended to be transmitted with music; though see Butterfield’s reservations about his conclusions, Poetry and Music, 19–22.
4. Aside from lyric insertion, this has been the most studied feature of the romance.
5. Baldwin, Aristocratic Life, chap. 2, concludes on the basis of historical reference in the text and the identity of the dedicatee that “the years immediately following 1209 appear to be the most likely time of the work’s composition” (49). His “ ‘Once There Was an Emperor’ ” confirms this dating; Butterfield, Poetry and Music, 314–15 n. 8, also favors 1210. Many scholars favor the later date of 1228; see Paden, “Old Occitan,” 36 n. 1. Supporting the later dating are the (in my view, convincing) arguments that place Guillaume de Dole after the Lai de l’ombre, and date the Lai de l’ombre to 1218–19.
6. Paden, “Old Occitan.”
7. Baldwin, “ ‘Once There Was an Emperor.’ ”
8. See Toch, “Welfs, Hohenstaufen and Habsburgs,” 375–92; Abulafia, “Kingdom of Sicily,” 497–506; on troubadours and the Guelf-Ghibelline hostilities, see Bossy, “L’art belliqueux.”
9. Boulton, “Lyric insertions,” 87: “the verb chanter occurs twenty-eight times, while less explicit verbs such as commencer, recomencer, and dire are usually qualified by nouns such as chant, chançon, or chançonete.” In addition, two of the Occitan songs are introduced simply as sons, “tunes” (##16, 45).
10. Appendix 6, ##11, 17, 19, 21, 22, 27, 28, 32, 33, 39, and 40.
11. Appendix 6, ##1–10, 23–26, 29, 37–38, 43–48.
12. Zink, “Suspension,” 114–17.
13. Butterfield, Poetry and Music, 27, suggests that the romance is a kind of early chansonnier.
14. Nine exordia mention birds or birdsong, in three cases nightingales (Appendix 6, ## 11, 12, 16, 20, 22, 31, 41, 45, 46). Other sounds of nature—most often the noise of a running spring or the waves on a seashore—are implied in many of the more popular lyric pieces, especially those with a “la jus” type of beginning.
15. Jones, “Uses of Embroidery,” 36; cf. Jewers, “Fabric and Fabrication,” 908–9.
16. The red color may also evoke the practice of copying lyric insertions in red ink, as occurs in manuscripts of the Violette, though not, as it happens, in the surviving manuscript of Guillaume de Dole.
17. Jewers, “Fabric and Fabrication,” 912. The disjunction, originally noted by Gaston Paris, has been interpreted in different ways by Baumgartner, “Citations”; Huot, From Song to Book, 111–13; Butterfield, Poetry and Music, 66–70. It has received widespread feminist and more recently queer interpretations; see, for example, Krueger, Women Readers, 128–55; Ramm, “A Rose.”
18. Baumgartner, “Citations,” 262, speaks of the sidelining of the Occitan songs and Renart’s attempt to situate Conrad as the new Chastelain de Couci.
19. See Rosenstein, “Translation,” 337–38.
20. Raupach and Raupach, Französierte Trobadorlyrik, 134–35, document the Gallicization of this stanza in various langue d’oïl contexts.
21. Also in Dc; see Appendix 2.
22. Only a third of the songs inserted into Guillaume de Dole are integrated metrically, most of them grands chants; see Appendix 6.
23. See Appendix 6, ##18, 36, 37, 41, 45, 46. Of these, #18, Renaut de Beaujeu (Rhône), is described by Jean Renart as being from the region of Reims.
24. For example, by means of an acrostic in the final lines of Guillaume de Dole and L’Escoufle; see Dragonetti, Mirage des sources, 156–8.
25. Faral, “Les chansons de toile.” Zink, Belle, 1–12, accepts that the archaism of the chansons de toile is illusory but does believe them to preexist the text; Dragonetti, Mirage, 154, casts doubt on the authenticity of the epic fragment; however, Baumgartner, “Citations,” 264, sees in Lienor the living spirit of historic French song, as opposed to the fantasy mode of the male-authored canso.
26. Appendix 6, ## 4, 7–10, 19, 21, 25, 26, 33, 41, 44, 47.
27. Appendix 6, ## 5, 13–15, 23.
28. Appendix 6, ## 1, 3, 42.
29. See Paden, “Old Occitan,” 46–47.
1. The suggestion that the bird is a jay is put forward by Gaunt, “Linguistic Difference.” Other scholars see it as a parrot. Like other medieval parrots, the jeai comes from India and its plumage is that of a parrot not a European jay. Gaunt also suggests that the tale may be thirteenth century and Occitan (but transmitted in Catalan copies), rather than Catalan and fourteenth century as generally thought.
