A superficial reading of 1–2 Thessalonians might suggest that the OT had little if any impact on Paul’s wording and thinking in these letters. After all, neither letter contains even one explicit citation of the OT. Furthermore, these documents were written to a predominantly Gentile church (see 1 Thess. 1:9b) for whom the OT was a foreign and unknown text. But even though 1–2 Thessalonians differ dramatically from Romans, with its plentiful and evident OT quotations, they share with this and the other Pauline letters a significant indebtedness to the Jewish Scriptures. For as the following analysis demonstrates, Paul’s vocabulary, metaphors, and theological framework in the Thessalonian correspondence betray the influence of the OT in both small and significant ways.
Letter Opening and Thanksgiving (1 Thess. 1:1–10)
The letter opening (1:1) has not been altered in any noteworthy way vis-à-vis some of Paul’s other letters—a likely reflection of the good relationship that exists between the apostle and this church as well as his overall pleasure at their spiritual condition. The thanksgiving (1:2–10) not only confirms Paul’s delight in their “work of faith, labor of love, and steadfastness of hope” (1:3), but also foreshadows the four major themes taken up in the letter body: the defense of Paul’s integrity (2:1–3:10), persecution (3:1–5), proper moral conduct (4:1–12; 5:12–22), and Christ’s return (4:18–5:11).
1:1
Paul identifies the readers as “the church of the Thessalonians in God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.” Although the noun ekklēsia (“church”) in secular Greek refers to an officially summoned assembly of citizens (see Acts 19:32, 39, 41), in the LXX it describes the people of God, whether they are assembled for worship or not (see, e.g., Deut. 23:2–3; 31:30; 1 Sam. 17:47; 1 Chron. 28:8; Neh. 13:1). In light of Paul’s Jewish heritage, as well as his references to the “church(es) of God” both later in the letter (2:14) and elsewhere (e.g., 1 Cor. 1:2; 10:32; 11:16; 15:9; 2 Cor. 1:1; Gal. 1:13), “it seems unreasonable to doubt that in I Thess. 1,1 Paul is thinking of the Christians of Thessalonica as members of the ‘Church of God,’ and that he is fully aware of the biblical background and theological implications of his use of the term” (Deidun 1981: 11 [cf. Malherbe 2000: 99]). That the term ekklēsia reflects Paul’s understanding of the predominantly Gentile church of Thessalonica as the new people of God is confirmed by his subsequent reference to them just three verses later as those who are “loved by God” and who know their “election” (1:4)—terms used in the OT to refer to Israel but now applied to NT believers.
1:4
Paul addresses his readers with the striking phrase “loved by God.” As with the noun “church” (see commentary on 1 Thess. 1:1 above), here too we have an instance of language originally applied to Israel (e.g., Deut. 32:15; 33:12; Ps. 60:5; 108:6; Isa. 44:2; Jer. 11:15; 12:7; Sir. 45:1; Bar. 3:37) being reapplied to the Christian church. Especially in this context where the emphasis is on God’s election (“because we know, brothers loved by God, your election”), there can be little doubt that Paul’s application of terms originally reserved for Israel to the predominantly Gentile congregation of Thessalonica is not coincidental, but rather stems from his conviction that the church, consisting of both Jewish and Gentile Christians, now constitutes the renewed Israel of God (on this important concept, see commentary on 1 Thess. 4:1–12 below). As Marshall (1990: 262) observes, “It is clear [from the phrase ‘loved by God’] that by this early stage in his thinking Paul has already developed the concept of the church as the Israel of God. The conviction that God’s love is now extended to the church composed of Jews and Gentiles is already present, and it does not need to be defended in any way. The church has inherited the position of Israel.”
1:9b
Paul describes the conversion of the Thessalonian Christians with terms that appear to reflect the influence of the OT upon his word choice and meaning: “how you turned to God from idols in order to serve a living and true God” (pōs epestrepsate pros ton theon apo tōn eidōlōn douleuein theō zōnti kai alēthinō). The correlated actions of “turning to God” from pagan gods and “serving” only God are found in 1 Kgdms. 7:3 (1 Sam. 7:3 MT/ET), where Samuel challenges the Israelites to “turn to the LORD [epistrephete pros kyrion], take away the other gods from your midst and your groves, and . . . serve [douleusate] him alone.” Elsewhere in the LXX, the verb epistrephō is frequently used not only of Israel (re)turning to their God (e.g., Hos. 5:4; 6:1; Joel 2:13), but also of Gentiles turning to Israel’s God (e.g., Ps. 21:28; Isa. 19:22; Jer. 18:8). The verb douleuō similarly occurs with some frequency in the LXX such that it is a common term for expressing total commitment to God (TDNT 2:261–68).
The God to whom the Thessalonians have turned and now serve with this total commitment is portrayed as “living” (zōnti) and “true” (alēthinō). These two adjectives are rarely used by Paul as a description of God: they occur as a word pair nowhere else, and although the adjective “living” is used alone on a few occasions (Rom. 9:26; 2 Cor. 3:3; 6:16; 1 Tim. 3:15; 4:10), the adjective “true” is found only here. However, both are common descriptors of God in the OT (“living”: Num. 14:21, 28; Deut. 5:26; 32:40; Josh. 3:10; 1 Sam. 17:36; 2 Kings 19:4, 16; Ps. 42:2 [41:3 LXX]; 84:2 [83:3 LXX]; Isa. 37:4, 17; Jer. 10:10; 23:36; Dan. 6:20, 26 [6:27 LXX]; Hos. 1:10 [2:1 LXX]; “true”: Exod. 34:6; Num. 14:18; 2 Chron. 15:3; Ps. 86:15 [85:15 LXX]; Isa. 65:16; Jer. 10:10), and so, like the verbs “turn” and “serve” in the same clause, their meaning originates from this OT background. This conclusion is strengthened by the fact that those few instances where Paul does describe God as “living” are often part of his citing or adapting an OT passage. This OT background indicates, then, that these two adjectives function to highlight the contrast between God and the idols from which the Thessalonians have turned. They previously worshiped idols, dead “gods” who could do nothing, but now they serve the one and only God, who is living and true.
Defense of Paul’s Past Visit to Thessalonica (1 Thess. 2:1–16)
In 2:1–16 Paul defends the integrity of his motives and conduct during his mission-founding visit to Thessalonica (see Weima 1997). Non-Christians in that city—the “fellow citizens” (2:14) of the believers—not only oppressed the members of the church, but also raised questions about the integrity of its founder, Paul, claiming that he was interested solely in winning human praise and financial gain. Although the Christians in Thessalonica had not bought into these charges, Paul, in view of the context of a young church separated from its leader and under heavy social pressure to resume former pagan practices, felt the need to answer these accusations. He begins the body of the letter, therefore, with a lengthy autobiographical reminder of how both he and his readers conducted themselves during his past visit to them. The apostle first focuses on his own conduct and that of his co-missionaries (2:1–12) and then shifts to the Thessalonians’ response to that past visit (2:13–16).
2:4
Paul claims to speak “not as those who please people, but God, the one who examines our hearts.” The apostle thus distinguishes himself sharply from other speakers of his day: whereas they seek to please people and so engage in the kind of speech that originates from “deceit, impure motives, or trickery” (2:3), Paul seeks to please God and so speaks in an honest and selfless manner that meets this goal. The apostle here, as he will again later in the letter (4:1), makes use of the characteristically OT purpose of “pleasing God” (e.g., Num. 23:27; 1 Kings 14:13; Job 34:9; Ps. 19:14; 69:31; 104:34; Prov. 15:26; 16:7; Mal. 3:4). By identifying God as “the one who examines our hearts,” Paul may be alluding to Jer. 11:20 (Malherbe 2000: 141), where the Lord is described as one who “judges justly, examining minds and hearts.” The notion of God as the tester of human hearts, however, occurs frequently in the OT (e.g., 1 Sam. 16:7; 1 Chron. 28:9; 29:17; Ps. 7:9; 17:3; 139:23; Prov. 17:3; Jer. 11:20; 12:3), and so it seems more probable that the apostle has in mind the general idea of a God who examines hearts rather than any specific text. Paul employs this common OT concept to show that the God who examined him and found him worthy to be entrusted with the gospel (2:4a) also continues to examine him (note the present tense of the participle dokimazonti) and thus ensures that the apostle’s motives are pure.
2:15
The mention of “the Jews” at the end of 2:14 becomes the occasion for a description (2:15–16) of the role that some members of the Jewish faith have played in hindering the gospel and the consequent judgment that they face. Paul begins this description of certain members of his race by attributing responsibility to them for the death not only of the Lord Jesus, but also of the prophets: “the Jews who killed both the Lord Jesus and the prophets.” The apostle is drawing on a well-known tradition concerning the killing of the OT prophets. Paul’s familiarity with this tradition is evident from Rom. 11:3, where he cites the complaint of Elijah to God in 1 Kings 19:10: “The sons of Israel have forsaken you . . . and killed your prophets.” This tradition is found in several OT texts (1 Kings 18:4; 2 Chron. 36:15–16; Neh. 9:27; Jer. 2:30) that employ the key words apokteinō (“kill”) and prophētai (“prophets”) and occurs in contemporary Jewish literature as well (Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah; Pesiq. Rab. 27 [129a]). By NT times, therefore, “killing the prophets” had become a common way to refer to the persecution of the faithful remnant within Israel by the unrighteous. This tradition appears often in Jesus’ teaching (Matt. 5:12; 23:29–37; Luke 4:24; 6:23; 11:47–51; 13:33–34) and is found also in the preaching of the early apostles (Acts 7:52). Paul uses this tradition here in 2:15 to highlight the similarity between the persecutions currently experienced by the Thessalonian church, the Judean church, and himself and the persecutions constantly endured in the past by God’s righteous prophets.
