1. Shearer, “Social Media Outpaces Print.”
2. Wertime, “Meet the Chinese Trolls.”
3. Porup, “Mexican Twitter Bots.”
4. Reporters Without Borders, “Vietnam’s ‘Cyber-Troop’ Announcement.”
5. Gilbert, “Thailand’s Government.”
6. Desjardins, “How Much Data?”
7. Kreiss, Taking Our Country Back.
8. Howard and Hussain, Democracy’s Fourth Wave?
9. Hussain and Howard, State Power 2.0.
10. Howard, New Media Campaigns.
11. Gladwell, “Small Change.”
12. Shirky, “Political Power of Social Media.”
13. Morozov, To Save Everything, Click Here; Pariser, Filter Bubble.
14. Howard, Pax Technica.
15. Howard, New Media Campaigns.
16. Howard and Hussain, Democracy’s Fourth Wave?
17. Shirky, “Political Power of Social Media.”
18. Howard et al., “Sourcing and Automation of Political News and Information”; Neudert et al., “Sourcing and Automation of Political News.”
19. Howard et al., “Social Media, News and Political Information.”
20. Fourney et al., “Geographic and Temporal Trends in Fake News Consumption.”
21. Woolley and Guilbeault, “Computational Propaganda in the United States.”
22. Gallacher et al., “Junk News on Military Affairs.”
23. Narayanan et al., “Polarization, Partisanship and Junk News.”
24. Bradshaw and Howard, “Global Disinformation Order.”
25. Jack, “Lexicon of Lies.”
26. Marwick and Lewis, “Media Manipulation and Disinformation Online.”
27. Jowett and O’Donnell, Propaganda and Persuasion.
28. Bradshaw and Howard, “Challenging Truth and Trust,” 1.
29. Bradshaw and Howard, “Global Organization of Social Media Disinformation.”
30. Bolsover and Howard, “Computational Propaganda and Political Big Data”; Woolley and Howard, Computational Propaganda.
31. Bolsover and Howard, “Computational Propaganda and Political Big Data.”
32. Woolley and Howard, “Political Communication, Computational Propaganda.”
33. Woolley and Howard, Computational Propaganda.
34. Turkle, Alone Together.
35. Jamieson, Cyberwar.
36. Benkler, Faris, and Roberts, Network Propaganda.
1. Bradshaw and Howard, “Troops, Trolls and Troublemakers.”
2. Bradshaw and Howard, “Challenging Truth and Trust”; Bradshaw and Howard, “Troops, Trolls and Troublemakers”; Bradshaw and Howard, “The Global Disinformation Order.”
3. Woolley and Howard, “Political Communication, Computational Propaganda, and Autonomous Agents.”
4. Howard and Hussain, Democracy’s Fourth Wave?
5. Howard and Hussain, Democracy’s Fourth Wave?
6. Howard, Digital Origins of Dictatorship; Henisz, Zelner, and Guillen, “Worldwide Diffusion”; Haas, Saving the Mediterranean.
7. Hussain and Howard, State Power 2.0.
8. Howard, Digital Origins of Dictatorship; Howard and Hussain, Democracy’s Fourth Wave?
9. Howard, Agarwal, and Hussain, “Dictators’ Digital Dilemma.”
10. Hussain and Howard, State Power 2.0.
11. Kremlin [attrib.], [Assignments for Savushkin 55].
12. Kurowska and Reshetnikov, “Neutrollization”; Sanovich, “Russia”; Asmolov, “Dynamics of Power”; Jamieson, Cyberwar.
13. Sanovich, “Russia.”
14. Howard et al., “IRA and Political Polarization.”
15. Shane and Goel, “Fake Russian Facebook Accounts.”
16. Rankin, “Catalan Independence.”
17. Howard et al., “IRA and Political Polarization.”
18. “Trust: The Truth?”