2. Thiolier-Méjean, “Le motif du perroquet”; Boehrer, Parrot Culture, 7, 26–33.
3. See Caluwé, Du chant, 178. For more on parrots in general, see Boehrer, Parrot Culture, especially chaps. 1 and 2; and Carter, Parrot.
4. Thiolier-Méjean, “Le motif du perroquet” and “Le langage du perroquet.”
5. Derrida, Monolinguisme, 47: “Je n’ai qu’une langue et ce n’est pas la mienne, ma langue propre m’est une langue inassimilable. Ma langue, la seule que je m’entende parler et m’entende à parler, c’est la langue de l’autre.”
6. Limentani, L’eccezione, 61.
7. Lee, “Versi d’amore.”
8. Texts are quoted as follows: R from the edition by Huchet, Nouvelles occitanes; DGJ from the transcriptions/facsimiles generated (for D) by Avalle and Casamassima, eds., Il canzoniere, D, fo. 216r, cols. a—b; (for G) by Bertoni, Il canzoniere, especially 424–27, 391–93; and (for J) by Stengel, “Studi,” 36–39; my source for π is Wesselofsky, “Un nouveau texte.”
9. See Zufferey, “La partie non-lyrique.”
10. Copied in the region of Toulouse in the first quarter of the fourteenth century.
11. Zufferey, “La partie non-lyrique,” 22.
12. Lee, “Versi d’amore”; Zufferey thinks it may have been copied in Nîmes (Recherches, 189–97).
13. Commune of Laroque-de-Fa; see the introduction to their edition of the novas by Lavaud and Nelli, Les troubadours, 2:214; and for more detail, Nelli, “Arnaut de Carcassès.”
14. Cf. Coulet, “Sur la nouvelle,” which contends that the original form of the novas is that of J without this final salut; Zufferey, “La partie non-lyrique,” 8, refers to the R version as reworked (remaniée) but declines to amplify.
15. This form of reference gives line numbers in R (Huchet’s edition) and then indicates whether these lines are present in other manuscripts.
16. The equivalent lines are absent from G.
17. Only parts of this speech are found in π.
18. Variants for this passage imply that the parrot’s slanders in JG will be confined to the facts, but in R only by what it is capable of inventing.
19. Huchet here reorders the lines in conformity with JG. This passage falls after the end of the π excerpt.
20. Carter, Parrot, 8.
21. I thank Elena Russo for this suggestion.
22. While many have noted the parrot’s role as bird messenger familiar from lyric, perhaps with Oriental antecedents, the link has been overlooked with clerk-knight debates in which the knight is championed by a parrot and the clerk by a nightingale. In such debates, the clerk usually wins and the knight seems gaudy and shallow: a possible implication of the novas’s swaggering opening. There is more deflation of knighthood in R; in J, the protagonist appears predominantly as a courtier and suitor.
23. The view that the salut is an independent text is defended by Coulet, “Sur la nouvelle,” 293.
24. Both are also in the nonlyric section of R.
25. Likewise in the nonlyric section of R.
26. Lee, “Versi d’amore.”
27. Thiolier-Méjean, “Le langage du perroquet,” 273–74.
1. Gruber, Dialektik, 118–42; Meneghetti, Pubblico, 89.
2. Gruber, Dialektik, 104 n. 2.
3. Asperti in his edition of Raimon Jordan, note to line 1 of this song (Song 7) says we cannot be sure of the order of composition of these two songs.
4. Zemp, Poésies du troubadour Cadenet, 208, notes that the dance is anonymous in the sole manuscript, W, and was attributed to Guiraut d’Espanha by Suchier.
5. Aside from the quotations discussed here, Raimon Jordan’s “Per solatz” does not figure in Appendix 1 or 2, and the same is true of Bernart de Rovenac’s “D’un sirventes m’es grans volontatz preza” (and indeed of any other of this troubadour’s songs).
6. The only two of these songs that do not elsewhere appear in Appendix 1 or 2 are Perdigon, “Ir’ e pezars et dompna ses merce” (370.8), whose imagery overlaps with Jofre’s, and which is elsewhere widely diffused; and Gaucelm Faidit, “Mon cor et mi e mas bonas chansos” (167.37).
7. The only pair among these five that might be contrafacta of one another, and thus share the same music, are Bernart de Rovenac and Luquet Gatelus, which number among twelve formally identical pieces modeled on Peirol’s “M’entencion ai tot’ en un vers mesa” (366.20), a piece anthologized in DcFa.