2:16
This long history of Jewish opposition to the Lord Jesus, the OT prophets, and the Pauline mission (2:15–16a) has a logical outcome: “with the result that they have been constantly filling up the measure of their sins” (eis to anaplērōsai autōn tas hamartias pantote). Paul here employs an OT theme that is developed also in later Jewish writings: there exists a fixed amount of sins to be committed, after which punishment will be meted out. The verb anaplēroō suggests the picture of a vessel or cup that is in a slow but constant process of being filled up, and once it is completely full, judgment will take place. The same verb is used in Gen. 15:16 LXX to describe the sins of the Amorites, which are said “to be not yet filled up.” This theme of “filling up the measure of one’s sins” occurs also in Dan. 8:23; Wis. 19:4; 2 Macc. 6:14. In the NT the verb “fill up” (plēroō, the unaugmented form of anaplēroō) is found in Matt. 23:32, where Jesus uses it to describe the scribes and the Pharisees, who likewise are linked to the killing of the prophets (Matt. 23:31). The notion that humans have a fixed limit to their actions, both good and evil, is widely attested in later Jewish writings as well (4 Ezra 4:34–37; 7:74; 2 Bar. 21:8; 48:2–5; L.A.B. 26:1–3). Paul’s judgment in 2:16 against his own people, therefore, apparently borrows from a common theme and conventional language, rooted in the OT and developed in later Judaism, used by Jews to express their anger at the faithlessness of certain members of their own race.
Defense of Paul’s Current Absence from Thessalonica (1 Thess. 2:17–3:10)
Non-Christians in Thessalonica not only attacked the integrity of Paul in regard to his past visit to the city (2:1–16), but also used the apostle’s inability thus far to return to the fledgling church to cast further doubts about the genuineness of his motives. Paul’s first key concern in this next section of the letter, therefore, is to reassure the Thessalonian Christians of his continued love and concern for them, despite his failure to return for a second visit (2:17–20). His second key concern focuses on the theme of Christian suffering as he seeks to encourage the Thessalonians to remain steadfast in their newly found faith even in the face of opposition (3:1–5). The apostle concludes his discussion by bringing these two concerns together in the good report about the Thessalonians given by Timothy upon his return to Paul (3:6–10).
2:19
Paul’s deep affection for the Thessalonians is expressed in a rhetorical question that involves three elements: “For who is our hope and joy and crown of boasting?” The third member of the triad, “crown of boasting” (stephanos kauchēseōs), is an expression that occurs three times in the LXX (Prov. 16:31; Ezek. 16:12; 23:42). The word “crown,” though with a different appellation (“crown of glory”), also occurs with a figurative meaning in the LXX (Jer. 13:18; Lam. 2:15) and in later Jewish literature (2 Bar. 15:8; T. Benj. 4:1; 1QS IV, 7), and this appears to have influenced at least one NT writer (“crown of glory” [1 Pet. 5:4]: cf. “crown of life” [James 1:12; Rev. 2:10]; “crown of righteousness” [2 Tim. 4:8]). Paul’s use of the expression “crown of boasting,” however, probably stems not from these OT and Jewish texts (contra Lightfoot 1904: 38; Richard 1995: 133–34), but rather from the Hellenistic athletic contests in which the victor received a wreath. The apostle frequently employs the metaphor of the games to depict the Christian life in general and his apostolic ministry in particular (see Pfitzner 1967).
3:5
Paul expresses his fear that, due to Satan’s malevolent activity of tempting the Thessalonian believers, “our labor might have been in vain” (eis kenon genētai ho kopos hēmōn). The apostle’s language here may echo that of the Suffering Servant of the Lord in Isa. 49:4: “I have labored in vain” (kenōs ekopiasa)) (see also the eschatological hope of Isa. 65:23, which envisions a time when the Lord’s servants “will not labor in vain” [ou kopiasousin eis kenon]). This possibility is strengthened by the fact that Paul alludes to this text elsewhere (Phil. 2:16) to demonstrate that his apostolic calling and labor parallel that of the prophets (so Malherbe 2000: 195).
3:7
The good report about the Thessalonians from Timothy caused Paul to be comforted “in all our distress and affliction” (epi pasē tē anankē kai thlipsei hēmōn). The nouns anankē and thlipsis are paired elsewhere in the LXX (Job 15:24; Ps. 25:17 [24:17 LXX]; 119:143 [118:143 LXX]; Zeph. 1:15) and in 2 Cor. 6:4, suggesting that it would be wrong to distinguish them from each other. This is supported here by the presence of only one definite article, which links anankē and thlipsis together as a collective whole. There is no justification, therefore, for the claim of some earlier commentators that the first term refers to “physical privation” and the second to “sufferings inflicted from without” (Lightfoot 1904: 45; Frame 1912: 133). Still others claim, on the basis of anankē and thlipsis in 1 Cor. 7:26, 28 and the word pair in Zeph. 1:15, that these two terms have a special eschatological focus as denoting those persecutions and sufferings connected with the last days (e.g., Best 1972: 141; Wanamaker 1990: 135). But although Paul’s worldview is one in which he sees all his missionary activities as taking place in the final days, there is nothing to suggest that he uses “all our distress and affliction” in 3:7 with a special eschatological focus. Instead, the two terms are a general description of the hardships that Paul endures for his Christian faith.
Transitional Prayers (1 Thess. 3:11–13)
The two petitions of 3:11–13 function as transitional prayers in which Paul skillfully concludes the apologetic concerns at work in the first half of the letter (2:1–3:10) and also foreshadows three key themes (holy or blameless conduct, mutual love, and the return of Christ) that will be developed in the second half (4:1–5:22).
3:13a
The purpose of the second prayer is for the Lord “to strengthen your hearts” (eis to stērixai hymōn tas kardias). The combination of the verb “strengthen” with the noun “heart” (found in Paul only here and in 2 Thess. 2:17) occurs in the OT with a variety of meanings: the strengthening of the physical body (i.e., nourishment: Judg. 19:5, 8; Ps. 104:15 [103:15 LXX]); the strengthening of the mind (i.e., insight: Sir. 6:37; 22:16); the strengthening of the emotions (i.e., courage: Ps. 112:8 [111:8 LXX]; cf. James 5:8). It is this last sense that Paul intends here, as he prays that the Thessalonians will have courage to stand firm in their faith even in the face of persecution.
3:13b
Christ will return accompanied “with all his holy ones” (meta pantōn tōn hagiōn autou). Does Paul have in view angels or believers (“saints”)? Most commentators support the former option for two reasons. First, there is strong evidence that Paul is dependent on Zech. 14:5 LXX (“And the Lord my God will come, and all the holy ones with him”), a text that refers to angels. In fact, in Matt. 25:31, which borrows from this same OT text, the word “holy ones” is changed to “angels.” Second, the term hagioi in the OT (e.g., Job 5:1; 15:15; Ps. 89:5, 7 [88:6, 8 LXX]; Dan. 7:18; 8:13; Zech. 14:5) and the intertestamental literature (e.g., Tob. 11:14; 12:15; 1 En. 1:9) sometimes refers to the presence of angels at the final judgment—a picture of the end times found elsewhere in Paul (2 Thess. 1:7).
There are convincing reasons, however, to adopt the second option, that “holy ones” refers to believers or “saints.” First, the plural hagioi in every other occurrence in Paul refers clearly to Christians (Rom. 1:7; 8:27; 12:13; 15:25; 1 Cor. 1:2; 6:1–2; 2 Cor. 1:1; Eph. 2:19; 3:8; Phil. 1:1; 4:22; Col. 1:4, 26; 3:12; 1 Tim. 5:10), so there would need to be weighty grounds to interpret this word differently here in 3:13b. Second, the supposed parallel in 2 Thess. 1:7 is not exact, since the key word “holy ones” does not occur there, but instead the noun “angels.” In fact, just a few verses later, in 2 Thess. 1:10, which, like 1 Thess. 3:13, describes the coming judgment at Christ’s return, Paul uses “holy ones” to refer to believers (it is parallel to “the ones who believe”). Third, the skillful way in which the second prayer of 3:12–13 anticipates the major themes to be developed in the second half of the letter suggests that the phrase “with all his holy ones” similarly looks ahead to key topics yet to be discussed. This is, in fact, exactly what one finds. The reference to believers as “the holy ones” reinforces the goal of the prayer that the Thessalonians be “blameless in holiness” and foreshadows the discussion of the key word “holiness” in 4:3–8. Similarly, the statement that “all” of the holy ones will be with Jesus at his coming anticipates Paul’s claim in 4:13–18 that all believers—not only the living Christians, but also “those who have fallen asleep”—will be present and reunited at Christ’s return.
This compelling evidence suggests, therefore, that Paul’s allusion to Zech. 14:5 has been reinterpreted in such a way that either (1) this text now refers to believers (“saints”) instead of angels (so, e.g., Findlay 1891: 77; Hendriksen 1955: 93; Williams 1992: 67–68); or (2) the “all” in the phrase “with all his holy ones” has been expanded to include both angels and believers (so, e.g., Lightfoot 1904: 50; Milligan 1908: 45; Morris 1991: 111–12; Holmes 1998: 116n5).