19. Brunton, Spam.
20. Bradshaw and Howard, “Global Organization of Social Media Disinformation.”
1. Guilbeault and Gorwa, “Tinder Nightmares.”
2. Rasmussen, “There Was a Tinder Election Bot.”
3. Greenwood, Perrin, and Duggan, “Social Media Update 2016.”
4. Howard and Hussain, Democracy’s Fourth Wave?
5. Sanovich, “Russia.”
6. Arnaudo, “Brazil.”
7. Gallacher et al., “Junk News on Military Affairs”; Narayanan et al., “Polarization, Partisanship and Junk News.”
8. Woolley and Howard, “Political Communication, Computational Propaganda, and Autonomous Agents.”
9. Howard, Pax Technica.
10. American Association of Public Opinion Researchers, “Problem of So-Called ‘Push Polls.’”
11. Howard, Woolley, and Calo, “Algorithms, Bots, and Political Communication.”
12. Howard, Pax Technica.
13. Qtiesh, “Spam Bots Flooding Twitter”; Ungerleider, “Behind the Mystery of Spam Tweets.”
14. “Who Is Using EGHNA Media Server.”
15. Scott-Railton and Marquis-Boire, “Call to Harm.”
16. Solon, “Syria’s White Helmets.”
17. Chen, “Cambridge Analytica.”
18. Mazzetti et al., “Rick Gates Sought Online Manipulation Plans.”
19. Howard, New Media Campaigns; Howard, Carr, and Milstein, “Digital Technology.”
20. Shane and Goel, “Fake Russian Facebook Accounts.”
21. Shane and Goel, “Fake Russian Facebook Accounts”; US Senate, Select Committee on Intelligence, “Testimony of Sean J. Edgett.”
22. Isaac and Wakabayashi, “Russian Influence Reached 126 Million.”
23. Howard, Woolley, and Calo, “Algorithms, Bots, and Political Communication.”
24. Kollanyi, Howard, and Woolley, “Bots and Automation over Twitter.”
25. Howard, “How Political Campaigns Weaponize Social Media Bots”; Woolley and Guilbeault, “Computational Propaganda in the United States.”
26. Allcott and Gentzkow, “Social Media and Fake News.”
27. Howard et al., “Social Media, News and Political Information.”
28. Shane and Blinder, “Secret Experiment.”
29. “Venezuela Ruling Party”; Pham, “Vietnam Admits Deploying Bloggers.”
30. Greenwald, “Hacking Online Polls and Other Ways British Spies Seek to Control the Internet.”
31. Weiwei, “China’s Paid Trolls.”
32. Rueda, “2012’s Biggest Social Media Blunders”; Morla, “Ecuador’s Correa Recruits Legion”; Morla, “Correa’s Social-Media Troll Center.”
33. Monaco, “Taiwan”; “Free Tibet Exposes #ChinaSpam”; Kaiman, “Free Tibet Exposes Fake Twitter Accounts.”
34. “US Secretly Created ‘Cuban Twitter.’”
35. Qtiesh, “Spam Bots Flooding Twitter.”
36. Bradshaw and Howard, “Challenging Truth and Trust.”
37. Terry, “Twitter’s Huge Bot Problem”; US Senate, Select Committee on Intelligence, “Testimony of Sean J. Edgett”; Timberg and Dwoskin, “Twitter Is Sweeping Out Fake Accounts”; Wojcik et al., “Bots in the Twittersphere.”
38. Howard, Pax Technica.
39. Schreckinger, “Inside Trump’s ‘Cyborg’ Twitter Army.”
1. Lappano et al., “Lauric Acid-Activated Signaling.”
2. “Doc Didn’t Say Coconut Water Cures Cancer.”
3. Fischer, “Russian Efforts to Sow Discord”; Broad, “Your 5G Phone Won’t Hurt You.”
4. Jensen, “Trump Remains Unpopular.”
5. YouGov and The Economist, “The Economist/YouGov Poll.”
6. Sherman, “Poll.”
7. Marwick and Lewis, “Media Manipulation and Disinformation Online.”
8. Gorwa, “Poland.”
9. Daedalus, Field interview, Poland.
10. Maria, Field interview, Brazil.
11. Dwoskin and Timberg, “How Merchants Use Facebook.”
12. Maria, Field interview, Brazil.
13. Dhiraj Murthy et al., “Bots and Political Influence.”
14. Howard, New Media Campaigns.
15. Gragnani, “Inside the World”; Arnaudo, “Brazil.”
16. Arnaudo, “Brazil.”
17. Banks and Yuki, “O cenário das redes sociais e métricas.”
18. We Are Social, “Digital in 2017”; Newman, Levy, and Nielsen, “Reuters Institute Digital News Report 2017.”
19. Brasil Liker.
20. Filho and Galhardo, “Governo cita uso de robôs.”
21. Aragão, “Eu, robô.”
22. Umpierre, “Dilma vai à justiça”; “Altera as leis do código eleitoral.”
23. Maria, Field interview, Brazil.
24. “WhatsApp Bans Hundreds of Thousands”; Nalon, “Opinion.”