8. Armstrong, Virtuoso Circle: “The twin mechanisms of collaboration and competition foster ongoing development and innovation, so that the formal and rhetorical intricacy of French poetry steadily increases. Poets in this culture, then, are a circle of virtuosi: they implement these innovations, and thereby master their art, through interaction with each other” (14), thereby producing “a cycle whose iteration reinforces the positive momentum of events” (18).
9. Levy speculates that Bertolome was born between 1230 and 1240 (Troubadour Bertolome Zorzi, 6).
10. Songs 2, 4, 13, 14; 12 has numerous analogues but none with identical rhymes; 14 is a reply to and also a contrafactum of Bonifaci Calvo’s “Ges no m’es greu” (101.7).
11. Levy, Bertolome Zorzi, 13: “mich will es dünken, als wäre ihm das ‘sen cobrir’ nur gar zu gut gelungen.”
12. See Folena, Culture, 106–37 (although he does little more than mention this text).
13. Manuscripts of songs that quote verbatim from other songs do not mark the quotation in any way, unlike the practices observed in other genres.
14. I use “drag” here in the sense theorized by Butler, e.g., in “Imitation.”
15. Van der Werf, Extant Troubadour Melodies, 248–50.
16. Details in Massó Torrents, “A propos.”
17. See Riquer, Los trovatores, 3:1648. Massó Torrents, “A propos,” adds a comic exchange on the subject of food of which the first cobla is rubricated “Hoc dicit monachus de Fuxano.”
18. Quotation #8, also found as #11 in the Razos de trobar (see Appendix 4).
19. See the edition of Gace Brulé by Dyggve, 55–62; and Dyggve,”Trouvères et protecteurs,” 66–74; see also the opposing argument by F. Marshall, “Blondel.” The longer version is preserved in trouvère chansonniers IKMNPTX.
20. Gilles’s song is quoted from F. Marshall, “Blondel,” 10–16; and checked against Dyggve, “Trouvères et protecteurs,” 70–72.
21. Frank, “La chanson ‘Lasso me,’ ” 265–66.
22. Analecta hymnica, vol. 21, hymn 25; Perugi, Trovatori, 231–32 n. 7, identifies this hymn as a kind of sirventes composed for the expedition of Louis le Gros in 1127; see also Gruber, Dialektik, 108.
23. Gruber, Dialektik, 107; cf. Frank, “La chanson ‘Lasso me,’ “ 267: “Ces hymnes à citations ambrosiennes, nous les retrouvons tout au long du xiiie siècle, de Thomas a Capua (d. 1243), à travers les Carmina Burana . . . et un grand nombre d’exemples anonymes, rassemblés surtout au t. XXII des inépuisables Analecta Hymnica, jusqu’au cardinal Jacopo Gaetani de’ Stefani, contemporain de Pétrarque, et qui mourut en 1343 à Avignon.”
24. “Mit sange wānde ich mīne sorge krenken”; see Sayce, Medieval German Lyric, 15, 119.
25. Poèmes de Gaucelm Faidit, ed. Mouzat, Song 29, p. 244; Frank, Répertoire, #301:2; Jofre’s “Be m’a lonc temps menat a guisa d’aura” is Frank, Répertoire, #301:3.
26. Frank, Répertoire, #301:1.
27. Frank, “La chanson ‘Lasso me,’ ” 264; Gruber, Dialektik, 111, also notes that Jofre’s stanza V has the same rhyme as Gace Brulé’s opening stanzas.
28. See Tischler, Trouvère Lyrics, vol. 1, #30; Van Os, “Structure mélodique,” studies the text-melody relation with regard to the majority form of the music in trouvère chansonniers KLMNOX.
29. Frank, “La chanson ‘Lasso me,’ ” 262: “Le troubadour catalan a fait preuve de beaucoup d’aisance et d’habilité techniques dans la façon très naturelle dont il a incorporé ses citations à la pensée. . . . Faire de ces mots le sujet de phrases nouvelles, qu’ils termineront au lieu de les commencer comme dans leur contexte primitif, ce jeu des renversements syntactiques devait ajouter son grain de sel littéraire à la réussite du moine de Foixà.”
30. Kay, “Poésie.”
31. Orr, Intertextuality, 133.
1. Breviari, 33319–27, quotation #230.
2. Most scholars identify the perilhos tractat with the entire discussion of sexual love. I do not, because of the passage 17611–21 in which Matfre indicates that the “peril” extends up to the “goodness” of the treatment of the tree. For more detail, see Kay, “L’arbre et la greffe.”