Increasing in Conduct That Pleases God (1 Thess. 4:1–12)
In 4:1–12 Paul leaves behind the apologetic concerns developed in the first half of the letter body (2:1–3:10) and begins the exhortative concerns that dominate the second half (4:1–5:22). In this passage he addresses two distinct subjects: the sexual conduct of the Thessalonians (4:3–8), and their practice of mutual love within the church (4:9–12). These disparate subjects are combined in 4:1–12 under the overall theme of increasing in conduct that pleases God (4:1–2).
There is some debate over the background or determining influences of Paul’s exhortations in 4:1–12. Some believe that the apostle was impacted most by the Greco-Roman setting of his birthplace, Tarsus (Acts 22:3), and the Hellenistic culture that permeated the ancient world generally, and so they stress the parallels between his exhortations and those found in Cynic and Stoic thought (e.g., Malherbe 2000; Hock 1980: 44–47). A variety of factors, however, clearly indicate the apostle’s indebtedness in this passage to the OT and the Jewish moral tradition (so, e.g., Hodgson 1982: 199–215; Carras 1990: 306–15; Rosner 1995: 351–60; Collins 1998: 406–10, 414). This is suggested in a general way by Paul’s (1) threefold use of the verb “walk” (4:1 [2x], 12), a common OT and rabbinical term denoting moral conduct; (2) employment of the verb “receive” (4:1), which functions as a technical term in rabbinical writings for the transmission of traditional material; (3) call to “please God” (4:1) as the goal of human conduct, an idea rooted in the OT (see, e.g., Num. 23:27; 1 Kings 14:13; Job 34:9; Ps. 19:14; 69:31; 104:34; Prov. 15:26; 16:7; Mal. 3:4); (4) concern to make a good impression on those outside the community (4:12), an aspiration found throughout the OT (e.g., Exod. 32:12, 25; Num. 14:14–16; Deut. 9:25–29; 1 Kings 20:28). Paul’s indebtedness in this passage to the OT is seen in a more specific way, however: his emphasis on the theme of “holiness” in vv. 3–8, which is to be a defining characteristic of Israel as God’s covenant people, and his allusions to the OT in vv. 5, 6, 8b, and 9.
The theme of “holiness” (hagiasmos) is an OT concept that Paul stresses in 4:3–8. The importance of this concept for the apostle is indicated by his identification of it as the will of God (4:3) and his inclusion of it as the key statement that introduces his discussion of sexual conduct. Its importance is further suggested by the two additional references to “holiness” in the following verses (4:4, 7) and by the closing description of God’s Spirit where the unusual word order emphasizes his “holy” character (4:8). The holiness theme is also foreshadowed by Paul in the prayer of 3:13, where he calls upon the Lord to strengthen the hearts of the Thessalonians such that they may be “blameless in holiness” when Jesus comes again “with all his holy ones.” The apostle’s emphasis on holiness manifests itself finally in his deliberate expansion of the closing peace benediction of 5:23, where, instead of the simple and expected formula “May the God of peace be with you” (see Rom. 15:33; 2 Cor. 13:11; Phil. 4:9b), Paul writes, “May the God of peace himself make you holy through and through; and may your whole spirit, soul, and body be kept blameless at the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ.”
This persistent emphasis on holiness reveals an important truth about the theological perspective from which Paul views the Thessalonian believers and issues his exhortations to them (Weima 1996, esp. 101–3). Holiness was the attribute by which Israel, God’s covenant people, was to be distinguished from all other nations. This is explicitly stated by God when he constitutes the nation of Israel at Mount Sinai as his chosen covenant people: “You will be to me a distinctive people out of all the nations. . . . You will be to me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (Exod. 19:5–6 LXX). This divine command for Israel to let holiness be the distinguishing feature of its existence is repeated in the renewal of the Sinai covenant: “And the Lord has chosen you today that you may be to him a distinctive people . . . in order that you may be a holy people to the Lord your God” (Deut. 26:18–19 LXX). Likewise, the book of Leviticus repeatedly calls on the people of Israel to imitate the holiness of their God: “You shall be sanctified/made holy and you shall be holy, because I, the Lord your God, am holy” (Lev. 11:44 LXX [cf. 11:45; 19:2; 20:7, 26; 22:32]).
The basic concept associated with this call to holiness is that of “separation”—that is, the need for Israel to “come out” and be “distinct” from the surrounding peoples (Snaith 1944: 24–32). Thus holiness is the boundary marker that separates God’s people from all other nations: “I am the Lord your God who has separated you from all the nations. You shall therefore make a distinction between clean and unclean. . . . And you will be holy to me, because I, the Lord your God, am holy, the one who separated you from all the nations to be mine” (Lev. 20:24–26 LXX).
Any first-century Jew would have been familiar with all of this, since Lev. 17–26 (the so-called Holiness Code), where God’s call to holiness is clearly set forth, was well known among Jews in both Palestine and the Diaspora (Hodgson 1982: 199–215). Paul certainly was familiar with the material in Lev. 17–26, since he had been an active member of the Pharisees, a Jewish movement whose name, “the separated ones” (Gk. Pharisaioi comes from the Aram./Heb. prš, meaning “separate, make distinct”), reflected their desire to distance themselves from other Jews who did not share their passion for following the Torah’s call to holiness. It is not at all surprising, therefore, that Paul viewed holiness as God’s desired purpose for and defining characteristic of Israel, his covenant people.
What is surprising, however, even astonishing, is that Paul applies this standard of holiness to predominantly Gentile believers in Jesus at Thessalonica. The holiness that previously has been the exclusive privilege and calling of Israel has now also become God’s purpose for Gentiles at Thessalonica who have “turned to God from idols to serve the true and living God” (1:9). The holiness that previously has been the characteristic that distinguished Israel from the Gentile nations has now become the boundary marker that separates the Thessalonian Gentile believers from “the Gentiles who do not know God” (4:5), those who are “outside” God’s holy people (4:12). Paul, it seems clear, views his Gentile converts at Thessalonica as the renewed Israel—those who, together with Jewish Christians, are now full members of God’s covenant people. And on the basis of their privileged new position, he exhorts them in 4:3–8 to exhibit the holiness that God’s people have always been called to possess.
4:5
In contrasting the sexual conduct of the Thessalonian believers with that of their unbelieving fellow citizens, Paul identifies the latter group as “the Gentiles who do not know God” (ta ethnē ta mē eidota ton theon). This expression, used in the apostle’s other letters as well (Gal. 4:8–9; 2 Thess. 1:8; cf. 1 Cor. 1:21), likely stems from the OT (Job 18:21; Ps. 79:6 [78:6 LXX]; Jer. 10:25) and serves to root immoral sexual conduct in ignorance about God (so also Rom. 1:24–27; cf. Wis. 14:12, 22–26; Sib. Or. 3:29–45). The phrase “the Gentiles who do not know God” also immediately places this verse in a covenant context, for “to know God” is a technical reference in the OT, especially in Jeremiah (see Jer. 31:34), to the covenant relationship (Deidun 1981: 19n61). Paul’s placement of the Thessalonian Christians, themselves Gentiles, in sharp antithesis to “the Gentiles who do not know God” is striking and incomprehensible unless the apostle views these converts no longer as Gentiles but rather now as full members of God’s covenant people. His use of this OT phrase, therefore, provides additional support to two principal claims made above. First, it shows that Paul perceives the Gentile believers at Thessalonica to be members of the renewed Israel, the covenant people of God. Second, it illustrates once again that Paul viewed holiness—here specifically holiness in sexual conduct—as the distinguishing sign or boundary marker of believers that sharply separates them from the world, from “those who do not know God.”
4:6b
The exhortations to holiness in 4:3–6a are followed in 4:6b–8 by three causal statements (4:6b: dioti [“because”]; 4:7: gar [“for”]; 4:8: toigaroun [“therefore”]) that provide the reasons why the Thessalonian converts must be holy with regard to their sexual conduct. The first of these causal statements comes in 4:6b: “because the Lord is an avenger concerning all these things” (dioti ekdikos kyrios peri pantōn toutōn). These words likely allude to Ps. 93:1 LXX (94:1 MT/ET): “The Lord is a God of vengeance” (theos ekdikēseōn kyrios). This possibility is strengthened by the fact that the predicate nominative in both 1 Thess. 4:6b and Ps. 93:1 is located at the head of the sentence in the position of emphasis. The theme of God as a judge who exacts vengeance is widely found in the OT (e.g., Exod. 7:4; 12:12; Deut. 32:35; Ps. 18:47; Jer. 11:20; Amos 3:2, 14; Mic. 5:15; Nah. 1:2) and appears also in the intertestamental literature (e.g., T. Reub. 6:6; T. Levi 18:1; T. Gad 6:7; T. Jos. 20:1; T. Benj. 10:8–10; Jos. Asen. 23:13).