25. Arnaudo, “Brazil.”
26. Schmidt, “Estudo mostra que menções a Crivella.”
27. Couto, “Estratégico na disputa eleitoral.”
28. “Fake News Machine.”
29. Arnaudo, “Brazil”; Gorwa, “Poland.”
30. Arnaudo, “Brazil.”
31. Ortellado and Soltano, “Nova direita nas ruas?”
32. Albuquerque, “Eleição no Rio.”
33. Desidério, “7 boatos da política brasileira.”
34. Quattrociocchi, Scala, and Sunstein, “Echo Chambers on Facebook”; Flaxman, Goel, and Rao, “Filter Bubbles, Echo Chambers, and Online News Consumption.”
35. Chaffee and Miyo, “Selective Exposure and Reinforcement Hypothesis”; Bennett and Iyengar, “New Era of Minimal Effects?”; Iyengar and Hahn, “Red Media, Blue Media”; Fletcher and Nielsen, “Are People Incidentally Exposed”; Dubois and Blank, “The Echo Chamber is Overstated.”
36. Lazarsfeld, Berelson, and Gaudet, People’s Choice.
37. Chaffee and Miyo, “Selective Exposure and Reinforcement Hypothesis.”
38. Berelson and Steiner, Human Behavior.
39. Fiske, Kinder, and Larter, “Novice and Expert.”
40. Fiske, Lau, and Smith, “Varieties and Utilities of Political Expertise”; Ossoff and Dalto, “Media Use and Political Commitment.”
41. Cotton and Hieser, “Selective Exposure to Information and Cognitive Dissonance”; Cotton, “Cognitive Dissonance in Selective Exposure.”
42. Westen, Political Brain.
43. Davis and Jurgenson, “Context Collapse.”
44. Chaffee and Miyo, “Selective Exposure and Reinforcement Hypothesis.”
45. Chaffee and Miyo, “Selective Exposure and Reinforcement Hypothesis.”
46. Bond and Messing, “Quantifying Social Media’s Political Space.”
47. Gayo-Avello, “Meta-Analysis of State-of-the-Art Electoral Prediction.”
48. Bond et al., “61-Million-Person Experiment,” 1; Brand, “Can Facebook Influence an Election Result?”; Kramer, Guillory, and Hancock, “Experimental Evidence of Massive-Scale Emotional Contagion.”
49. Bakshy, Messing, and Adamic, “Exposure to Ideologically Diverse News and Opinion.”
50. Bakshy, Messing, and Adamic, “Exposure to Ideologically Diverse News and Opinion.”
51. Fazio, “Unbelievable News?”; Fazio et al., “Knowledge Does Not Protect against Illusory Truth.”
52. Bakshy, Messing, and Adamic, “Exposure to Ideologically Diverse News and Opinion”; Messing and Westwood, “Selective Exposure in the Age of Social Media.”