3. If the Breviari’s quotations are thought of as composing a florilegium, then it is longer than the longest known one of 226 items in Dc (see Chapter 4). Ricketts’s edition numbers quotations up to #267. The same line from Peire Cardenal 335.11 is quoted twice, once as part of #265 and again as #266. Similarly the lines from Raimon de Miraval 406.7 which are quoted as #137 are quoted again as part of #108. Richter, Troubadourzitate, identifies 266 quotations; she accords separate numbers to the duplicated passages from Peire Cardenal and Raimon de Miraval, but omits #177. Ricketts, “Une nouvelle citation,” has since identified another possible quotation beginning at line 34262, which he suggests may be by Peire Cardenal. All manuscripts mark some quotations but not all the manuscripts mark all quotations, and certain quotations are not identified in any; see Kay, “How Long Is a Quotation?”
4. Lacan, Le séminaire, livre XVI, 39.
5. Armstrong and Kay, Knowing Poetry, 112–16.
6. See Fasseur, “Mort et salut” and “Une expérience”; I have also benefited from Bolduc, Medieval Poetics of Contraries, chap. 2, and “Naming Names”; and from Nicholson, “Branches of Knowledge.”
7. Kay, “L’arbre et la greffe.”
8. Fasseur, “Mort et salut,” 431, speaks of “citer pour régénerer.”
9. Kay, “How Long Is a Quotation?”
10. One of the Aimeric extracts, #129, is quoted anonymously, and one (#42) that is attributed to Aimeric by Matfre is in fact by Guiraut de Salaignac (249.1); we encounter this passage again in Chapter 9. The only Aimeric quotations to occur outside the perilhos tractat are ##173, 227, 253, and 257.
11. Nicholson, “Branches of Knowledge,” 381–82. After Aimeric the next most frequently quoted poet in the whole of the Breviari is Bernart de Ventadorn, named as the author of fifteen quotations (and who is also responsible for two that are misattributed: one to Guiraut de Quentinhac, another to Peire Vidal). Bernart is followed by Peire Vidal with fifteen citations (though one belongs to Bernart de Ventadorn) and Folquet de Marselha with eleven (plus #92, ascribed erroneously to Perdigon).
12. Song 40, lines 35–40, in the edition by Shepard and Chambers.
13. Shepard and Chambers, Poems of Aimeric de Peguilhan, 3: “Aimeric’s poems are consistently noble in thought, if sometimes pedestrian in expression.”
14. See Nicholson, “Branches of Knowledge”; and, for the phenomenon of prequotation in the Breviari generally, Kay, “How Long Is a Quotation?” and “Knowledge and Truth.”
15. The attribution to Aimeric is erroneous; see note 10 above.
16. Song 15, in Shepard and Chambers ed.
17. Song 8, in Shepard and Chambers ed.
18. 1 John 2:16: “For all that is in the world, the lust of the flesh, and the lust of the eyes, and the pride of life, is not of the Father, but is of the world.”
19. Song 8, lines 28–29, according to Shepard and Chambers, Poems of Aimeric de Peguilhan, 77, “one of the best-known expositions of the medieval theory of the origin of ‘courtly love.’ ”
20. The song is preserved in seventeen manuscripts and the editors do not signal any variation in stanza order.
21. Song 8, line 33; the editors read “Adoncas prend veray’ Amors nasquensa,” but valensa not nasquensa is found in chansonniers CEGQR.
22. It is also worth signaling that three of four quotations from Garin lo Brun’s ensenhamen fall in the conselhs, and that here too Matfre favors songs by members of his own family.
23. For sigla, see Appendix 17;N can be consulted in facsimile; the illuminations in M are reproduced by Laske-Fix, Bildzyklus.
24. The “better” manuscripts are G, I, M, and N; see Richter, Troubadourzitate, 66–106, especially 106; also Ricketts, “Le problème du manuscrit H”; Ferrando, “El Breviari d’amor.”
25. Those in N are exceptionally developed, occupying most of 199v and all of 200r. Laske-Fix catalogs this scene in M as #137 and identifies the scenarios where the devil seduces courtly lovers as (a) pleasure, (b) clothes and weapons, (c) vanity, (d) falconry, (e) feasting, (f) tournaments, (g) battles, (h) dancing, (i) women’s beckoning, concluding with (j) the devil wins the lover’s soul.
26. Laske-Fix, Bildzyklus, does not mention the marginal devils in M.
27. 225.11 and 225.13.