There is some ambiguity as to whom Paul has in view: God or Jesus? The fact that God is being described in the allusion to Ps. 93:1 LXX, as well as the presence of multiple references to “God” in the rest of 4:3–8 (4:3, 5, 7, 8), leads some to conclude that the noun “Lord” here refers to God (e.g., Morris 1991: 124; Richard 1995: 203–4). Against this conclusion, however, are at least three factors. First, the term kyrios has occurred twelve times in the letter thus far, eight of which explicitly include the name “Jesus” (1:1, 3; 2:15, 19; 3:11, 13; 4:1, 2). This strongly suggests that the remaining four nonexplicit references (1:6, 8; 3:8, 12), along with kyrios here in 4:6, also refer to Jesus. Second, if kyrios refers not to Jesus but to God, it would make the explicit introduction of the subject “God” in the following verse unnecessary. Third, Paul makes several references throughout both Thessalonian letters to the future coming of Jesus, who will punish the wicked and serve as the agent of God’s wrath (1 Thess. 1:10; 5:1–11; 2 Thess. 1:7–10; 2:8–10; cf. Rom. 12:19; Col. 3:23–25). If, then, as seems likely, the avenging one to whom Paul refers is Jesus, this text reveals how the apostle attributes to Jesus a role that the OT attributed to God. Paul’s allusion in 4:6b to Ps. 93:1 LXX, therefore, reflects his christological reinterpretation of this OT passage such that it now refers to Jesus instead of God.
4:8
The third reason (the first and second reasons are given in 4:6b, 7) why holiness ought to be a distinctive characteristic of the Thessalonians’ sexual conduct is that “the one who rejects these exhortations rejects not a human being but God, who indeed gives his Spirit, who is holy, to you.” Here Paul picks up the language of the OT prophets, especially Ezek. 36:27; 37:14, about the blessed presence of God’s Spirit in the messianic age—language associated with the “new” or “everlasting” covenant—and applies it to the Thessalonian believers (see Deidun 1981: 19, 53–56; Thielman 1994: 76–77; Weima 1996: 110–12).
Jews of the first century were painfully aware that their nation was not living according to the standard of holiness that God had called for when he first established his covenant with them. However, most Jews also believed, on the basis of God’s promise given through the prophets, that he would not abandon his people, but would restore their holiness by pouring out his Spirit upon them as part of the covenant blessings to be enjoyed in the messianic era. This eschatological hope for holiness, made possible through the presence of God’s Spirit, is most clearly seen in Ezek. 36:25–27 LXX: “I will sprinkle clean water on you, and you will be purged from all your uncleannesses and from all your idols, and I will cleanse you. And I will give you a new heart, and will put a new spirit in you [pneuma kainon dōsō en hymin]; and I will take away the heart of stone out of your flesh, and will give you a heart of flesh. And I will put my Spirit in you [to pneuma mou dōsō en hymin] and will cause you to walk in my commands and to keep my judgments and do them” (cf. Ezek. 11:19).
The gift of God’s Spirit as a key blessing of the eschatological age is also stressed in Ezek. 37:6, 14: “I will put my Spirit into you” (dōsō pneuma mou eis hymas). And although other prophets such as Jeremiah and Isaiah do not highlight the gift of God’s Spirit quite as explicitly as Ezekiel does (but see Isa. 59:21), they do hold out the future hope of a “new” or “everlasting” covenant in which God will live in and among his people in such an intimate way that they will be able to obey his commands and live holy lives (see, e.g., Jer. 31:31–34 [38:31–34 LXX]; 32:40; 50:5; Isa. 55:3; 59:21).
Paul takes this new covenant language, which articulates the eschatological hope of the Jewish people, and applies it to Gentile Christians at Thessalonica. The parallels with Ezek. 36:25–27 are especially striking. For as Ezekiel prophesied (“You will be clean from all your uncleannesses” [36:25]), God has cleansed the Thessalonian believers from their “uncleanness/impurity” (4:7), so that their sexual conduct now is to be controlled by “holiness” (4:3, 4, 7). And as Ezekiel prophesied (“I will cleanse you from all your idols” [36:25]), God has cleansed Paul’s converts at Thessalonica from their idolatry, with the result that they “turned to God from idols to serve a living and true God” (1:9). Likewise, as Ezekiel prophesied (“I will cause you to walk in my commands, and to keep my judgments and do them” [36:27]), God has enabled Gentile Christians at Thessalonica to “walk” (peripateō) according to his commands (4:1 [2x], 12). But most significantly, as Ezekiel prophesied (“I will put my Spirit in you,” [36:27; cf. 37:6, 14]), Paul can now say to Gentile believers at Thessalonica that God is the one “who indeed gives his Spirit, who is holy, to you” (4:8).
That Paul did, in fact, quite consciously have in mind the eschatological age envisioned by Ezekiel can be seen in his description of God giving his Spirit “into you” (eis hymas). For although this expression is somewhat awkward (the more natural and expected expression is the dative en hymin [“in you”]), it echoes exactly the words of Ezekiel: “I will put my Spirit into you [eis hymas]” (37:6, 14 LXX). But whereas for Ezekiel and others in Judaism the gift of God’s Spirit was only a future hope (“I will give my Spirit”), for Paul it had become a present and ongoing reality, as indicated by the present tense of the participle didonta.
It seems clear, therefore, that Paul viewed the conversion of Gentiles at Thessalonica as a fulfillment of the eschatological promises made to Israel. The Thessalonian believers were no longer simply “Gentiles who do not know God”; now they were members of the renewed Israel, the covenant people of God. This privileged status meant that in their sexual conduct they must observe the boundaries of holiness that the new covenant marked out for them. The key to living such lives of holiness is the present and ongoing presence of God’s Spirit. So here, as elsewhere in Paul’s letters, the Holy Spirit is the power that enables believers to live holy lives.
4:9
After introducing in the first half of 4:9 the new topic of mutual love, Paul in the second half provides the reason for the superfluous nature of writing to the Thessalonians about this subject: “for you yourselves are taught by God [theodidaktoi] to love one another.” The term theodidaktos, an adjective meaning “taught by God,” is striking, since there are no known occurrences of this term anywhere in Greek literature prior to its appearance in this verse, thereby suggesting that it is a new word coined by Paul. The remarkable character of this term is evident also in the fact that it occurs nowhere else in the NT, only rarely in later Christian literature, and never in non-Christian writings.
Paul’s use, or perhaps even invention, of the term theodidaktos is almost certainly an allusion to Isa. 54:13 LXX: “And I will cause all your sons to be taught of God [didaktous theou].” Within the context of Isaiah’s description of the blessings to be enjoyed in the messianic age, these words refer to a time when God will live so intimately with his people through his Spirit that they will no longer have to be taught by human intermediaries, but rather will be “taught of God.” This idea of divine instruction as an eschatological blessing enjoyed by God’s covenant people is found elsewhere in the prophetic writings. Jeremiah portrays the new covenant as a period when God’s people will not need others to teach them the law but will know it innately, for God will write it on their hearts (Jer. 31:33–34 [38:31–34 LXX]). Isaiah also, earlier in his prophecy, envisions a future age when all the nations will stream to Mount Zion in order that “[God] may teach us his ways and that we may walk in his paths” (Isa. 2:3). The importance that Jews attached to this idea of divine instruction as an eschatological blessing is further evidenced in the fact that Isaiah’s vision of 2:2–4 is repeated in Mic. 4:1–3. This idea also manifests itself in Pss. Sol. 17:32, which speaks of the future king who will rule in the messianic age as one who is “taught by God” (didaktos hypo theou). That this eschatological blessing was still anticipated in NT times is clear from Jesus’ citation of Isa. 54:13 in John 6:45 to show that “all will be taught by God [didaktoi theou]” in the messianic age. This expected eschatological blessing probably also lies behind the statement to the readers of 1 John that due to the enlightening grace of the Holy Spirit, “you have no need for anyone to teach you” (1 John 2:27).
Paul’s use of the term theodidaktos, therefore, is significant. The apostle’s allusion in this term, either specifically to Isa. 54:13 (didaktous theou) or more generally to the anticipation of divine instruction as an eschatological blessing (an anticipation expressed in several OT, intertestamental, and NT texts), so soon after his clear allusion in the preceding verse (4:8) to Ezekiel’s description of the gift of God’s Spirit in the messianic age suggests that here too Paul views the Thessalonians’ practice of philadelphia (“mutual love”) as an eschatological blessing of God’s covenant people (Deidun [1981: 20–21] observes that “by utilizing the parallel texts of Jeremiah and Ezekiel in I Thess. 4,8b–9, Paul wishes to recall to the Thessalonians their unique Covenant relationship with God,” and that the combination of the prophetic texts of Jer. 31:34 [38:34 LXX] and Ezek. 36:27; 37:14 “is widely attested in Jewish tradition in contexts concerning messianic times, and with particular reference to the immediacy of God’s teaching”). Though this blessing of divine instruction was originally intended for Israel (but see the reference to “all nations” in Isa. 2:2 and to “many nations” in Mic. 4:2), Paul believes that it extends to the predominantly Gentile believers at Thessalonica. This new-covenant language of being “God-taught,” therefore, further supports my earlier claim that Paul’s exhortations in 4:1–12 are rooted in his conviction that the Gentile Christians at Thessalonica are included in the renewed Israel, the eschatological people of God who enjoy both the blessings and the challenges of that privileged relationship.