53. Epstein and Robertson, “Search Engine Manipulation Effect.”
54. Howard, New Media Campaigns; Howard, “Digitizing the Social Contract.”
55. Phillips, This Is Why We Can’t Have Nice Things.
56. Diakopoulos, Automating the News; Bucher, If … Then.
57. Confessore et al., “Follower Factory”; Facebook, “Community Standards Enforcement Report.”
1. Mod, “Facebook-Loving Farmers of Myanmar.”
2. McLaughlin, “How Facebook’s Rise Fueled Chaos”; Stevenson, “Facebook Admits It Was Used.”
3. Mozur, “Genocide Incited on Facebook.”
4. Fiveash, “Zuckerberg Claims.”
5. Allcott and Gentzkow, “Social Media and Fake News.”
6. Spenkuch and Toniatti, “Political Advertising and Election Outcomes.”
7. Brader, “Striking a Responsive Chord.”
8. Bright et al., “Does Campaigning on Social Media Make a Difference?”
9. Brooks and Geer, “Beyond Negativity”; Malloy and Pearson-Merkowitz, “Going Positive.”
10. Fridkin and Kenney, “Variability in Citizens’ Reactions.”
11. Howard, New Media Campaigns.
12. Howard, New Media Campaigns, 132.
13. Howard et al., “IRA and Political Polarization”; Silverman, “This Analysis.”
14. Some early examples of studies by Facebook staff and their contract researchers include experiments causing mood shifts (Kramer, Guillory, and Hancock, “Experimental Evidence of Massive-Scale Emotional Contagion”) and experiments causing changes in political participation (Bond et al., “61-Million-Person Experiment”). Indeed, since the publication of these studies revealed their own assessment of their ability to influence the public, social media firms have been reluctant to share data or collaborate with outside researchers.
15. Howard, New Media Campaigns.
16. Howard, Carr, and Milstein, “Digital Technology.”
17. The URL for this website is https://tosdr.org/.
18. Perlroth, Tsang, and Satariano, “Marriott Hacking Exposes Data.”
19. Erickson and Howard, “Case of Mistaken Identity?”; Howard and Gulyas, “Data Breaches in Europe.”
20. Crouch, “Impact of Brexit on Consumer Behaviour.”
21. Cummings, “On the Referendum #22.”
22. Shipman, All Out War, 407.
23. Shipman, All Out War, 413–14.
24. Shipman, All Out War, 413–14.
25. Cummings, “On the Referendum #21.”
26. “UK Statistics Authority Statement on the Use of Official Statistics on Contributions to the European Union.”
27. Facebook, Ads supplied by Facebook.
28. Howard, New Media Campaigns.
29. Howard, New Media Campaigns.
30. The commission found that “Mr. Halsall and Vote Leave both committed offences under section 118(2)(c) PPERA. Mr. Halsall incurred spending of £449,079 which he knew or ought reasonably to have known was in excess of the statutory spending limit for Vote Leave. The Commission has fined Vote Leave £20,000 for this.” This was because the commission was satisfied beyond reasonable doubt that all of Grimes’s and BeLeave’s spending on referendum campaigning was incurred under a common plan with Vote Leave. Regarding the BeLeave organization, the commission concluded: “The Commission has determined that Mr. Darren Grimes committed an offence under section 117(3) PPERA, and BeLeave committed an offence under section 117(4). Mr. Grimes incurred spending on behalf of BeLeave which he knew or ought reasonably to have known exceeded by £666,016 the statutory limit for a non-registered campaigner. The Commission has fined Mr. Grimes £20,000 for this.” Electoral Commission, “Report of an Investigation,” 8.
31. On June 22, 2016, £1 was worth $1.4795. In US dollars, then, Vote Leave’s total excess spending was $664,412.
32. Electoral Commission, “Report of an Investigation.”
33. Facebook, Ads supplied by Facebook.
34. Electoral Commission, “Report of an Investigation.”
35. Stimson, “Letter Dated 19 July 2018.”
36. Cummings, “On the Referendum #22.”
37. Corbyn, “Facebook Experiment Boosts US Voter Turnout.”
38. Grassegger and Krogerus, “Data That Turned the World Upside Down.”
1. Jowett and O’Donnell, Propaganda and Persuasion.
2. Bradshaw, Neudert, and Howard, “Government Responses to Malicious Use of Social Media”; Taylor, Walsh, and Bradshaw, “Industry Responses to Malicious Use of Social Media.”
3. Bennett and Iyengar, “New Era of Minimal Effects?”
4. Woolley and Howard, Computational Propaganda.
5. Miller, “Can an Algorithm Hire Better Than a Human?”; Mann and O’Neil, “Hiring Algorithms Are Not Neutral.”
6. Howard, Pax Technica.
7. Howard, New Media Campaigns.
8. Howard, Pax Technica.
9. “Internet of Things.”
10. “Gartner Says the Internet of Things Installed Base Will Grow”; ABI Research, “More Than 30 Billion Devices”; “Internet of Things”; “Space”; OECD, “Building Blocks for Smart Networks.”
11. Andrejevic, Infoglut.
12. Howard, “Our Data, Ourselves.”
13. Fishkin and Diamond, “This Experiment Has Some Great News.”