28. 406.20, 293.32, 163.I (Garin lo Brun’s ensenhamen), 293.15 quoted twice, 364.43.
29. 375.27, 155.16.
30. See quotations 172 (461.210), 175 (461.98), 177 (unidentified; see Ricketts’s edition, li), 179 (461.123b), 184 (461.21), 207 (461.132), 211 (461.32), 212 (461.227), 230 (461.245a, since identified as an excerpt of Raimon Vidal’s Abril issia, quoted anonymously), 237 (461.91), 241 (461.48), 263 (unidentified; see Ricketts’s edition, V: 32).
31. Richter, Troubadourzitate, 113.
32. Song 43 in Avalle ed.; it is also quoted as #105 in Matfre’s response to lovers complaining about women, making it the Breviari’s most quoted song.
33. Kay, “L’arbre et la greffe”; Armstrong and Kay, Knowing Poetry, 118–20.
34. Did Jofre de Foixà know the Breviari? There is a resemblance between the grammarian’s quotation of Aimeric de Peguilhan alongside Solomon to imply that he shares their wisdom, and Matfre’s similar juxtaposition of himself, Aimeric, and Solomon, 28020–39, also underlining their common conviction that the virtuous should persevere in good works even when vilified.
35. Ricketts’s identification of a quotation at 34262 (“Une nouvelle citation”) interrupts the sequence, coming between #262 and #263, unless, as Ricketts suggests, it is also by Peire Cardenal; see also note 3.
36. Poésies complètes de Peire Cardenal, ed. Lavaud, Song 69, note to these lines.
37. Lavaud also mentions earlier conjectures linking the song to the death of Baudouin of Toulouse in 1214 (Poésies complètes de Peire Cardenal, 458, note).
38. Armstrong and Kay, Knowing Poetry, 166.
1. Quotations from De vulgari eloquentia are from Botterill’s edition, with minor modifications to his translation, notably as regards the Occitan, where all translations are my own. Quotations from the Commedia are from Durling’s edition, with the same provisos.
2. Shapiro, De vulgari eloquentia, 99–100; Perugi, “Arnaut Daniel in Dante.”
3. In florilegia, 9.14, 10.50, 29.17, 29.18, 155.22, 242.72, 242.73; in vidas or razos, 80.29, 242.55, 242.73.
4. Five of the incipits he quotes, for instance, are inserted into the biographical compilations in manuscript N2: 155.22, 242.17, 242.55, 242.72, 242.73. N2 dates from the sixteenth century, but may copy an earlier model; for reservations about its standing, see Poe, “A Re-evaluation.”
5. Editions of “Dante’s troubadours” containing the whole texts of the songs from which Dante quotes (like Monaci, Poesie and Chaytor, Troubadours) distort the range of his potential sources, both exaggerating and reducing them.
6. Bergin, “Dante’s Provençal Gallery,” 23–24; Barolini, Dante’s Poets, 98–100, 108–19, 175–76.
7. Bergin, “Dante’s Provençal Gallery,” 22–23. Scholars of Dante usually claim Arnaut as a poet of trobar clus, but see Peirone’s useful corrective (“Il ‘trobar leu’ di Arnaut Daniel”). Arnaut does not adhere to any stylistic school, but the terms that best qualify his compositions are prim and car rather than clus.
8. While the reference in De vulgari 1.2.7 to the magpies of Ovid, Metamorphoses, book 5, seems negative, Dante concedes the value of intelligent copying in Purgatorio 26.58–60, where the pilgrim is told that his pen follows dictation better than that of his predecessors.
9. Derrida, Monolinguisme, 46: “il n’y a jamais d’appropriation ou de réappropriation absolue. Parce qu’il n’y a pas de propriété naturelle de la langue, celle-ci ne donne lieu qu’à de la rage appropriatrice, à de la jalousie sans appropriation . . . rappelons d’un mot, en passant, que ce discours sur l’ex-appropriation de la langue, plus précisément de la ‘marque,’ ouvre à une politique, à un droit et à une éthique.”
10. Derrida, “Signature événement contexte,” 381: “possibilité de prélèvement et de greffe citationnelle qui appartient à la structure de toute marque, parlée ou écrite.”