Comfort Concerning Deceased Believers at Christ’s Return (1 Thess. 4:13–18)
The Thessalonians feared that fellow church members who had died would be at some kind of disadvantage at Christ’s return compared to themselves, who were still alive. After introducing this problem (4:13), Paul presents two arguments in response: (1) he appeals to Christ’s resurrection as a guarantee of believers’ resurrection such that they will be present at Christ’s return (4:14); (2) he appeals to the authoritative “word of the Lord,” which emphatically states that deceased believers will share equally with living believers the glory and events connected with Christ’s return (4:15–17). The apostle concludes his discussion with an exhortation (4:18).
4:16–17
The description of Christ’s return in 4:16–17 is part of Paul’s appeal to the “word of the Lord” (4:15a)—that is, an authoritative teaching of Jesus Christ. In these verses the apostle may well be making use of material that had taken shape before his use of it here, and this in turn suggests that he may or may not have been conscious of any allusions to the OT in this quoted material.
The main clause of 4:16, “because the Lord himself will come down from heaven,” recalls in a very general way the prophetic literature of the OT that envisions “the day of the Lord,” when God will come to judge the wicked and save the righteous (Isa. 2:10–12; 13:6, 9; Ezek. 7:19; 13:5; 30:3; Joel 1:15; 2:1, 11, 31; 3:14; Amos 5:18–20; Zeph. 1:7–8, 14, 18; 2:2–3; Zech. 14:1; Mal. 3:2; 4:5). The circumstances surrounding Christ’s return are indicated by three prepositional phrases, the third of which involves the sound of a musical instrument: “with the trumpet call of God.” The trumpet in the OT, as in the ancient world generally, functioned primarily not as a musical instrument, but rather as a signal, marking in particular the visible appearance of God not only in the past (Exod. 19:13, 16, 19; 20:18), but especially at the future day of the Lord (Isa. 27:13; Joel 2:1; Zeph. 1:14–16; Zech. 9:14).
The trumpet as an end-time sign becomes even more prominent in the intertestamental literature (4 Ezra 6:23; Pss. Sol. 11:1; Sib. Or. 4:173–174; 8:239; L. A. E. 22:37–38; Apoc. Zeph. 9:1; 10:1; 11:1; 12:1; Apoc. Ab. 31:1–2; 1QM VII, 12–IX, 6) and so, not surprisingly, appears also elsewhere in Paul (1 Cor. 15:52) and the NT (Matt. 24:31; Rev. 8:2–13; 9:1, 13–14; 10:7; 11:15). As with the apostle’s other reference to a trumpet call (1 Cor. 15:52), so also here in 4:16 it is linked with the resurrection of the dead (note the immediately following clause “and the dead in Christ will rise first”). The sound of a trumpet, therefore, not only functions as a codified sign of Jesus’ return, but also, more importantly for the specific concern of the Thessalonians, marks the moment when the deceased church members will be brought to life such that they can participate equally in Christ’s triumphant coming (for an intriguing but ultimately unconvincing argument that the reference to Christ’s descent from heaven with a shout in 4:16 echoes Ps. 46:6 LXX [47:5 ET], see Evans 1993).
Believers will be taken up by God to meet the descending Christ “by means of clouds.” Clouds in the OT are so frequently associated with a theophany—the appearance of God (e.g., Exod. 13:21–22; 14:19–20, 24; 16:10; 19:9, 16–17; Lev. 16:2; Num. 9:15–22; 10:11–12; 1 Kings 8:10–12; 2 Chron. 5:13–14; 6:1; Neh. 9:12, 19; Ps. 97:2; Isa. 19:1; Ezek. 1:4–28)—that this meaning is naturally carried over to the NT (Matt. 17:5; Mark 9:7; Luke 9:34–35; 1 Cor. 10:1–2). Clouds as a sign of God’s presence become connected not only with the ascension of Christ (Acts 1:9 [cf. the ascension of the two witnesses in Rev. 11:12]), but also with his future return (Matt. 24:30; 26:64; Mark 13:26; 14:62; Luke 21:27; Rev. 1:7; 14:14–16), an image that can be traced back ultimately to Daniel’s vision of “one like a son of man coming with the clouds of heaven” (Dan. 7:13). The reference to believers being snatched up “by means of clouds,” therefore, highlights the presence of God and the active part that he will play in ensuring the equal presence and participation of both living and deceased believers in Christ’s return.
Comfort Concerning Living Believers at Christ’s Return (1 Thess. 5:1–11)
Whereas 4:13–18 concerns the fate of deceased Christians at Jesus’ return, 5:1–11 focuses on the fate of living Christians at the same eschatological event. A variety of factors suggest that the Thessalonian Christians worried whether they were spiritually and morally worthy to meet the Lord on the day of his coming (Marshall 1983: 132; Holmes 1998: 165). Paul responds to their anxiety by reassuring them that they need not fear the day of the Lord (5:1–3). He then provides two supporting grounds for his claim: (1) their present status as “sons of light and sons of the day” (5:4–5); (2) their past election by God to obtain salvation and eternal life (5:9–10). Sandwiched between these two grounds is an appeal to live vigilantly as those who “belong to the day” (5:6–8). The discussion concludes with an exhortation (5:11).
5:2
The “day of the Lord” concept has its roots in the OT, where it refers to a future time when God will come to punish the wicked and vindicate his people, though the notion of judgment is more commonly stressed than that of deliverance (e.g., Isa. 2:1–4:6; Jer. 46:10; Ezek. 30:2–3; Joel 1:15; 2:1, 11, 31–32; Amos 5:18–20; Obad. 15; Zeph. 1:14–18; Zech. 14). The early Christians, for whom Jesus Christ was their “Lord,” naturally applied the NT “day of the Lord” to the future time when Christ will come to punish the wicked and vindicate his followers. The apostle thus far in the letter has used the term “parousia” (2:19; 3:13; 4:15), but now he switches to the phrase “the day of the Lord,” most likely because, due to its predominant OT usage, it better conveys the notion of judgment associated with Christ’s return—a point made in the following verse (“then sudden destruction comes upon them . . . and they will certainly not escape”).
5:3a
The phrase “peace and security” (eirēnē kai asphaleia) has traditionally been understood as an echo of the OT prophetic warnings against false claims of peace uttered by wicked leaders or false prophets in Israel. In Jer. 6:14 God accuses the spiritual leaders in Jerusalem of treating “the wound of my people carelessly, saying ‘Peace, peace,’ when there is no peace” (so also 8:11 [but not in the LXX]). Similarly, in Ezek. 13:10 God claims that the prophets of Israel are false “because they have misled my people, saying, ‘Peace, peace,’ and there is no peace” (cf. Mic. 3:5). Consequently, many commentators conclude that in 5:3a Paul is alluding to these OT warnings against false claims of peace.
There exists stronger evidence, however, that the apostle is instead making use of a popular slogan of the imperial Roman propaganda machine (see esp. Hendrix 1991; also Donfried 1985: 334; Gaventa 1998: 70; Holmes 1998: 166–67; Green 2002: 233–34). The Romans vigorously promoted themselves as the providers of “peace” and did so through various public media. They widely issued coins with the word pax (“peace”) alongside the image of the various emperors, and the phrase pax Augusti (“The peace of Augustus”) is a characteristic one of the numismatic evidence after the time of Nero. The Romans also erected key monuments and distributed official proclamations celebrating the peace that their rule provided. Many ancient authors further enhanced the notion of the Romans as the restorers and extenders of peace (e.g., Seneca, Clem. 1.4.1–2; Ovid, Epistulae ex Ponto 2.5.18; Tacitus, Hist. 2.12; 4.74). The Romans, however, marketed themselves not merely as those who secured “peace,” but as also those who provided “security” (either the Greek asphaleia or the Latin securitas). Although not occurring as frequently as “peace,” the term “security” similarly appears on Roman coins, monuments, and official proclamations and so also functioned as an important part of the imperial propaganda. Finally, there are a couple of texts in which the terms “peace” and “security” are combined in the context of describing Roman rule (see Josephus, Ant. 14.247–255; also the first-century historian Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History 2.103.5), thereby providing a closer parallel to Paul’s statement in 5:3 than any of the aforementioned OT texts.
5:3b
Paul uses a simile to describe the destruction that will suddenly come upon all those who look to the political power of Rome for peace and security: “as labor pains come upon a pregnant woman.” The symbolic or metaphorical use of labor pains is found with great frequency in the OT (e.g., Ps. 48:6; Isa. 13:8; 21:3; 26:17–18; 37:3; 42:14; 66:7–8; Jer. 4:31; 6:24; 22:23; 30:4–7; 48:41; 50:43; Hos. 13:13; Mic. 4:9) and in the intertestamental literature (e.g., 1 En. 62:4; 4 Ezra 4:40–43; 16:37–39; Sib. Or. 5:514; 1QHa XI, 7–12; XIII, 30–31). The image of labor pains in these texts functions in differing, though related, ways (Gempf 1994): it can be an “intense” pain that makes clear the acuteness of suffering; a “productive” pain that leads to a positive outcome; a “helpless” pain that the sufferer cannot avoid; a “cyclical” pain that, once begun, must run its course.