11. J. H. Marshall, The “Razos de trobar”of Raimon Vidal, 100–105.
12. Compare Grafton, Footnote, 13: “Jacob Thomasius offered a neat taxonomy of the wrong forms of citation as early as 1673. Some authors ‘say nothing, at the most significant point, about one whom they then cite only on a point of no or little importance.’ Wickeder ones ‘take the most careful precautions never to mention [their source] at all.’ And the wickedest ‘mention him only when they disagree with or criticize him.’ ”
13. See also Marchesi, Dante, 38–40, for a thoughtful reading of Dante’s project at this point.
14. Heller-Roazen, Echolalias, 225–26.
15. Mancini, “Aimeric de Peguilhan,” documents the beginnings of Arnaldian imitation in northern Italy in the first half of the thirteenth century; Perugi, Trovatori, 240, suggests that the late thirteenth century in Rodez was a period of Arnaldian imitation; Di Girolamo and Siviero, “Da Orange,” speak of an Arnaldian fashion extending into Catalonia; see also Chapter 11.
16. Though in the manuscripts they are not enumerated consecutively in 2.6.6 as they are in editions. See Pfeffer, “A Note On Dante.”
17. E.g., in 2.10, where he claims to have imitated Arnaut’s use of the oda continua form in “Al poco giorno e al gran cerchio d’ombra”; or 2.13, where he likewise cites Arnaut as his model for the use of rims estramps. See also Bondanella, “Arnaut Daniel.”
18. In manuscript copies of 2.6.6, however, the first-named troubadour Giraut de Bornelh is followed by the French Thibaut de Champagne, who thereby interrupts the sequence of troubadours. See Pfeffer, “A Note On Dante.”
19. See Dante’s editors’ notes to this line, Divine Comedy, 1:448; and Boutière and Schutz, eds., Biographies, IX, 65.
20. Boutière and Schutz, eds., Biographies, LXXI, 470. The way Folquet is used in the Breviari may also have prepared the way for Dante’s reading. Matfre quotes him in the plags, the conselhs, and the tree of knowledge (illustrating humility), successfully transforming him from a somewhat peevish troubadour who was unhappy in love to a promoter of love’s supreme value, regardless of the defects of individual lovers. See Chapter 4; Washer, “Paraphrased and Parodied,” 253–55; Armstrong and Kay, Knowing Poetry, 117.
21. While it is true that Arnaut names himself in most of his songs, the formula “I am Arnaut” occurs in “En cest sonet” alone and is therefore not “typical of the troubadour” (pace N. B. Smith, “Arnaut Daniel,” 101). Although for Hayes, “Arnaut Daniel,” 128, it is obvious that Dante is referring to the tornada, this does not seem to be universally accepted; even for Hayes, Dante is guided more by the song itself than the quotation in the vida. My translation brings out the contrastive meaning of e (not “and” but “yet”); the analogues suggested by N. B. Smith, “Arnaut Daniel,” 103–4, and Hayes, “Arnaut Daniel,” 130, are helpful.
22. To list only instances from Purgatorio: 3.112–13, “Io son Manfredi, / nepote di Costanza imperadrice”; 5.88, “io fui di Montefeltro, io son Bonconte”; 6.74–75, “O Mantoano, io son Sordello / de la tua terra”; 7.7, “Io son Virgilio”; 9.55, “I’ son Lucia”; 11.67, “Io sono Omberto”; 14.81, “io fui Guido del Duca.” A variant form occurs in 5.133, “ricorditi di me, che son la Pia.”
23. E.g., Paradiso 3.49–51, “i’ son Piccarda / che . . . beata sono”; and cf. Inferno 23.118–20.
24. On this “turn of the voice” of the tornadas of twelfth-century troubadour songs in relation to their previous content, see Peraino, Giving Voice, chap. 1, especially 33–50,
25. See Perugi’s note to these lines in his edition of Arnaut Daniel.
26. Topsfield, Troubadours and Love, 210–11.
27. Mozely’s translation modified.
28. Song 47, in Poems of Aimeric de Peguilhan, ed. Shepard and Chambers.
29. 305.16, Song 18, ed. Routledge, 43–48: “Ab Arnaut Daniel son set, / Qu’a sa vida be no cantet, / Mas us folhs motz qu’om non enten; / Pus la lebr’ ab lo bou casset / E contra suberna nadet, / No val ses chans un aguillen.” (“That makes seven with Arnaut Daniel, who never sang well in his whole life, but only a bunch of foolish words no one can understand. His singing hasn’t been worth a hip, ever since he hunted the hare with the ox and swam against the tide.”)
30. Menocal, Writing, 102–4, is right to point out that the phrase “better wordsmith” is hardly fulsome and may be depreciative; N. B. Smith, “Arnaut Daniel,” 106–7, points out the universality of the Occitan speech given to Arnaut: it echoes many troubadours, maintains a rigorous simplicity, and abounds in Italian cognates.
31. Though this much discussed “Tan m’abellis” is found in the incipits of other songs as well as 155.22; see, among others, N. B. Smith, “Arnaut Daniel,” 103; and Hayes, “Arnaut Daniel.”
32. On the contrastive meaning of e, see note 21 above. One of the Press’s readers pointed out to me that the phrase in Arnaut’s mouth should be filtered through Dante’s emphasis throughout Inferno on weeping in response to sin.
33. See the brilliant commentary by Burgwinkle, “The Form of Our Desire,” 572–73.
34. Hiscoe, “Dante’s Poetry,” links Dante’s Arnaut with Pasiphaë differently, seeing the poet as a master maker (like Daedalus) but also pointing to Christ (via the prophet Daniel); Hayes sees the third of Arnaut’s adynata—that of swimming against the tide—as “un aveu de son homosexualité” (“Arnaut Daniel,” 127).
1. See Anglade, Etudes, 15–51, for a history of the institution and its texts.
2. Léglu, “Languages in Conflict”; Dauvois, “Évolution.”
3. Each of these two redactions survives in just one manuscript, formerly held by the Toulouse Académie des Jeux Floraux, now Toulouse Bibliothèque Municipale MS 2883 (the 1356 recension) and 2884 (that of 1341); see Anglade, Etudes, 129–35. The earlier redaction, ed. Gatien-Arnoult, is often called Las flors del gay saber; the later one, ed. Anglade. In addition to these prose versions there is one in verse and a number of related treatises also capitalizing on the Consistori’s prestige; see Anglade, Etudes, 92–120.
4. See Zufferey, Bibliographie, for this later poetic production.
5. J. H. Marshall, “Observations.”
6. The attribution to P. Arquier has been added in what looks like a later hand at the foot of the column.
7. Zufferey, Bibliographie, 27.
8. Bernhardt’s edition of At de Mons, Werke, vii—xii; Cigni, “Il trovatore.”
9. Bernhardt’s ed., xii—xiii; Cigni, “Il trovatore.”
10. Gonfroy, “Reflet.”
11. Anglade, “Le troubadour.”
12. Armstrong and Kay, Knowing Poetry, 102–3, 107–8.
13. See especially the end of book 1 (Last Judgment) and beginning of book 2 (judging standards). On the interconnection between divine and poetic judgment in the Leys, see Moreau, “Eschatological Subjects.”
14. Powell, Albertanus.
15. Molinier (Leys, ed. Anglade, 1:13–14) lists the seven troubadours of Toulouse on the occasion of the first meeting: a young nobleman, a bourgeois, two bankers, two merchants, and a notary. Also present at this first meeting, civic dignitaries and other bourgeois (named), plus unnamed “doctors, licenciatz, borguezes, mercadiers, e motz autres ciutadas de Tholoza” (14).
16. Léglu, “Languages in Conflict.” Within Toulouse there was an internal split similar to that between the Welfs (or Guelphs) and the Ghibellines in the Italian city states.
17. Cigni,”Il trovatore,” 297.
18. Similar politics of the footnote were also observed in Dante; see Chapter 9.
19. Pasero,”Sulle fonti,” reviews and corrects the notes to Anglade’s edition and his Etudes, 52–70. For Molinier’s treatment of Albertano, see especially Pasero, 140–47, 161–85.
20. Powell, Albertanus, 61.
21. Such self-generating monographie is reminiscent of Compagnon’s account of quotation in La seconde main; see Introduction.
22. At, 309.V, 488–563;Leys, ed. Anglade, 1:84–87.
23. Only one of the nonstrophic poems, 309.V, is in octosyllables; all the rest are hexasyllabic.
24. The same treatment is meted to Aesop (Leys, ed. Anglade, 1:156), Ovid (1:185), and Seneca (1:189).
25. On fo. 150; ed. Gatien-Arnoult, 3:374–76; see also Kay, “La seconde main.”
26. Chenu, “Auctor.”
27. Breviari quotations ##9 and 10, lines 28020–39; see Chapter 8.
28. The Author also speaks “according to” Ignoscum (Leys, ed. Anglade, 1:102), and Anselm (1:129).
29. The Versifiayre may be Alexander of Villedieu, thirteenth-century author of the Doctrinale, a versified Latin grammar.
1. Careri, Il canzoniere provenzale H [H], 50–51 and plate 1.
2. Perugi, Trovatori.
3. Appel, the first scholar to study “Razo e dreyt,” took “Saint Gregori” to be a senhal (code name) derived from line 46 of the song, where the speaker swears an oath by the saint; on the basis of stylistic analysis Appel, “Petrarka,” confirmed the song as being by Arnaut Daniel.