It is not clear, however, whether Paul’s metaphorical use of labor pains fits any of these functions. On the one hand, the fact that the image comes after the adverb “suddenly” (aiphnidios is emphasized by its location at the head of the sentence, separated from the main verb and subject) and parallels the simile of a thief’s surprise arrival at night in the preceding verse suggests that Paul here in 5:3b is stressing the unexpectedness of the coming judgment—a use of this image that has no exact parallel in the OT. The objection against this view—“To what pregnant woman does labor come as a surprise?” (Martin 1995: 160)—is not necessarily a compelling one, since Paul may be thinking about the unexpected timing of the onset of labor. On the other hand, the immediately following statement, with its emphatic (note the double negative ou mē) claim that “they certainly will not escape,” suggests that Paul may have in mind the inevitableness of the coming judgment—a use of this image that is paralleled in the OT. In light of the fluidity with which metaphors function, it is perhaps best to allow for both usages to be maintained.
5:4–8
The references in 5:2 to the “day” of the Lord and to the thief’s arrival at “night” lead Paul in 5:4–8 to develop, in a metaphorical manner, the contrasts not only between “day” and “night,” but also between their corresponding qualities of “light” and “darkness.” This metaphorical use of day/night and light/darkness to describe the human condition appears in many religious traditions, including the OT (e.g., Job 22:9–11; Ps. 27:1; 74:20; 82:5; 112:4; Prov. 4:18–19; Isa. 2:5; 5:20; 9:2; 60:19–20) and Jewish writings from the intertestamental period (e.g., 1 En. 41:8; 4 Ezra 14:20; T. Levi 19:1; T. Naph. 2:7–10; T. Benj. 5:3; 1QS I, 9–10; III, 13, 19–26; 1QM I, 1, 8–16). This usage undoubtedly influenced the thinking of Paul, who elsewhere makes similar employment of this metaphor (Rom. 1:21; 2:19; 1 Cor. 4:5; 2 Cor. 4:6; 6:14; Eph. 4:18; 5:8–11; 6:12; Col. 1:13). Here in 5:4–8 the apostle uses the metaphor to distinguish sharply the current spiritual condition and future fate of the Thessalonian believers from that of their non-Christian neighbors. The “light” and “day” symbolize the Thessalonians’ intimate relationship with God and their knowledge about the imminent arrival of the day of the Lord, whereas the “darkness” and “night” symbolize non-Christians’ alienation from God and their ignorance about the impending judgment that they will experience at Christ’s return.
5:8b
Paul shifts from the metaphor of day/night and light/darkness to that of military armor (note how the apostle similarly links these two metaphors in Rom. 13:12: “Let us put on the armor of light”). The widespread presence of Roman soldiers meant that military armor could function quite easily as a metaphor for human ethical conduct, and certain philosophers and moralists of that day used it in exactly this way (see the texts cited in Malherbe 2000: 297). Paul’s use of this metaphor, however, almost certainly stems from the OT, given the close verbal parallels between his words in 5:8 (“by putting on the breastplate of faith and love and as a helmet the hope of salvation”) and Isa. 59:17 (“He put on righteousness as a breastplate and placed a helmet of salvation on his head” [cf. Wis. 5:17–18]). The apostle’s indebtedness to Isa. 59:17 explains why he does not add a third piece of armor to better parallel the triad of faith, love, and hope. Paul does adapt this OT text, however, such that it is no longer God who is the divine warrior, but rather the human believer who wears the armor (a similar application to humans is found in a later rabbinic text [b. B. Bat. 9b]).
Paul uses the image of military armament several times in his letters (Rom. 13:12; 2 Cor. 6:7; 10:3–5; Eph. 6:11–17; Phil. 2:25; 2 Tim. 2:3–4), and these texts show how diverse he was in identifying the various virtues that the specific pieces of armor represented. That the apostle adapts this OT text so that it better suits the specific new context can be seen also here in 5:8b. Paul modifies the original text such that the breastplate no longer represents the single quality of “righteousness,” but rather the two virtues of “faith and love.” He also adds the third virtue of “hope” so that the original “helmet of salvation” now becomes “as a helmet the hope of salvation.” The result of Paul’s reapplication of this OT metaphor is that it now highlights the triad of faith, love, and hope, thereby echoing the same three virtues with which he opened the letter (1:3). In the larger context of the concerns at work in 5:1–11 this means that the Thessalonian believers should not fear the day of the Lord, since they need only put on the armor of faith, love, and hope—virtues of which they have already amply demonstrated their possession (1:3).
Letter Opening and Thanksgiving (2 Thess. 1:1–12)
The brief and unembellished nature of the letter opening (1:1–2), like that of the first letter, likely reflects the good relationship that Paul enjoys with the Thessalonians and his general happiness at their spiritual condition. In the thanksgiving (1:3–12) the apostle commends the Thessalonians for their abundant faith and love even in the midst of persecution (1:3–4), comforts them with the just judgment of God whereby they will be rewarded and their persecutors punished (1:5–10), and challenges them in his closing prayer report to continue their worthy conduct (1:11–12).
A number of terms and theological themes in 1:5–10 appear to have been influenced by the OT. Particularly striking are the several parallels with Isa. 66, the final chapter of that important prophetic book, which describes what the Lord will do in the final days to prosper his chosen people and to punish the wicked. These parallels have led Aus (1971: 113–14; 1976, esp. 266–67) to propose that 1:5–10 is the result of a conscious reflection of Isa. 66, supplemented by a few other OT texts, in order to create an end-time scenario that will comfort the persecuted readers and counter the false claim concerning the day of the Lord (see also Richard 1995: 315–16). The several OT allusions in 1:5–10 prompted Bruce (1982: 148) to suggest that Paul was borrowing here from a “testimony collection,” a pre-Pauline compilation of OT passages that deal with the common subject of eschatological teaching. These two theories, however, have not found wide acceptance, as most commentators view the OT parallels in 1:5–10 to be the result of unconscious allusions that come from the hand of the apostle himself rather than any preformed tradition. The situation is analogous to Christians who are so familiar with the text of the Bible that their prayers unconsciously echo many biblical phrases or passages.
1:6
The claim that it is just for God “to repay [antapodounai] those who afflict you with affliction, and you who are being afflicted with rest” involves the OT principle of retribution—the lex talionis, “an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth.” Although Scripture frequently affirms the theme of divine recompense, at times also using the identical verb “to repay” (Deut. 32:35; Ps. 138:8 [137:8 LXX]; Obad. 15; cf. Isa. 63:4), the allusions to Isa. 66 in the subsequent verses strengthen the possibility that Paul has that same passage in view here. In fact, there are two verses from Isa. 66 that are relevant: “The voice of the LORD repaying [antapodidontos] retribution to his enemies” (66:6); “For the LORD will come like a fire, and his chariots like the whirlwind, to repay [apodounai] his punishment with anger, and his rebuke with a flame of fire” (66:15). The lex talionis is rejected as a principle of human conduct (Matt. 5:38–48; Rom. 12:17), since one may easily act unjustly or out of vindictiveness. These dangers do not exist in divine conduct, however, since “God is just,” and so this principle forms an essential aspect of any teaching about God’s judgment (see Rom. 2:6–8; 12:19; 2 Cor. 5:10; Col. 3:25). Paul uses this OT principle to comfort the Thessalonians by pointing them to the future judgment as the time when the injustice of their present suffering will be redressed.
1:8a
The occasion at which the Thessalonian believers will be rewarded and their persecutors punished is the return of Christ, who will come “from heaven, with his mighty angels, in a flame of fire” (1:7b–8a). The third and final prepositional phrase likely contains another allusion to the OT. The issue is complicated, however, by a textual problem: did Paul write “in a fire of flame” [en pyri phlogos] or “in a flame of fire” [en phogi pyros]? Most commentators, as well as the text of NA27, prefer the first reading on the grounds that it has slightly stronger textual support and is the more difficult reading. The second reading is then explained as a copyist’s assimilation either to Isa. 66:15 or other less likely texts such as Ps. 29:7; Isa. 29:6; Dan. 7:9 (so, e.g., Best 1972: 258; Malherbe 2000: 399–400). If this interpretation is correct, then the apostle may well have in view Exod. 3:2 (“And the angel of the LORD appeared to him in a fire of flame out of the bush”), where “fire” refers to a theophany. According to this understanding, Paul portrays Christ’s return as the presence of the divine somewhat akin to God’s appearance before Moses.
This hardly settles the matter, however, since at least one important manuscript of Exod. 3:2 has the alternate reading “a flame of fire” (the same variation occurs in Acts 7:30, which looks back to this OT text). Furthermore, the frequent allusions to Isa. 66 not only elsewhere in the thanksgiving of 1:3–12 but also particularly in the latter half of this same verse (see commentary on 1:8b below) strongly suggest that here too Paul is drawing from Isa. 66:15 (so, e.g., Aus 1976: 266; Richard 1995: 307). This possibility gains further strength from the fact that the apostle’s reference to “fire” is intended to highlight not so much the divine presence as the judgment that will take place—the point that is made not in Exod. 3:2, but in several other OT texts (Ps. 29:7; Isa. 29:6; Dan. 7:9; see also Sir. 21:9), including Isa. 66:15 (“For the LORD will come like a fire, and his chariots like the whirlwind, to repay his punishment with anger, and his rebuke with a flame of fire”). It appears likely, therefore, that the alternate reading “in a flame of fire” is in fact original and that this phrase involves an allusion to Isa. 66:15. Paul uses the imagery of a flaming fire to portray in a powerful manner the frightening judgment that awaits those who have been oppressing the Thessalonian believers.
1:8b
Paul continues to comfort his persecuted readers by picking up again the OT idea of divine retribution that he introduced in 1:6. Whereas that earlier verse balances the punishment of Thessalonians’ persecutors with the reward that believers will receive, this verse stresses only the negative half of judgment: “giving vengeance [didontos ekdikēsin] to those who do not know God and to those who do not obey the gospel of our Lord Jesus.” The phrase “give vengeance” (didōmi ekdikēsin), with slight variations, occurs several times in the LXX (Num. 31:3; Deut. 32:35; 2 Kgdms. 4:8; 22:48 [2 Sam. 4:8; 22:48]; Ps. 17:48 [18:47 ET]; Ezek. 25:14, 17). It is striking, however, that this phrase occurs also in Isa. 66:15 (apodounai . . . ekdikēsin)—the same text alluded to in the immediately preceding phrase, “a flame of fire.” The action of “giving vengeance” in Isa. 66:15, as in the other OT texts containing this phrase, is ascribed to God. In Paul’s use of this phrase, however, the divine work of meting out judgment is transferred to the returning Christ (the participle didontos modifies tou kyriou Iēsou).
This vengeance will be given not only to the persecutors of the Thessalonians, but also to a much larger group: “to those who do not know God, and to those who do not obey the gospel of our Lord Jesus.” Several commentators have concluded from this double clause that Paul has two distinct groups in mind, most likely Gentiles and Jews (so, e.g., Dobschütz 1909: 248; Frame 1912: 233; Marshall 1983: 177–78). This “two group” interpretation appeals not only to the repetition of the definite article tois, but also to the description of the people in each clause. The first clause refers to “those who do not know God” (tois mē eidosin theon), an OT expression that typically refers to Gentiles (Job 18:21; Ps 79:6 [78:6 LXX]; Jer. 10:25) and that has this meaning elsewhere in Paul’s letters (Gal. 4:8–9; 1 Thess. 4:5; cf. 1 Cor. 1:21). The second clause refers to “those who do not obey the gospel of our Lord Jesus” (tois mē hypakouousin tō euangeliō tou kyriou hēmōn Iēsou), an expression that may well allude to Isa. 66:4, where “they did not obey [God]” (ouch hypēkousan mou) refers to the Jewish people.
These two OT expressions, however, do not always refer exclusively to Gentiles and Jews: sometimes Jews are described in the OT as those who do not know God (Jer. 4:22; 9:6; Hos. 5:4), and sometimes Gentiles, along with Jews, are accused of not obeying the gospel (Rom. 10:16; 11:30). Furthermore, the two clauses with their OT allusions are better read as being in synonymous parallelism, whereby the second clause restates or clarifies the first (so Bruce 1982: 151; Wanamaker 1990: 227; Malherbe 2000: 401)—a reading that is supported by the parallelism also found in the immediately following verse (“from the face of the Lord and from the glory of his might”). Finally, it is doubtful whether the predominantly Gentile church at Thessalonica had knowledge of the OT sufficient to discern in Paul’s allusions a reference to Gentiles and Jews as distinct groups (Wanamaker 1990: 227). Therefore, it is best to see Paul as describing a single group consisting of all those who will receive divine retribution for their failure to know God and obey the gospel.
1:9
The exact nature of the “affliction” (1:6) or “vengeance” (1:8) or “penalty” that such people “will pay” (1:9) is finally spelled out: “eternal destruction from the presence of the Lord and from the glory of his might” (olethron aiōnion apo prosōpou tou kyriou kai apo tēs doxēs tēs ischyos autou). This description clearly echoes the triple refrain of Isa. 2:10, 19, 21, where on the day of the Lord the wicked are commanded to hide themselves behind rocks and in caves “from the presence of the fear of the LORD and from the glory of his might [apo prosōpou tou phobou kyriou kai apo tēs doxēs tēs ischyos autou] whenever he will rise to terrify the earth.” The omission in Paul’s text of Isaiah’s reference to “fear” has been interpreted by some (Best 1972: 264; Malherbe 2000: 403) as reflecting the reluctance of the apostle, compared with other apocalyptic writers of his day, to speak in active terms about the punishment of the wicked (the term “fear” might suggest torture). This, however, reads too much into Paul’s motives. More likely, the omission stems from his desire to express better the parallelism between “from the presence of the Lord” and “from the glory of his might” (the Hebrew of Isa. 2:10, 19, 21 similarly omits “fear”). Since these two prepositional phrases are in synonymous parallelism (see also 1:8b), it would be wrong to distinguish their meaning too sharply. Instead, these two clauses together express in OT language something of the glorious and powerful presence of Yahweh, which here, significantly, is applied to Jesus. Therefore, the persecutors of the Christians in Thessalonica, along with all those who do know God and obey the gospel, will be forever separated from this glorious and powerful presence of Christ—a sharp contrast to the fate of the Thessalonian believers, who will “always be with the Lord” (1 Thess. 4:17; cf. 5:10).
1:10a
Having spelled out in 1:8–9 the judgment that will fall upon those who are persecuting the Thessalonian believers, Paul shifts in 1:10 to the reward that awaits his Christian readers, again making use of OT language. Whereas Christ’s return results in unbelievers having no share in “the glory of his might” (1:9), his coming for believers is an occasion when he will “be glorified in his holy ones” (endoxasthēnai en tois hagiois autou). That this phrase involves an allusion to Ps. 88:8 LXX (89:7 ET), “God is glorified in the assembly of the holy ones” (ho theos endoxazomenos en boulē hagiōn), is strengthened by the fact that the compound verb endoxazomai is relatively rare in the LXX and occurs in the NT only here and two verses later in 1:12. As in many of Paul’s other OT allusions, here again we see how texts originally referring to God are now applied to Christ. Another significant change is that in the psalm “the assembly of the holy ones” refers to angels, while here believers are in view, as the parallel phrase “those who believe” clearly indicates (see also 1 Thess. 3:13).
Less obvious, however, is what specific point Paul intends with his claim that the Lord will “be glorified in his holy ones.” The issue centers on the meaning of the preposition en (“in”), which could be instrumental (Christ is glorified by or through believers), causal (believers are the cause or reason for Christ to be glorified), or locative (Christ’s glorification takes place in the presence of believers). Although a case can be made for each option, the locative sense is supported by three factors (see Marshall 1983: 180; Wanamaker 1990: 230–31). The locative meaning (1) agrees with the meaning of en in Ps. 88:8 LXX, (2) matches the parallel phrase “to be marveled at in all who believe,” and (3) contrasts well the fate of the Thessalonians’ tormentors, who will be excluded “from the presence of the Lord” (1:9).
1:10b
The infinitival clause that opens 1:10 (“to be glorified in his holy ones”) is synonymously paralleled in the concluding half of the verse by another infinitival clause: “to be marveled at in all who believe” (thaumasthenai en pasin tois pisteusasin). As with the opening half, here too Paul’s language echoes the OT, this time Ps. 67:36 LXX (68:35 ET): “God will be marveled at in the presence of his holy ones” (thaumastos ho theos en tois hagiois autou). Once again we see how Paul takes an OT text that originally refers to God and applies it to Christ. His pairing of “to be glorified” and “to be marveled” (see also Exod. 34:10; Sir. 38:3, 6) suggests that the latter term refers not so much to the notion of amazement or astonishment as to that of ascribing honor or glory (see Rev. 13:3, where thaumazō has the sense of “worship”). Christ’s return will be an occasion when he is given his due glory, and this glorification will take place in the presence not just of the Thessalonian Christians, but of “all who believe.”
1:12
Paul’s thanksgiving closes with a prayer (1:11–12) whose ultimate purpose is “so that the name of the Lord Jesus may be glorified in you and you in him” (hopōs endoxasthē to onoma tou kyriou hēmōn Iēsou en hymin, kai hymeis en autō). The apostle’s language is similar to that found in Isa. 66:5 LXX: “so that the name of the LORD may be glorified” (hina to onoma kyriou doxasthē). Some (e.g., Best 1972: 270–71; Wanamaker 1990: 234–35) have questioned this allusion on the grounds that Paul uses hopōs instead of the original hina, and the compound verb endoxasthē instead of the simple doxasthē. These two differences, however, are easily explained. The use of hopōs likely stems not merely from stylistic variation after the preceding hina in 1:11 (so Turner 1963: 105, and most commentators), but rather from Paul’s desire to distinguish the initial purpose of the prayer from its ultimate purpose (see also 1 Cor. 1:28–29; 2 Cor. 8:14). The use of the compound verb endoxasthē is influenced by the presence of this form two verses earlier in 1:10, which in turn stems from its allusion to Ps. 88:8 LXX (89:7 ET). Furthermore, Paul has echoed Isa. 66 three times in the preceding verses (1:6, 8a, 8b), thereby strengthening the possibility that he is doing so once again here in 1:12. Finally, even though “the name of the Lord” is a phrase that Paul commonly employs (e.g., Rom. 10:13; 1 Cor. 1:2, 10; 5:4; 6:11; Col. 3:17; 2 Thess. 3:6), “of the six occurrences of onoma with doxazein in the LXX, only Isa. 66:5 uses to onoma kyriou,” thereby making “the identification of the allusion certain” (Aus 1976: 267).
The words of Isa. 66:5 were originally addressed to those in Israel who were being despised and mocked for their faith in God: “Speak, our brothers, to those who hate you and detest you, so that the name of the Lord may be glorified, and may be seen in gladness; but they shall be put to shame” (LXX). Paul’s prayer for the Thessalonian Christians, who are similarly suffering opposition and ridicule for their newly found faith, is that they may fulfill every good desire and work of faith (1:11) such that “the name of the Lord Jesus may be glorified.”