4. Ten songs in an Arnaut section, plus the obscene sirventes in another part of the chansonnier; see also Careri, Il canzoniere, 135–58, transcription 463–84, and plates 3–7.
5. Bembo, owner of the manuscript in the mid-sixteenth century, believed it to have belonged to Petrarch; Careri, Il canzoniere, 51.
6. Petrarch’s opening binomial “Drez et rayson” is closer to the copy in K, “Dreg e razos,” than of C, which begins “Razo e dreyt.”
7. Or later; see Bettarini’s discussion in her edition of Petrarch’s Canzoniere, 345–46.
8. Perugi, Trovatori, 239.
9. The stanza, r, lines 348–55, quoted from Ramon Vidal, Obra poètica, ed. Field, 2:50: “No.i a cor tan serrat d’erguelh / qu’amor, s’il plai, dedinz no reinh / [qu’il sap ab son cortés engeinh / traire joi de l’ausor] capdueilh / e qui no.n lei so q’ill escriu / pauc sap de l’amorosa lei; / c’amors non ha ges dig de rei, / que.l ‘non’ son ‘oc’ ses qu’il s’en triu?”
10. Berenguer d’Anoia, Mirall de trobar, ed. Alcover, #28, 619–23: “En ausi car eu no say cora jaz se cora deu a cor mausi cor eu no say cora jam se cora den quant dougens nom estant los mals si tot las bocas quanta nages non val quem nestança”; Alcover, 136, supplies this transcription by Anglade: “En ausi, car eu no say, / cora jazse cora / Deu a cor m’aus’ cor / eu no sai cora, /ja.m secora / Deu quant don / Gens nom estant lo mals / sitot l’abocas / quanta.n hagues no val / Que.m rrescança.”
11. Boutière and Schutz, eds., Biographies, IX.A.1, 59: “Arnaut Daniel was from the same region as Arnaut de Maruelh.”
12. Boutière and Schutz, eds., Biographies, IX.B, 63.
13. Galvez, Songbook, chap. 3.
14. See Beltrami, “Remarques,” for arguments to this effect; Paden, Sankovitch, and Stäblein, in their edition of Bertran de Born, Poems, award him this song, guided in part by the marginal note in chansonnier H that identified Bertran as the “desirat” to whom Arnaut’s sestina is addressed.
15. This move was initiated by J. H. Marshall, “La chanson provençale.”
16. Perugi, Trovatori, 56–59.
17. Ibid., 59–69.
18. Ibid., 236: “senza dubbio la conosceva come opera di Arnaut Daniel.”
19. Canzone 23.
20. Dante actually quotes the same song by Cavalcanti in De vulgari 2.12.3 and 8.
21. Note the semantic value of the rhymes fiori:demori; mentire:dire; aspro:aspro; grave:soave; beltade:etade.
22. Menocal, Writing, 141–53, offers a fascinating reading of the canzone’s response to Dante, marred only by her uncritical acceptance of the view that the quoted line is by Arnaut.
23. Most strikingly in line 37: “Dous m’es e bos s’ieu per dezir en mori” (Perugi, Trovatori, 16; it is a pleasure to me if I die of love).
24. Compare Dante’s reference to “hirsute” speech in De vulgari eloquentia 2.7.6.
1. Armstrong and Kay, Knowing Poetry, 204–5; the reference is to Tucker, Forms of the “Medieval.”
2. Greene, Light in Troy, 9; the “Conclusion” to Armstrong and Kay, Knowing Poetry, suggests some of the differences between lyric poetry prior to and after Petrarch, but its concern is with the French genres that replace troubadour lyric along the nightingales’ way.
3. On imitation and its challenges, see Greene, Light in Troy. For fifteenth-and sixteenth-century ideas of inspiration as divine fury, see Castor, Pléiade Poetics, 24–36, 195–99. The importance I have attributed in this book to evolving patterns of misprision in relation to poetry and knowledge may also find an echo in new work by early modern scholars. In Lying Mirror, a study of the first person in sixteenth-century French literature, James Helgeson characterizes its stance as indirect, dissimulating, and dependent on social recognition—relayed, as I would put it, by the supposed knowledge of supposed other subjects. The knowledge economy uncovered in Neil Kenny’s Uses of Curiosity operates in terms of curiosity and its repression, in a manner that also parallels, albeit more distantly, the equivocation between memory and suppression outlined here.