The Day of the Lord (2 Thess. 2:1–17)
The Thessalonian church was badly shaken by a claim that “the day of the Lord”—the events surrounding the return of Christ—had already come. Paul responds to this falsehood first by urging the congregation not to be alarmed by such a counterfeit report (2:1–2). Then he explains why it is impossible for the day of the Lord to have already arrived: there must first occur certain clearly defined events, foremost of which involves the appearance of the “man of lawlessness,” who for the present time is being restrained (2:3–12). The apostle concludes his discussion with a thanksgiving (2:13–14), an exhortation (2:15), and a prayer (2:16–17), all of which are intended to comfort those shaken by the false report and to challenge the church to stand firm in the true teaching that he passed on to them.
2:1
The content of Paul’s appeal in this section concerns not only “the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ,” but also “our gathering to him.” The immediate reference to this latter subject is the comforting picture given in the previous letter of how all believers, both those who have died and those who are still alive, will be gathered together to Jesus at his return (1 Thess. 4:16–17). The motif, however, goes back to the widespread OT hope in the gathering together of the scattered exiles to their own land on the day of the Lord (Ps. 106:47 [105:47 LXX]; Isa. 27:13; 43:4–7; 49:12; 56:8; Jer. 29:14; 30:3, 18; 31:8, 23; 33:7; Joel 3:1–2; Zech 2:6; Tob. 14:5; 2 Macc. 1:27; 2:7, 18; Pss. Sol. 17:50; T. Ash. 7:6–7; T. Naph. 8:3). This hope was taken over by Jesus and his scattered followers to refer to the final gathering of God’s people with the Messiah (Matt. 24:31 par.; cf. 23:37 par.).
2:2
For the OT roots of the “day of the Lord” concept, see commentary on 1 Thess. 5:2 above.
2:3–4
Paul exhorts the Thessalonians not to allow anyone to deceive them about the arrival of the day of the Lord, because that day cannot take place until two related events occur first: the apostasy comes, and the “man of lawlessness” is revealed. The apostle’s description of this individual involves a number of OT allusions, though it is not clear whether these allusions originate from the apostle himself or whether he is drawing from traditional material of early Christian eschatology.
The person is identified in 2:3 by the parallel phrases “the man of lawlessness, the son of destruction” (ho anthrōpos tēs anomias, ho huios tēs apōleias), which may be influenced by Ps. 88:23 LXX (89:22 ET): “The enemy shall have no advantage against him, and the son of lawlessness shall not hurt him”; and by Isa. 57:3–4 LXX: “But as for you, come here, you sons of lawlessness. . . . Are you not children of destruction, a lawless seed?” Both phrases involve a Semitic idiom in which a generic personal noun (“son,” “man,” “master,” etc.) followed by an adjectival genitive designates the person’s essential condition or quality (BDF §162.6). Paul, therefore, depicts this person as one who is the very personification of lawlessness (note the abbreviation in 2:8: “the lawless one”) and destruction.
A third, much longer parallel phrase in 2:4 further identifies this person as “the one who opposes and exalts himself above every so-called god or object of worship [ho antikeimenos kai hyperairomenos epi panta legomenon theon ē sebasma], so that he takes his seat in the temple of God, proclaiming himself to be God.” The first part of this description appears to be influenced by Dan. 11:36, which describes a king of the north, generally identified as Antiochus Epiphanes, who desecrated the Jerusalem temple during the time of the Maccabees by setting up an altar to the pagan god Zeus. Of this king, Daniel prophesies that he “will exalt and magnify himself above every god” (hypsōthēsetai . . . kai megalynthēsetai epi panta theon) (11:36 Θ).
The latter part of this figure’s description, with his claim to divine status, similarly stems from the figure of Antiochus and his profanation of the temple as described in Daniel (see 8:9–14; 9:26–27; 11:31, 45; 12:11). There are other OT texts, however, that also address the same subject: Ezek. 28:2 involves a condemnation of the king of Tyre for claiming to be divine, while Isa. 14:13 taunts the king of Babylon for elevating himself to the realm of the divine. And though Paul’s language about taking a seat in the temple and claiming to be God goes back to the original plundering and profanation of the temple by Antiochus as prophesied in Daniel, the blasphemous actions of this king were subsequently kept alive in Jewish and early Christian thought through various rulers who also attempted to desecrate the Jerusalem sanctuary: the Roman general Pompey entered the holy of holies in 63 BC; the emperor Gaius Caligula considered himself to be a god and consequently attempted in AD 40 to have his statue erected in the Jerusalem temple. Paul, therefore, employs a familiar theme to portray the evil character of the coming lawless one and his usurpation of God’s place in the world.
2:8
Paul cannot refer to the revelation of the man of lawlessness without immediately mentioning in the same sentence this evil one’s defeat: “whom the Lord Jesus will destroy with the breath of his mouth.” The apostle employs language reminiscent of Isa. 11:4 LXX, where the prince from David’s house “will strike the earth with the word of his mouth, and with the breath of his lips he will destroy the ungodly.” The allusion to this OT text is strengthened by adopting the more strongly attested indicative anelei (“he will destroy”)—the same form found in Isa. 11:4—rather than optative aneloi or the different verb analōsei (“he will consume”). Paul has combined the two phrases from the Isaiah text (“with the word of his mouth and with the breath of his lips”) into one (“with the breath of his mouth”). Although some (e.g., Frame 1912: 265; Best 1972: 303) have attributed this compression to an unconscious reminiscence of Ps. 32:6 LXX (33:6 MT/ET), “By the word of the LORD the heavens were established, and all the hosts of them by the breath of his mouth,” there are a number of biblical and intertestamental passages that similarly refer to the destruction of the wicked by means of breath or the force of the mouth (Job 4:9; Isa. 30:27–28; 1 En. 14:2; 62:2; 84:1; 4 Ezra 13:10–11; Pss. Sol. 17:24, 25; Rev. 19:15).
The larger context of Isa. 11:4 was interpreted by the early church as a prophecy about the messiah, and so Paul, not surprisingly, applies this text to the coming of “the Lord Jesus” (even if “Jesus” is a later scribal addition [it is absent in B D2 1739 1881 𝔐 boms], “the Lord” for Paul is Jesus). The “breath” of God is always depicted as something powerful and mighty (see the texts cited at the end of the preceding paragraph). The image that Paul presents with this OT allusion, therefore, is not one whereby the man of lawlessness will be easily blown over by the mere breath of the Lord Jesus (contra Morris 1991: 231), but rather one whereby breath is a potent and fearful weapon used by the returning Christ to destroy this eschatological enemy.
2:11
As a consequence of unbelievers following the false signs and wonders of the man of lawlessness (2:9) and their refusal to love the truth (2:11), God acts: “And for this reason God sends them a work of deception so that they believe the lie” (2:11). Although such divine action may seem perplexing and even troubling, it is similar not only to Paul’s statements elsewhere that God gives sinners over to their own sin (Rom. 1:24, 26, 28; 11:8; cf. 2 Tim. 4:4), but also to certain OT texts where God employs evil spirits to inspire false prophets and so carry out his just judgment against the wicked (2 Sam. 24:1 with 1 Chron. 21:1; 1 Kings 22:23; Ezek. 14:9).
2:13
See commentary on 1 Thess. 1:4 above, regarding the phrase “loved by God.”
Closing Exhortations (2 Thess. 3:1–15)
Paul brings his second letter to a close (note to loipon [“finally”] in 3:1) by issuing some general exhortations about prayer (3:1–5) and then proceeding to specific commands about the “idlers” (3:6–15).
3:5
The general exhortations about prayer in 3:1–5 conclude fittingly with a prayer: “May the Lord direct your hearts to the love of God and to the steadfastness of Christ” (3:5). The opening words of this prayer likely stem from the LXX, where the phrase “direct your hearts” is frequently used to describe people turning their hearts to the Lord (2 Chron. 12:14; 19:3; 20:33; 30:19; Sir. 49:3; 51:20) or, in a closer parallel with 3:5, the Lord turning people’s hearts to himself (1 Chron. 29:18; Prov. 21:1). Thus, in keeping with this OT usage, the verb “may he direct” (kateuthynai) should not be taken literally (as in 1 Thess. 3:11), but rather metaphorically as referring to the spiritual condition of the Thessalonians.
3:16
The specific exhortations about idleness in 3:6–15 also conclude with a prayer: “May the Lord of peace himself give you peace at all times in every way. The Lord be with you all.” The first part of the prayer echoes the Aaronic blessing of Num. 6:26 LXX: “May the Lord lift up his face to you and give you peace.” This request for peace fittingly looks back to the two major concerns of the letter: the anxiety within the Thessalonian church over the claim that the day of the Lord had already come and the internal tensions due to the problem of the idlers (see Weima 1994: 189–91). The second part of the prayer involves a typical Jewish greeting: “The Lord be with you” (Judg. 6:12; Ruth 2:4; Luke 1:28). As with the earlier part of the prayer, “the Lord” for Paul is no longer Yahweh, but Jesus, and this reflects the apostle’s conviction that the Lord Jesus is always present with his followers (Phil. 4:5; 2 Tim. 4:22; see also Matt. 28:20; Acts 18:10).
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